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Satellite Technology
Second Edition
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http:/taylorandfrancis.com
Satellite Technology: An Introduction
Second Edition

A.F. Inglis and A.C. Luther

Focal Press
An Imprint of Elsevier
Boston Oxford Johannesburg Melbourne New Delhi Singapore
Focal Press is an imprint of Elsevier.

Copyright© 1997 by Butterworth-Heinemann

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-..,.1000
Library of Congress Cataloglng-in-Publicadon Data
Inglis, Andrew F.
Satellite technology : an introduction I A.F. Inglis and A. C.
Luther.-2nd ed.
p. ern.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-240-80295-4
ISBN-I 0: 0-240-80295-0 (pbk. : alk. paper)
I. Artificial satellites in telecommunication. 2. Earth stations
(Satellite telecommunication) I. Luther, Arch C. II. Title.
TK5104.153 1997
384.5'1-dc21 97-14869
CIP
ISBN-13: 978-0-240-80295-4
ISBN-I 0: 0-240-80295-0

British Library Cataloguing-In-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

The publisher offers special discounts on bulk orders of this book.

For information, please contact:
Manager of Special Sales
Butterworth-Heinemann
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10987654

Printed in the United States of America

 Contents

Preface to the First Edition xi

Preface to the Second Edition xiii

1 Satellite Communication Systems 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Satellite Communication System Elements I
1.1.2 Satellite Service Areas 2
1.1.3 Satellite Frequency Bands 3
1.1.4 Transmission Modes 3
1.1.5 Competitive Transmission Mediums 4
1.1.6 The Information Superhighway 5
1.2 Satellite Orbits 5
1.2.1 Geosynchronous Location 6
1.2.2 Orbital Slots 7
1.2.3 Western Hemisphere Orbital Slot Allocations and Assignments 7
1.2.4 Satellite Look, or Elevation Angle 9
1.2.5 The Prime Orbital Arcs 12
1.2.6 Solar Eclipses 12
1.2. 7 Sun Outages 13
1.3 Satellite Launching 13
1.3 .1 Expendable Rockets 14
1.3.2 The Space Shuttle 14
1.3.3 History and Current Status of Launch Vehicles 14
I .4 Communication Satellites 15
1.4.1 The Satellite Bus 15
1.4.2 The Payload 15
1.5 EarthStations 16
1.5.1 Earth Station Types 16
1.5.2 Uplink Earth Stations 16
1.5.3 Downlink Earth Stations 16
1.6 Summary 18

v
vi Satellite Technology

2 Satellites in Radio and Television 19

2.1 The Unique Advantages of Satellites 19

2.2 Deregulation 19
2.2.1 Rates 19
2.2.2 Receive-Only Earth Stations 20
2.3 Satellite Usage by Cable TV Systems 20
2.3.1 History 20
2.3.2 Satellite-Distributed Cable TV Program Services 21
2.3.3 Scrambling 21
2.4 Satellite Usage by Television Broadcasting 22
2.4.1 Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) 22
2.4.2 The MajorCommercial Broadcast Networks 22
2.4.3 Specialized and Ad Hoc Networks 23
2.4.4 Program Syndication 23
2.4.5 Electronic News Gathering 24
2.4.6 TV Broadcast Station Earth Station Facilities 24
2.5 Direct-to-Home Broadcasting 24
2.5.1 Backyard Dishes 24
2.5.2 The Direct-to-Home Broadcasting Market 24
2.5.3 The Power-Antenna Size Trade-Off 25
2.5.4 C-Band Program Distribution 25
2.5.5 Ku-Band Program Distribution 25
2.5.6 Scrambling 26
2.5.7 Direct Broadcast by Satellites (DBS) 27
2.6 Private Television Systems 27
2.6.1 B-MAC Transmission 28
2.6.2 Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) Networks 28
2.7 International Television Service 28
2. 7.1 Intelsat and Comsat 29
2. 7.2 Competing International Services 29
2.8 Satellite Usage by Radio 30
2.9 Transponders Used for Television Program Transmission 30

3 Communication Satellites 33

3.1 Satellite Classifications 33

3.1.1 Usage Classifications 33
3.1.2 Technical Classifications 33
 Contents vii

3.2 Comparison ofC-band and Ku-band Satellites 35

3.2.1 Frequency Sharing 35
3.2.2 Antenna Size 35
3.2.3 Downlink Power Limitation 35
3.2.4 Earth Station Costs 35
3.2.5 Satellite Costs 35
3.2.6 Rainfall Attenuation 36
3.2.7 Current C- and Ku-Band Usage 36
3.3 Communication Satellite Design 36
3.3.1 The Satellite Bus 36
3.3.2 The Satellite Payload 39
3.4 C-hand FSS Satellites 42
3.4.1 Channel Configuration 42
3.4.2 Downlink Power Density 43
3.5 Ku-band FSS Satellites 43
3.5.1 Channel Configuration 43
3.5.2 Downlink Power Density Limitations 43
3.6 Hybrid FSS Satellites 43
3.6.1 Description 44
3.6.2 Applications 44
3.7 BSS Satellites 44
3.7.1 International System Specifications 44
3.7.2 BSS Satellite Specifications 45

4 Earth Stations 47
4.1 Antennas 47
4.1.1 Antenna Types 47
4.1.2 Electrical Performance Criteria 49
4.1.3 Structural and Environmental Requirements 53
4.1.4 Antenna Accessories 54
4.2 Signal Processing 55
4.2.1 Frequency Modulation 55
4.2.2 Digital Modulation 58
4.2.3 Signal Security 61
4.3 Uplink Earth Stations 65
4.3.1 Uplink Signal Processing 65
4.3.2 High-Power Amplifiers (HPAs) 65
4.3.3 Uplink Performance Specifications 66
viii Satellite Technology

4.4 Downlink Earth Station Equipment 66

4.4.1 Downlink Received-Noise Performance 66
4.4.2 G/T, the Figure of Merit 67
4.4.3 Receiving Antenna Noise Temperature 68
4.4.4 Earth Station Input Stages 68
4.4.5 Receiver 69
4.4.6 Receiver Threshold 71
4.5 Auxiliary Equipment 71
4.5.1 Test Equipment 71
4.5.2 Remote Control and Monitoring Equipment 72
4.5.3 Automatic Redundancy Switches 72
4.5.4 Special Equipment for Mobile Stations 72

5 Station Planning 75

5.1 Performance and Reliability Specifications 75

5.1.1 Television Transmission System Performance Standards 75
5.1.2 FM Radio Transmission System Performance Standards 78
5.1.3 Availability Specifications 78
5.2 Earth Station Location 78
5.2.1 Site Requirements 78
5.3 Satellite Link Calculations 80
5.3.1 CNR 80
5.3.2 Fade Margin 80
5.3.3 Rain Fades 81
5.3.4 SNR 81
5.4 Uplink Earth Station design 82
5.4.1 Television Service 82
5.4.2 Radio Service 84
5.5 Downlink Earth Station design 85
5.5.1 Licensing 85
5.5.2 Design Objectives 86
5.5.3 Cost 86
5.5.4 Co-channel Interference 86
5.5.5 SNR Objectives 87
5.5.6 Availability Objectives 88
5.5.7 Earth Station G/T 88
5.6 Performance ofRepresentative Systems 89
5.6.1 Uplink EIRP 89
5.6.2 Downlink Earth Station G/T 89
5.6.3 System C/N and Fade Margin 89
 Contents ix

5.6.4 FM Improvement Factor 89

5.6.5 System SNR 89
5.6.6 Backyard Dish Performance 90

6 FCC Rules and Procedures 93

6.1 Overview 93
6.1.1 Role and Authority of the FCC 93
6.1.2 Deregulation 93
6.1.3 FCC Rules and Regulations 94
6.2 Technical Rules 94
6.2.1 Uplink Earth Stations 94
6.2.2 Satellites 96
6.2.3 Downlink Earth Stations 96
6.3 Application for Earth Station License 97
6.3.1 Procedure 97
6.3.2 Requirements 97
6.4 International Service 97

7 Earth Station Operation and Maintenance 99

7.1 Satellite Operation 99
7.1.1 Locating the Satellite 99
7.1.2 Preliminary Antenna Aiming 100
7.1.3 Final Antenna Aiming 100
7 .1.4 Adjusting the Polarization 100
7 .1.5 Verifying the Satellite 100
7.2 Uplink Operation 100
7.2.1 Exciter Adjustments 100
7.2.2 HPA Power Adjustment 102
7.3 Downlink Operation 102
7.3.1 IF Bandwidth 102
7.3.2 Interfering Signals 102
7.3.3 Measurement ofCNR 103
7.3.4 Sun Outages 103
7.4 Communication Subsystem 103
7.5 Maintenance 104
7.5.1 SNR 104
7.5.2 Linearity and Frequency Response 104
x Satellite Technology

7.5.3 HPA Performance 104

7.6 Safety 105
7.6.1 General 105
7.6.2 Radiation Density 105

8 Satellite Services and Earth Station Equipment 107

8.1 Overview 107
8.2 Satellite Services 107
8.2.1 Satellite Carriers 108
8.2.2 Satellite Resale Carriers 108
8.2.3 Site Coordination Services 109
8.2.4 Terms and Conditions of Lease and Sale 109
8.3 Earth Station Equipment 110
8.3.1 Overview 110
8.3.2 Consulting Services 111
8.3.3 Equipment Suppliers 111

Appendix 115
A. I Conversion of FCC Downlink Power Density Limits to EIRP 115
A.2 Antenna Directivity 115
A.3 Antenna Gain 116
A.4 Noise Temperature 116
A.5 Antenna Elevation and Azimuth Angles 117

Glossary 119

Bibliography 129

Index 131
 Preface to the First Edition

During the past 15 years there has been a phenomenal growth in the use of commu-
nication satellites for the transmission and distribution of radio and television pro-
grams. Satellites have evolved from a novelty in high technology with an uncertain
future, to an indispensable component of these industries. They were initially per-
ceived to be useful mainly for the transmission of voice and data traffic, but as their
capabilities became better understood they began to play an equal, if not more im-
portant role, in the transmission and distribution oftelevision programs. Later, they
became widely used for the distribution of radio programs.
There is now a synergistic relationship between satellites and the radio and tele-
vision industries. These industries provide a major market for satellite communica-
tion services but also are highly dependent on them. Neither cable television
(CATV) nor electronic news gathering (ENG) could have reached its present state
of development without the use of satellites.
The introduction of satellites into the radio and television industries created a
new set of challenges and opportunities for the members of their technical commu-
nitie!'. The new concepts, new vocabulary, and new technologies of satellites must
be learned by the engineers responsible for the design and operation of broadcasting
and cable TV systems. It is equally a requirement for students who are pursuing a
cours;e of study leading to employment in the engineering departments ofbroadcast-
ing and cable TV companies.
This volume contributes to the learning process by providing an introduction to
satellite technology in language that is accessible to those who are not specialists.
The ~>cope of its subject matter is broad, ranging from the theory of satellite opera-
tion to practical instructions for the initial setup of mobile earth stations. For those
who wish to pursue the study of the technical aspects of satellites further, a compre-
hensive list of references are included.
The author is indebted to the many members of the broadcasting and satellite
indus;trit:s who supplied reference materials and invaluable advice and suggestions.
He i's grateful to Wayne Rawlings and his staff from Station KCRA-TV in
Sacramento who provided information on the practical operation of satellite news
gath«rring (SNG) earth stations. Most of all he wishes to thank Walter Braun, John
Chrbtopher, and Marvin Freeling ofGE American Communications. They were an
indispensable resource, and they carefully reviewed the manuscript for technical
accuracy. Any remaining errors, however, are the author's!

xi
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http:/taylorandfrancis.com
 Preface to the Second Edition

The :satellite communications industry and its customers have not stood still in the
seven years since the writing of the First Edition of this book. In fact, major expan-
sion and major changes have occurred. Not the least of these is the maturation of
digital television and the digital direct-to-home satellite broadcasting services.
These alone justify this Second Edition.
Satellite design technology has also advanced to allow larger, higher-powered
satellites to be built and put into operation economically.
'Fhe authorship ofthis book also has changed. Andrew F. Inglis is in the process
of retiring fully from writing and he has asked his friend, Arch C. Luther, who is an
experienced writer (seven books) to join as co-author. Arch is largely responsible
for tfue production of this Second Edition.
As with any project like this, the authors depend on others for sources of infor-
matitm, review, comments, and encouragement. For this Second Edition, we must
acknowledge the help of Walter Braun and Dany Harel ofGE Americom.

xiii
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http:/taylorandfrancis.com
 1

Satellite Communication Systems

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Communication of electrical signals is done by direct physical connection, such as
wires or fiber-optic cables, or by radiation of radio frequency (RF) or optical waves.
In radiated communication, the use of satellites for relaying signals has significant
advantages in certain applications. In order to send signals between points on the
earth's surface, the signal is radiated up to a satellite in orbit and then relayed back
down to earth where it is received at a different location. Such technology is widely
used in telephony, data communication, and communication of radio and television
signals in many applications. This book focuses on the use of satellite communica-
tion for radio and television signals.
This chapter is an overview of the technology of satellite communication sys-
tems used for the transmission and distribution of radio and television programs.
Succeeding chapters describe the applications and technical characteristics of satel-
lites and earth stations, earth station equipment and design procedures, Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) rules and regulations, earth station installa-
tion and operational procedures, and sources of satellite services and equipment.

1.1.1 Satellite Communication System Elements

The elements of a satellite communication system are shown in Figure 1.1.

The signals to be transmitted, that is, the baseband signals, are delivered to an
uplink earth station, where they modulate a high-power radio frequency transmitter.
The ea1th station antenna radiates the transmitter's signal to a geosynchronous satel-
lite, which appears to remain in a fixed position in space relative to the earth's
surface. The satellite receives the radiated signal, shifts its frequency, and amplifies
it by means of a transponder, then reradiates it to back to earth where it can be re-
ceived by downlink earth stations in the coverage area of the satellite.
Earth stations form the ground segment of a satellite communication system,
while the satellite constitutes the space segment. The transmission system from
earth station to satellite is called an uplink, and the system from satellite to earth is
called a downlink.

1
2 Satellite Technology

Figure 1.1 Satellite communication system.

1.1.2 Satellite Service Areas

Earth station antennas have very narrow beams, both to increase their gain and to
avoid interference with adjacent satellites. By contrast, the antennas on communica-
tion satellites usually have rather broad beams so that they can provide service to
and from a large area-typically an entire region, country, or even an entire hemi-
sphere. In an exception to this practice, some satellites have narrow spot beams for
 Satellite Communication Systems 3

specialized service to limited areas. The area on the earth's surface that receives a
signal of useful strength from the satellite is known as its footprint.

1.1.3 Satellite Frequency Bands

Two frequency bands, C band (3.4 to 7.0 GHz) and Ku band (10.7 to 15.0 GHz) are
used for satellite transmission of radio and television programs. C-hand downlink
transmissions are in the 4 GHz region of the spectrum, which is shared with terres-
trial microwave services. The sharing causes limitation of the power and location of
some C-hand satellite systems. Ku-band downlinks operate in the 12 GHz region
and have exclusive use of these frequencies. Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS)
downlinks operate in the 12.5 GHz region and are intended for direct pickup by
small home antennas. The teclmical characteristics ofthese frequency bands are de-
scribed in Section 3.1.2.1.

1.1.4 Transmission Modes

Radio-frequency transmission requires that the baseband signal be modulated on a

carrier in the desired frequency band. There are three options that are widely used
for radio and television transmission-analog amplitude modulation (AM), analog
frequency modulation (FM), and digital modulation.

1. 1.4. 1 AM Transmission

Terrestrial television broadcasting is almost exclusively based on AM. This is the

simplest type of modulation from the viewpoint of both transmitter and receiver.
However, it depends critically on a linear amplitude transfer characteristic and it is
not appropriate for channels that have inherent nonlinearities.

1. 1.4.2 FM Transmission

Frequency modulation is well suited for the transmission oftelevision signals, and it
has been almost universally used in satellites until recently, when digital modulation
methods have come into use. Compared to other analog modulation methods, FM
has three important advantages for this purpose:
1. It does not require highly linear power amplifiers, either in the satellite or the
uplink.
2. It has a substantial noise improvement factor (see Chapters 4 and 5), so that the
signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR) of the output video signal is higher than that of the
radio frequency carrier.
3. The transmitted energy can be more uniformly distributed across the channel
bandwidth by sideband energy dispersal. This process is important for C-hand
systems because it increases the legally permissible downlink power (see
Chapter 4).
4 Satellite Technology

Properly designed FM transmission systems provide high performance and have

been the backbone of satellite communication since the first communication llatel-
lite went up. However, the wave of the future is digital transmission.

1. 1.4.3 Digital Transmission

For digital transmission, an audio or video signal is first converted to a stream of

digital bits by analog-to-digital conversion (ADC). Once in digital form, the llignal
is processed by digital circuits to provide features such as data reduction (called
compression) or to provide for the correction of transmission errors (called error
protection). These processes allow digital transmissions to operate in less band-
width than equivalent-performing FM systems and to provide essentially noise-free
transmission. Because of this, most new communication systems employ digital
technology.
Digital transmission was first applied to high-fidelity audio signals, and it is
widely used by radio networks for program distribution (see Chapters 2 and 5).
Digital transmission of television signals, which requires higher data rates and more
complex digital processing, is a more recent development that is now seeing wide-
spread use with the Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) systems (see Section 2.5).
Digital transmission can actually reduce the bandwidth required for a video sig-
nal transmission system, a feature that results from the repetitiveness and large
amount of redundancy in the video signal. Digital processing techniques can com-
press the video data to achieve data rates that allow several high-quality digital TV
channels to be transmitted in the same bandwidth as a single analog FM TV signal.
The worldwide HDTV initiatives have all focused on digital transmission for fu-
ture advanced television (ATV) systems. The United States has recently decided on
such a system that will be deployed in the next several years for terrestrial broadcast-
ing. It will offer a choice of resolution levels ranging from present "standard"
definition (SDTV) to full high-definition TV (HDTV), and it is transmitted digitally
in a standard 6 MHz television channel for terrestrial broadcasting. This system can
be transmitted over existing satellite communication facilities.

1.1.5 Competitive Transmission Mediums

For the transmission of television signals, satellites compete with other communica-
tion mediums-microwave, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Each of these me-
diums has characteristics which make it especially suited for certain types of
service. None of them excels in all respects, and all will continue to be used exten-
sively in the foreseeable future.
To date, the competition to satellites for television service has come primarily
from coaxial cable and microwave. Fiber optics is now coming into use and will sig-
nificantly change the competitive situation in the future.
The most striking feature of fiber-optic systems is their enormous bandwidth-a
typical system has a bandwidth of 3 GHz (3,000 MHz) as compared with 36 MHz
 Satellite Communication Systems S

for a !lingle satellite transponder or 864 MHz for the 24 transponders in a C-hand sat-
ellite. Fiber-optic systems generally use digital transmission, so they are ideal for
the digital video techniques that have been developed.
Fiber-optic cable systems are being installed for intercity, point-to-point trans-
mission circuits by all major communication carriers for voice, data, and video.
These facilities will doubtless provide serious competition to satellites for fixed,
point-to-point video transmission services.

1.1.6 The Information Superhighway

Long-range planners in the communications industry envision a future that goes be-
yond, fixed point-to-point services. A concept called the information superhighway
(ISH) would provide every home and business with a high data-rate digital connec-
tion tp a nationwide communication system. Two-way digital bit streams on the sys-
tem Would provide radio and television programs, telephone service, facsimile
servi~e, and access to remotely located computers and a variety of data banks to
evel')f home and business. Both satellites and fiber-optic cable are possibilities for
impl~menting such a system.
11he data architecture ofthe ISH would be like the present-day Internet, which is
a wo~ldwide network of computers providing data for public access. Except forma-
jor b~tsiness or academic sites, most people access the Internet using analog tete-
phon~ lines, which limits them to data rates in the range of30,000 bits/second. Such
a low rate is not usable for real time television but the Internet still demonstrates the
use olf a worldwide digital network for information transfer and communication and
it is widely used. When an ISH connection is available to everyone with data rates
abovt: 1,000,000 bits/second (1 Mb/s), the ISH can become a viable video carrier.
llhe ISH is an extremely attractive concept but the installation and operation of
such 11 nationwide system involves massive technical, financial, and political prob-
lems, not all of which yet have clear solutions. It could well be more than a decade
befo¢ such a system is designed, approved by the government, fmanced, con-
strucled, and put into operation.

1.2 ~ATELLITE ORBITS

Ther~ are three classes of orbits for communication satellites:
Liow earth orbit (LE0)-500 to 900 km altitude
Medium earth orbit (ME0)-5,000 to 12,000 km altitude
Qeosynchronous orbit (GE0)-36,000 km altitude
In b<>ith LEO and MEO orbits, the satellite moves with respect to the surface of the
earth1and a system for continuous communication requires multiple satellites in or-
bit so that at kast one will always be in view. Even so, communication systems are
being designed for LEO or MEO satellites although none has yet been deployed.
6 Satellite Technology

Figure 1.2 Geosynchronous satellites.

1.2.1 Geosynchronous Location

The geosynchronous orbit (GEO) places the satellite at an altitude where it appears
stationary from the earth's surface. All communication satellite systems to date use
GEO orbits. The discussion in the rest ofthis section applies only to GEO satellites.
GEO satellites are located in the geosynchtonous orbit, which forms a cirtle in
the plane of the equator, 35,785 km (22,300 miles) above the earth (see Figure 1.2).
They revolve once each day in synchronism with the earth's rotation; and at this ele-
vation the gravitational force pulling them toward the earth is exactly balanced by
the centrifugal force pulling them outward. Since GEO satellites revolve at the same
rotational speed as the earth, they appear stationary from the earth's surface; ahd ra-
dio signals can be transmitted to and from them with highly directional antennas
pointed in a fixed direction. This is the property that makes satellite communica-
tions practical with a single satellite.
The distance of a GEO satellite above the earth causes a propagation delay of
0.25 second for a round trip up to the satelliteiand back to earth. This is a factor in
some applications such as the ISH. Propagation delay is one area where systems
based on MEO or LEO satellites have an obvious advantage. However, delay does
not matter to radio or television distribution systems.
 Satellite Communication Systems 7

1.2.2 Orbital Slots

International regulatory bodies and national governmental organizations, such as
the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States (see Chapter
6), designate the locations on the geosynchronous orbit where communication satel-
lites can be placed. These locations are specified in degrees of longitude and are
known as orbital slots.
Since all communication satellites operate in the same frequency bands, the
spacing between orbital slots must be great enough to reduce, to an acceptable level,
the interference between transmissions to and from adjacent satellites. The mini-
mum spacing required to achieve this objective depends on the width of the earth
station antenna beams, that is, the directivity of their antennas.
In response to the huge demand for orbital slots, the FCC has progressively re-
duced the required spacing and has established a future standard of only 2° for C-
and Ku-band satellites--a spacing which requires the use of very narrow antenna
beams. However, DBS satellites are designed to be received by smaller and less di-
rectional receiving antennas in individual homes (see Chapter 4 for the relation be-
tween antenna size and beam width). Accordingly, DBS orbital slot assignments are
located at intervals of9°.

1.2.3 Western Hemisphere Orbital Slot Allocations and Assignments

By international agreement negotiated through the International Telecommunica-

tion~! Union (ITU), each country is allocated an arc of the geosynchronous orbit,
within which it can assign orbital slots. A national regulatory body-the FCC in the
case of the United States-makes the slot assignments within this arc. The current
(1997) orbital slot allocations and assignments for the western hemisphere are tabu-
lated on the following pages. Fixed service satellites (FSS) provide point-to-point
communication between fixed, non-mobile, locations, and direct broadcast satel-
lites (DBS) provide broadcast service to homes and other users. The slot assign-
ments change frequently, so the tables should be viewed as an early 1997 snapshot.

1.2.3. 1 United States

The United States is allocated the orbital arcs 62° to 103° and 120° to 146° west
longitude for C-hand satellites and 62° to 105° and 120° to 136° west longitude for
Ku-band satellites. Within each band, a single satellite is assigned to each slot. The
assignments as of 1997 within these arcs are shown in Table 1.1 and Figure 1.3.
The United States is also allocated the eight DBS slots in the arc 62° to 175°,
listed in Table 1.1. The power requirements of DBS satellites are so great that it is
not always practical to provide power in a single satellite for all the channels in a sin-
gle slot. Accordingly, more than one satellite is assigned to each slot; and channels
rather than satellites are assigned to individual applicants. Up to 32 channels per slot
may be assigned. Current DBS slot assignments are listed in Table 2.2.
8 Satellite Technology

Table 1.1 United States Orbital Slot Assignments--1997

C-band Fixed Service Satellites (FSS)

W.LQa~ t:klJM OperaiQr

69° Spacenet 2 (hybrid) GEAmericom
74° Galaxy VI Hughes
85° GE-2 (hybrid) GEAmericom
87° Spacenet 3R (hybrid) GEAmericom
89° Telstar 402R (hybrid) AT&T
91° Galaxy VII (hybrid) Hughes
95° Galaxy IIIR (hybrid) Hughes
99° Galaxy IV (hybrid) Hughes
101° Spacenet 4 (hybrid) Contel ASC
103° GE-l (hybrid) GEAmericom
123° Galaxy IX Hughes
125° GalaxyV Hughes
131° SatcomC3 GEAmericom
133° Galaxy IR (hybrid) Hughes
135° Satcom C4 GEAmericom
137° Satcom Cl GEAmericom
139° Satcom C5 GEAmericom

Ku-band Fixed Service Satellites (FSS)

69° Spacenet 2 (hybrid) GEAmericom
74° SBS-6 Hughes
no SBS-4 Hughes
85° SatcomK2 GEAmericom
85° GE-2 (hybrid) GEAmericom
87° Spacenet 3R (hybrid) GEAmericom
89° Telstar 402R (hybrid) AT&T
91° Galaxy VII (hybrid) IBM
95° Galaxy IIIR (hybrid) Hughes
99° Galaxy IV (hybrid) Hughes
101° Spacenet 4 (hybrid) GEAmericom
103° GE-l (hybrid) GEAmericom
105° Gstar4 GEAmericom
123° SBS-5 Hughes
125° Gstar 2 GE Americom
133° Galaxy IR (hybrid) Hughes
 Satellite Communication Systems 9

Tabl~ 1.1 United States Orbital Slot Assignment&-1997 (continued)

Ku-band Direct Broadcast Satellites (DBS)

61.5°
101.0° See Table 2.2 for channel
110.0° assignments within these
119.0° slots.
148.0°
157.0° These slots were originally intended for coverage of western
166.0° CONUS. With high-powered DBS satellites, CONUS is covered
175.0° entirely by the more easterly slots above. These slots are unused.
Source: http://www.sat-net.com/pck/positions/east2west.htm.

1.2.3.2 Canada

Canadian satellites are located in the arc 104.S0-117.5° west longitude. Canadian
satellites in orbit as of 1997 are shown in Table 1.2.

1.2.3.3 Mexico and South America

Mexico shares orbital slots with Canada. Because of their geographic separation,
satellites can operate in the same frequency band and from the same slot without ex-
cessive interference.
South America shares orbital slots with the United States. The South American
conHr1ent lies somewhat to the east of North America; and South American coun-
tries utilize an arc that partially overlaps the U.S. arc but extends to the eastofit. Or-
bital slots assigned to Mexico and South America as of 1997 are shown in Table 1.3.

1.2.4 Satellite Look, or Elevation Angle

The look angle, the elevation of the path to the satellite above the horizontal, is criti-
cal to the performance of its transmission link. Three problems are encountered with
low elevation angles that are just above the horizon:
1. Difficulty in clearing buildings, trees, and other terrestrial objects-failure of
the path to do so may result in attenuation of the signal by absorption or in
distortions from multipath reflections.
2. Atmospheric attenuation-the length of a low elevation path through the
atmosphere before it emerges into space is much longer; and this increases rain
attenuation, patticularly when operating in the Ku band.
I 0 Satellite Technology

Figure 1.3 United States orbital slot assignments.

Table 1.2 Canadian Orbital Slot Assignments-1997

C-band Fixed Service Satellites (FSS)

W: Long, l:liHm:. Operator
107.3° Anik E2 (hybrid) Telsat Canada
111.10 Anik E1 (hybrid) Telsat Canada

Ku-band, Fixed Satellite Service (FSS)

107.3° Anik E2 (hybrid) Telsat Canada
109.2° Nahuel 2 (Anik C2) Paracom S. A.
109.3° Nahuel1 (Anik C1) Paracom S. A.
111.10 Anik E1 (hybrid) Telsat Canada
114.9° AnikC3 Telsat Canada
Source: http://www.sat-net.com/pck/positions/east2west.htm.
 Satellite Communication Systems ll

Table 1.3 Mexican and South American Orbital Slot Assignments-1996

Hybrid C- and Ku-band Fixed Service Satellites (FSS)

MEXICO

W.Lon~. l':!sJJJ:H:.

109.2° Solidaridad I
113° Solidaridad 2
116.8° Morelos 2

SOUTH AMERICA

Country or orbital
administration Slot Satellite Frequency
Argentina 80.0° Nahuell C/Ku-band
85.0° Nahuel2 C/Ku-band
Brazil 61.0° SBTS B3 C-hand
61.0° SBTS C3 Ku-band
65.0° Brasilsat B2 C-hand
65.0° SBTS A2 C-hand
65.0° SBTS B2 C-hand
65.0° SBTS C2 Ku-band
70.0° Brasilsat B I C-hand
70.0° SBTS AI C-hand
92.0° SBTS A2 C-hand
Colombia 75.0° Colombia 2 C-hand
75.0° Satcol2 C-hand
75.4° Colombia lA C-hand
75.4° SatcoliA C-hand
75.4° Satcol2B C-hand
Cuba 83.0° STSC I C-hand
97.0° STSC2 C-hand
ASETA 72.0° Simon Bolivar C C-hand
(Bolivia, Ecuador, 77.SO Simon Bolivar A C-hand
Peru, Venezuela) 89.0° Simon Bolivar B C-hand
106.0° Simon Bolivar 1 C-hand
Source: http://www.sat-net.com/pck/positions/east2west.htm
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HINDU ARCHIECTURE PURATO-BHADRA A village (M., ix,

215, etc.), a town (M., x 39, etc.). Gramadinam nagaradinam pura-
pattana-kharvate I Koshtha-koladi-sarveshaih garbha-sthanam
ihochyate I (A/., xii, 168-169.) Khetanarh cha puranam cha
gramanarh chaiva sarvas"ah I Trividhanam cha durganarh
parvatodaka-dhanvinam II Param ardhardham ayamarh prag-udak-
plavanaih puram 1 1 Chatur-asra-yutarh divyarh prasastam taih
puram kritam 1 1 (Brahmanda-Purdna, Part i, and anushamgapdda,
Chap, vii, vv. 105, 107, 1 08 ; see also v. 93.) Pura-madhyam
samasYitya kuryad ayatanarh raveh I (Bhavishya-Purana, Chap,
cxxx, v. 40.) (4) Karkkotadhma-raksharh svapuram idam atho
nirmarae Javrishakhyam • — ' then built this town of his named
Javrisha, the protection of which was entrusted to Karkota.' —
(Buddhist Stone inscrip. from Sravasti, lines 4-5, IndAnt., Vol. xvn,
pp. 62, 63.) (5) Jagapala puram jatarh krite dese punar nnave — in
the newly re-created site, the town of Jagapala grew up (i.e., was
built). — (Rajim inscrp. of Rajapal, line 12, Ind. Ant., Vol. xvii, p.
140.) (6) ' With myriads of people, practices of virtue, agreeable
occupations, streams of the (nine) sentiments, pleasure gardens,
separated lovers, splendid tanks, full lotus beds, gilded boats for
spring festivals, ghatika-sthanas (religious centres), the supports of
dharmma and mines of enjoyment, moats which were as if the sea
being overcome had returned here on account of the collection of
beautiful women fair as the moon (grama-nagara-kheda-kharvvana-
madamba-dronamukha pura-pattana rajadhani) on whatever side
one looked in these nine forms did the Kuntala-desa shine. ' — (Ep.
Carnal., Vol. vn, Shikarpur Taluq, no. 197; Transl., p. 124, para. I,
last seven lines; Roman Text, p. 214, line 27 f.) (7) ' The three puras
belonging to the great royal city (? rajadhani) Balligave.' — (Ep.
Carnal., Vol. vii., Shikarpur Taluq, no. 99; Transl., p. 66last two lines.)
PURATO-BHADRA (see MUKHA-BHADRA) — The front tabernacle, a
porch, a portico, a vestibule. Deva-Sri-sasibhushanasya (i.e., of Siva)
kritva devalayam karitamyugmam mamdapa-sobhitarh cha purato-
bhadrarh pratolya saha I ' I have not b en able to find purato-bhadra
in the Kos"as to which I have access, but sarvato-bhadra is
described as a kind of house (?) with four doors facing the four
quarters (here refers to Ram 3"
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PURI(-l) AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF Raz's Essay on

Architecture of the Hindus, 1 834, p. 43 ; here a village called
sarvato-bhadra is described not a house of the same name). From
this I infer that a purato-bhadra was a building with only one door in
front. ' — Mr. Hira Lai. But there does not seem to be much doubt
that purato-bhadra and mukha-bhadra are identical and that they
are an essential part of the ancient Hindu buildings, resembling
more or less the front tabernacle. — (Kanker inscrip. of Bhanudeva,
v. 7, Ep. Ind., Vol. ix, pp. 127, 125, and note 4.) PURI(-I) — A
temple, an adytum, a building, a town. (The second Praiasti of
Baijnath, v. 25, Ep. Ind., Vol. i, pp. 117, 114; see also no. 32.)
PURUSHAjsjJALI— The palm of a man. It refers to the depth of
foundations upon which buildings of one to twelve storeys are stated
to be erected. Khanayed bhutalarh sreshtharh purushanjali-
matrakam I Jalantam va Silantarh va . . . I — (M., xvin, 6-7.) The
depth is stated here to reach water or stone under ground. Hence
the expression seems to imply a depth measured by the height of a
man with uplifted arms. The following passage seems to be a
parallel instance : Chihnam api chardha-purushe manduka-
panduro'tha mritpitah I Puta-bhedakas" cha tasmin pashano bhavati
toyam adhah 1 1 Commentary : purusha-sabdenordhnva-bahuh
purusho jneyah; sa cha virhsat-adhikarh angula-satam bhavati — by
the word ' purusha ' is to be understood the man with uplifted arms,
that is, 120 ahgulas (or 5 cubits).— (Brihat-Samhita, LIV, 7, J.R.A.S.,
N. S., Vol. vi, p. 301' note i.) PUSHKARA — A blue lotus, a part, a
portion, the forepart of the nose (M., LXV, 84), water, a cage, a type
of building, a class of buildings (Kdmikdgatna, XLV, 61, 63 ; see
under MALIKA). PUSHKARINI (see TADAGA and VAP!)— A tank, a
lotus-pool. Datia-putrena thai Norena pukarani karavita savrasapana
puyae • ' By the son of Dati, the Thera Nora, a tank was caused to
be made for the worship of all snakes. ' — (New Kharoshti inscrip.
from Swat, Ind. Ant., Vol. xxv, p. 141, and Vol. xxxvn, p. 66.)
PUSHKALA — A class of storeyed buildings, a tree, a type of
pentroof. 312
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HINDU ARCHITECTURE PUSHPA-VATIKA A class of the two-

storeyed buildings (M.. xx, 94, 42-43 ; see under PRASADA). A tree
(M., xv, 354, etc.). A kind of pent-roof (M., xvm, 188). PUSHPAKA —
A flower, the car of Kubera, a bracelet, a type of pavilion, a class of
buildings. pavilion with sixty-four pillars (Matsya-Pu.ra.na, Chap.
CCLXX, v. 7 ; under MANDAPA). A class of buildings, rectangular in
plan and named (i) Ba(va) labhi (2) Griharaja, (3) Salagriha or
Salamandira, (4) Visfila, (5) Sama, (6) Brahma-mandira or Brahma-
bhuvana, (7) Prabhava, (8) Sivika, and (9) Vesma : (1) Agni-Pu'dna
(Chap, civ, vv. 11, 16-17 '> see under PRASADA). (2) Garuda-Purdna
(Chap. XLVII, vv. 2-22, 26-27 ; see under PRASADA). PUSHPA-PATTA
— A flower plate, a turban, a head-gear, a tiara, a diadem. (M., LXIX,
1 6 ; see details under BHUSHANA.) PUSHPA-PUSHKALA— A class of
bases. (M., xiv, 97-112 ; see the lists of mouldings under
ADHISHTHANA.) PUSHPA-BANDHA— A type of window of flower-
band design. (M., XXXHI, 584 ; see under VATAYANA.) PUSHPA-
BANDHANA-MANDAPA— A detached building where flowers are
garlanded for the worship of the deity. Pushpa-danta-pade chaiva
pushpa-bandhana-mandapam I (M., xxxii, 42.) PUSHPA-BODHAKA—
A type of capital. (M., xv, 155-168 ; see under STAMBHA.) PUSHPA-
BHADRA— A pavilion with sixty-two pillars (Matsya-Purana, Chap.
CCLXX, v. 7 ; see MANDAPA.) PUSHPA-RATHA— A chariot. (Abulala-
perumal inscrip. of Champa, lines 3-4, Ep. Ind., Vol. m, p. 71.)
PUSHPA-VATIKA (see VATIKA) — A garden, a bower, an arbour.
Uttare saralais talaih subha syat pushpa-vatika I (Matsya-Purdna,
Chap. CCLXX, v. 29.) 3J3
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PUMLlftGA AJf ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF PUIvlLlftGA (see

Samchita) — A class of buildings with the six main component parts
(see under SHAD-VARGA) and with terraces, a masculine type of
building, a division of the architectural and sculptural objects as
distinguished from the faminine (striliriga) and "neuter (napumsaka)
types. Alinda-sahitaih shad-varga-sahitam cha yad arpitam I
Sarhchitam proktarh pumlihgarh tad ghani-kritam 1 1 Devanam
asuranarh cha siddha-vidyadhareshv-api I Raksha-gandharva-
yakshanarh prasastanam cha janminam (bhogyam) II (Kamikagama,
XLV, 8, 9.) See the Mdnasdra and the Agamas under PRASADA, and
compare STRILINGA and NAPUMSAKA. PURANA-KAMBA — A vase, a
moulding. ' The panel or flat part of the back wall of each recess
between the projecting tower-like compartments, is ornamented by
a vase or some very florid object called purana-kambam.' (Gangai-
Kondo Puram Temple, Ind. Ant., Vol. ix, p. 118, c. 2, para 4.) PORTA
— A well, a pond, a step-well. (1) Purtam vaprkupa-tadakadikam —
(the word) purta implies the stepwell, \vell, and pond, etc. (2) Vapl-
kupa-tadakadi-devatayatanani cha I Anna-pradanaramah purtam ity-
abhidhiyate 1 1 The step- well, well, pond, and the temple (and) the
pleasure-house (aim-house, hotel) where food is given (gratis) —
these are called the ' purta.' (3) Vapi-kupa-tadakadi-purtam
ayatanani cha I Svarga-sthitirh sada kuryat tada tat purta-sajnitam I
The step well, well, pond and temples are purta. It always ensures
the residence in heaven (for the doer), it is for this reason
designated as purta. (Quotations from the Commentary, KaSyapa, on
the Brihat-Samhitd, LVI, 2 ; J. R. A. S, N. S., Vol. vi, pp. 316-37, note
i.) (4) Vapi-kupa-tadagadi-devatayatanani cha I Anna-pradanaramah
purtam aryah prachakshate 1 1 (Ep. Ind., Vol. iv, p. 318, note 3.)
PRISHTHA-SDTRA— The plumb-line drawn by the back-bone. (M.,
LXVII, 80 ; see under PRALAMBA.)
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HINDU-ARCHITECTURE PRACHCHHADANA PECHAKA — An

owl, the tip or root of an elephant's tail, a couch, a bed, a shelter on
a street, a site plan of four squares. (M. vii, 3.) In connexion with
streets in a village : Pechakam vatha pithaih va rathya yuktarh tu
vinyaset I (M., ix, 423, etc. PAI&ACHA (see PADA-VINYASA) — A site
plan of four squares. (M. vii, 3.) POTA(-I)KA (POTTIKA)— A part of a
column, the site of a house. Tat-samotsedham potikalarikriti-kriya I
— (Kamikagama, uv, u.) Potikantavalambarh va tulantaritam
antaram I — (Ibid., 23.) Pottika (ibid., LV, 69 ; see under MAKARA-
TORANA) . A part of the bottom of a column.— (Suprabhedagama,
xxxi, 60; see under STAMBHA.) POTRA — A moulding, an
architectural object resembling the snout of a hog or a ploughshare.
In connexion with joinery : Karkatanghrivat kritva potra-nasanghrim
vesayet I (M., XVH, 143.) PAUSHTIKA (see UTSEDHA)— A height
which is i\ of the breadth, a class of buildings. See Mdnasdra (xxxv,
22-26) and compare Kamikagama (L, 24, 28) , under ADBHUTA. A
class of the two-storeyed buildings (M., xx, 93, 19-25 ; see under
PRASADA). PRAKOSHTHA(KA)— The forearm, a hall, a room near
the gate, of a palace, a court, a quadrangle, a part of the door-
frame. Ekarhsam madhya-bhadram tu madhye yuktya
prakoshthakam I (M., xxvi, 1 08.) The forearm : Prakoshtharh
shodasamsarh syat talam ashtamsam ayatam I (M., LVH, 26, etc.)
PRACHCHHADANA — A covering, a canopy, the roof, an entablature.
A synonym of the entablature (M., xvi, 18 ; see under PRASTARA).
In connexion with the three-storeyed buildings : Prachchhadanopari
stambham karna-harmyadi-manditam I (M., xxi, 9.) 315
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PRANALA(KA; AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA Of The roof :

Prastarasyopari-deSe karna-harmyadi-manditam I Yuktya
prachchhadanam kuryat sudheshtakadi-gulodakaih I (M., xxxi, 69,
72.) Padarh vayate taulirh kuryad yuktya. vichakshanah I T-.id-
urdhve jayantikarii kuryat tat-tat-prachchhadananvitam I (A/., xxxm,
373-374-) Prachchhadanankanam kuryan na prachchhadanam eva
cha I (M., xxxv, 295.) Prachchhadanam yatha-harmye dvararh kuryat
tathaisake I (A/., xxxviii, 7.) Prastarochcham iti proktam
prachchhadanam ihochyate I Prasadadini(-nam) sarvesharh
prachchhadanadi-lakshanam I Etat prachchhadanam gehe proktarh
mama munisVaraih I Anyat-vastuni-(nam) sarvesham
prachchhadanam ihochyate I (A/., xvi, 120-121, 143-144 ; the
proposed description, ibid., 121-142, 145-168, 170-204.) The
materials of which they arc constructed : Kevalam cheshtaka-harmye
daru-prachchhadananvitam I Sila-harmyc sila-taulim kuryat tat tad
viseshatah I From this passage especially, it apears that the term '
prachchhadana ' indicates the roof of a building. — (Ibid., 133-134.)
PRANALA(KA) — The drip or channel-like part of the pedestal of the
linga (phallus), a gutter, a canal, a patter, a bracket. (1) Vari-
nirgamanartham tu tatra karyah pranalakah I Therein (in the
pedestal) should be made the pranala (gutter) as an outlet for water.
(Matsya-Purana, Chap. CGLXII, v. 6.) Ardhangula-bhruvo-raji
pranala-sadrisi sama I (Ibid., Chap. CCLVIII, v. 37.) (2) A square or
round platter or bracket to which a spout is attached for ornamental
purposes : Aisanyam pranalam syat purvasyam va prakirtita 1 1
(Kdmikagama, LV, 82.) See Mdnasdra, LII, 298, etc. PRANALA(-
LIKA,-LI) — A canal, a spout, a conduit, a watercourse, a drain. (i)
Pituh punyabhivriddhaye karita sat-pranaliyam ... I ' This conduit has
been built ... for the increase of his father's spiritual merit.'—
(Inscrip. from Nepal, no. 8, Vibhuvarman's inscrip., line 2 f., Ind.
Ant.y Vol. ix, p. 171, c. 2.) 316
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HINDU ARCHITECTURE PRATIMA (2) Kugrame pranalikayas

cha khanda-sphutita-samadhanartham — ' for repairing the spout of
the water-course in Kugrama.' — (Ibid., no. n line 15, p. 174.)
PRATIKA(-I) — A moulding of crescent shape, the frieze ; for its
synonyms, see M., xvr, 42-44. It is shaped like a petal in two parts
(M., xvi, 45). (1) A moulding of the base (M., xiv, 39, 138. 148, etc.;
see the lists of mouldings under ADHISHTHANA}. A moulding of the
column (M., xv, 217 ; xxxm, 225, etc.). (2) Pratim nivesayet tasya tri-
tri-bhagaika-bhagatah II Anyayos" chardha-chandrabha pratl karya
dvijottamah 1 1 (fCamikdgama, LIV, 44, 46.) PRATI-KRAMA — A
class of bases comprising four types which differ from one another in
height and in the addition or omission of some mouldings. (M., xiv,
44-64 ; see under ADHISHTHANA.) Vedikeyarh tu samanya
kuttimanam prakirtita I Pratikramasya chotsedhe chatur-virhs'ati
vibhajite II (Vastu-vidyS, ed. Ganapati Sastri, ix, 19.) Pratikramam
viseshena kartavyam pada-bandhavat 1 1 (Suprabhedagama, xxxi,
26 ; ste the details under PADA-BANDHA.) PRATI-BANDHA— A
moulding of the base. (M., xiv, 324 ; see the lists of mouldings under
ADHISHTHANA.) PRATI-BHADRA— One of the three classes of the
pedestals, the other two being Mancha-bhadra and Vedi-bhadra : it
has four types differing from one another in height and in the
addition or omission of some mouldings. (M., xm, 53—89 ; see the
lists of mouldings under UPAP!THA.) PRATIMA — A moulding, an
architectural object. In connexion with foundations : Brahma-
garbham iti proktam pratimam tat sva-rupakam I Evam tu pratimam
proktam etad garbhopari nyaset I (M., xn, 149, 166.) A moulding of
the base (M., xiv, 61, 137, 279 ; see the lists of mouldings under
ADHISHTHANA). 31?
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PR ATI MA AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF PRATIMA — An image,

an idol, a bust, a statue. (1) Mdnasdra, Chap. LXIV (named Pratima)
: Description of the images of the sixteen attendant deities of the
Vishnu temple (lines 1-92). Cf. Pratimam lohajam choktarh tatha
ratnaih tu vinyaset I (M., LXX, 100.) Pratimadhikara (M.. LXVII,
colophon). (2) An image or idol (Brihat-Samhild, LVI, 16, J.R.A.S., N.
S., Vol. iv, p. 318). (3) Eka-hasta dvi-hasta va tri-hasta va
pramanatah I Tatha sarva tri-hasta cha savituh pratima subha II
(Bhavishya-Purdna, Chap, cxxxii, v. i.) (4.) Athatah sampravakshyami
sakalanarh tu lakshanam 1 1 Sarvavayava-drisyatvat pratima tv-iti
chochyate II IsVaradi-chatur-murttih pathyate sakalarh tv-iti 1 1
(Suprabheddgama, xxxiv, I— 2.) (5) Angushtha-parvad arabhya
vitastir-yavad eva tu I Griheshu pratima karya nadhika sasyate
budhaih 1 1 Ashodasa tu prasade karttavya nadhika tatah I
Madhyottama-kanishtha tu karya vittanusaratah II
Dvarochchhrayasya yan-manam ashtadha tat tu karayet I Bhagam
ekarh tatas tyaktva pari^ishtam tu yad bhavet II Bhaga-dvayena
pratima tri-bhaglkritya tat punah I Pithika bhagatah karya nati nicha
nachochchhrita 1 1 (Matsya-Purdna, Chap. CCLVIII, vv. 22-25.) (6)
Vinirmmita rajate Chamkirajena Supar^va-pratima uttama — ' the
excellent image of Suparsva made by Chamkiraja adorns there.' —
(Honwad inscrip. of Somesvara I, line 32, Ind. Ant., Vol. xix, p. 273.)
(7) -An image (pratima) may be very lofty and yet have no beauty,
or it may be lofty and of real beauty, but have no dignity ; but
height, true beauty and exceeding dignity being all united in him,
how highly is he worthy of worship in the world, GommatesVara, the
very form of Jina himself. Should Maya address himself to drawing a
likeness, the chief of Nakaloka (Indra) to look on it or the Lord of
Serpents (Adis"esha) to priase it, it is unequal ; this being so, who
else are able to draw the likeness, to look fully upon or praise the
unequalled form of the southern Kukkutesa with its wondrous
beauty.' — (Ep. Carnal., Vol. n, Vindhyagiri inscrip., no. 85 ; Transl.,
p. 154, line 13 f. ; Roman Text, p. 67 f.) (8) ' In the presence of
these gods, setting up the stone images (Sila-pratima) of the
crowned queen Lakshmivilasa, the lawful queen Krishnavilasa, and
318
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HINDU ARCHITECTURE PRATI-VAKTRA the lawful queen

Ramavilasa, together with my own.' — (Ep. Carnal., Vol. iv,
Chamarajnagar Taluq, no. 86 ; Transl., p. n, para. 3 ; Roman Text, p.
18, para, i, last three lines.) (9) Vichitiye Jina-dasiya pratima
Bhagavata pitamahasa pratima pratishthapita I — (Mathura Inscrip.
no. 16, line 2 ; Bitha Inscrip. no. C, lines 1-3 ; Cunningham, Arch.
Surv. Reports, Vol. in, pp. 34, 48.) (10) ' In the highly celebrated
Somanatha-pura he made a great temple setting up therein
according to all the directions of the Agama the various incarnations
of Vishnu, — and shone with the fame he had acquired,
Somachamupati, the Gayi-govala. Under the profound name of
Prasannachenna he set KeSava on the right-hand side, and the
source of world's pleasure, his form Gopala, the lord who fills the
mind with joy, Janardha , —these three forms, united among
themselves, were the chief in the Vishnu temple in that pura. A
cause of all manner of festivity were all the various forms around the
enclosure, as they were all exhibited in different ways : the Matsya
and others, all the ten incarnations, Kes"ava and others,
Sarikarshana and others, twelve in name, Narayana and others to
the number of thirty-four, including eighteen, Krishna and others ;
Ganapa, Bhairava, Bhaskara, Vishvaksena, Durggi, and such gods
numbering seventy-three adorned the Vishnu temple in the middle
of pura. And in the southeast of the pura Soma-dandadhipa set up
Bijjalesvara, PerggadesVara, Revalesvara, and Bayiralesvara, with
Somanatha Siva-linga in the middle, . . . And he set up Bhava named
Nrisirhhesvara, Yoga-Narayana and Lakshml-Nrisimha in the middle
of the Kaverl at Somanathapura. — (Ep. Carnal., Vol. xi, Davanagere
Taluq, no. 36 ; Transl., p. 46, para. 3, line 7 f. ; Roman Text, pp. 76,
77). PRATIMA-MANDAPA— A detached building used as a temple, a
pavilion. (M., xxxiv, 55.) PRATI-MUKHA— A moulding of the base.
(M., xiv, 1 02 ; see the lists of mouldings under ADHISHTHANA.)
PRATI-PATTA (see PATTA)— A moulding, a band, a plate, a slab, a
tablet. (Vastu-vidya, ix, 23-24 ; see under PATTA.) PRATI-ROPA— A
moulding of the entablature. (M., xvi, 45 ; see the lists of mouldings
under PRASTARA.) PRATI-VAKTRA— A moulding of the base. (M.,
xiv, 118 ; see the lists of mouldings under ADHISHTHANA.) 3*9
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PRATI-VAJANA AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF PRATI-VAJANA— A

concave moulding resembling the cavetto. See Fletcher (Hist. Arch.,
p. 101). It is ' the same thing in the pedestal to answer to the
vajana : its form, though generally rectangular, is sometimes, when
placed in cornices, found to be externally a little more inclined to
one side than to the other, and in this situation it resembles the
cavetto.' — (Ram Raz, Ess. Arch' Hind., p. 25.) Alingantararii
chordhve prativajanam uchyate I — (M. XLV, in.) A moulding of the
pedestal (M., xin, 58, 93, in. etc. ; see the lists of mouldings under
UPAPITHA.) A moulding of the base (M., xiv, 39, etc. ; see the lists
of mouldings under ADHISHTHANA.) PRATlSRAYA — Help, a shelter
house for travellers, a dwelling house, a residence, a sacrificial hall,
an assembly. 1 i ) Satra-prapa-pra(ti)sVaya-vrishotsargga - vapi-kupa
- tadarama-devalayadi-karanopakaranartham iha — ' for the purpose
of (supplying) requisite materials for preparing alms-house (feeding
establishment), a place for distributing water gratis to travellers, a
shelter-house for travellers, a vrishotsargga (see below, Ind. Ant.,
Vol. xn, p. 142), reservoirs, wells, tanks, orchards, temples, etc.' —
(Cambay Plates of Govinda IV, line 58, Ep. Ind., Vol. vn, pp. 41, 46,
note 8.) (2) Chatu£-6alavasadha-prati$raya-pradena arama-tadaga-
udapana karena — ' has given the shelter of quadrangular rest-
houses, has made wells, tanks, and gardens.' — (Nasik Cave inscrip.
no. 10, line 2, Ep. Ind., Vol. vni, pp. 78, 79.) 1 But pratiSraya, as I
have stated in a note (Nasik inscr ption, the International Congress
of the Orientalists held in London in 1874) is what is in these days
called an anna-sattra, i.e. a house where travellers put up and are
fed without charge.' — Dr. Bhankarkar, and compares : (3) Hemddri
(p. 152) : PratiSrayah pravasinarh asiayah, i.e., a shelter house for
travellers. (4) Vahni-Purdna (p. 763, quoted also by Dr. Hoernle) :
Pratisrayarh suvistirnam sad-annam sujalanvitam I Dina-natha-
janarthaya karayitva griharh Subham I Nivedayet pathisthebhyah
Subha-dvararh manoharam II » ' Having caused to be constructed
for poor and helpless persons a pratiSraya (in the shape of) a good
house, very commodious (wide), having food and plentiful water,
provided with a good door, and charming, he should dedicate it to
travellers.' — (Ind. Ant., Vol. xn, p. 142, c. 1-2.) 320
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HINDU ARCHITECTURE PRATOLl PRATISHTHA— An

establishment, a fixed abode. (A.-V., vi, 32, 3, Sankh. Aran., XH, 14.)
PRATI (see PRATI)— A moulding. PRATOLl — A gate-way, sometimes
provided with a flight of steps, a small turret, the main road of a
town. 1 i ) Rathya pratoli visikha syach chayo vapram astriyam I
(Amarakosha, n, ii, 3.) (2) Trirhsad-dandamtararh cha dvayor
attalakayor-madhye saharmyadvi-talarh dvy-ardhayamam pratollrh
karayet I Attalaka-pratoli-madhye tri-dhanushkadhishthanam
sapidhanachchhidra-phalaka-sarhhatam indra-kos"am karayet I
Prakaram ubhayato mandalakam adhyardha-dandarh kritva
pratolishat-tulantararh dvaram nivesayet I (Kautillya-Artha-sastra,
Chap. xxiV5 paras. 8, 9, 15, pp. 52, 53.) (3) Mahdbhdrata (Cock) :
XIV, 25, 21 : Tarn cha sala-chayam srlmat sampratoli sughattitam I
XII, 69, 55 : Parikhas chaiva kauravya pratolir nishkutani cha I (4)
Rdmayana (Cock) : II, 80, 1 8 : Pratolivara-Sobhitah . . . (niveSah) |
V, 3, 17 : (Lankam) . . . pandurabhih pratolibhir uchchabhir
abhisamvritam I VI, 75, 6 : Gopuratta-pratolishu charyasu vividhasu
cha I (5) See ' The Sanskrit Pratoli and its new Indian derivatives.' —
(J.R.A.S., Vol. xix, July, 1906.) (6) Kritva . . . abihramarh muni-
vasatirh . . . .svargga-sopanarupam kaubera-chchhanda-bimbam
sphatika-marhdala-bhasa-gaurarh pratolim I ' Having made a
gateway, charming (and) . . . the abode of Saints, (and) having the
form of a staircase leading to heaven (and) resembling a (pearl-)
necklace of the kind called Kauberachchanda (and) white with the
adiance of pieces of crystalline gems.' ' That the word (pratoli) has
the meaning in the present inscription of a gateway with a flight of
steps seems to be shown by the comparison of the pratoli with a
svarga-sopana or flight of steps, or ladder, leading to heaven, and by
its being described as white with the radiance of pieces of crystalline
gems (in the stones of which it was constructed).' — (Bilsad stone
pillar inscrip. of Kumaragupta, line 10, C. 1. 1., Vol. in, F. G. I., no.
10, pp. 44, 45, 43, and note I.) 321
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PRATYAttGA AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF (7) Hammira vira kva

sa tava mahima nirdisarhti dhvajagrair-divyakara-pratoli-hridayami-
bhuvo nirmita Kilhanena I Astarh tavat pratoll tad-upavirachitarh
koshthaka-dvarh-dvam- etat prochchair-alana-yugmarh
Vijaya[vara]kareh Satrulakshmas cha sadma I (Hansi stone inscrip.
of Prithviraja, V. S. 1224, vv. 5, 6, Ind. Ant., Vol. XLI, pp. 19, 17.) (8)
Asyam uttunga-£ringa-sphuta-§a§I-kirana- (svetabhasa-
sanatharhramyarama) pratoli-vividha-jana-pada-stri-vilasabhiramam
I ' In this (city of Benares there was) a place, renowned on earth
(bathed in the white light) of the bright rays of the moon (as they
fell on its) lofty turrets ; charming with the gracefulness of the wives
of the various inhabitants of the (beautiful and extensive, lit. whose
extent was charming) streets.' — (Benares inscrip. of Pantha, v. 2,
Ep. Ind., Vol. ix, pp. 60, 61.) (9) Deva-sri-s"asi-bhushanasya kritina
devalayarh karitarh yugmarh mamdapa-sobhitam cha purato-
bhadrarh pratolya saha I ' Caused to be built two temples of the god
whose ornament is the moon (viz. Mahadeva), together with halls, a
purato-bhadra with a gateway.' — (Kanker inscrip. of Bhanudeva, v.
7, Ep. Ind., Vol. ix, pp. 127, 128, 125, note 3.) PRATYA&GA — A
minor limb, a moulding of the entablature. (Kdmikagama, LTV, 2 ;
see under PRASTARA.) PRATYOHA (see UHA) — Lit. an obstacle,
hence any architectural moulding or member separating two others,
a supporting member, a moulding, an architectural object.
PRATHAMASANA — The throne for the preliminary coronation. Cf.
Prathamabhisheka-yogyarh syat prathamasanam eva cha I (M., XLV,
2-3.) PRADAKSHINA — A surrounding terrace or verandah, a
circumambulating path round a temple, a circular road round a
village or town. (1) Sikharardhasya chardhena vidheya tu
pradakshina I Garbha-sutra-dvayarh chagre vistaro mandalasya tu 1
1 (Matsya-Purdna, Chap. CCLXIX, v. 4.) (2) Pradakshinarh bahih
kuryat prasadadishu va na va I (Agni-Purana, Chap, civ, v. 9.) (3)
Sikhararddhasya charddhena vidheyas tu pradakshinah I (Garuda-
Purdna, Chap. XLVII, v. 8.) 322
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HINDU ARCHITECTURE PRAPA See Matsya-Purdna above :

this line is identical, except that it is used in the plural number here.
(4) ' The procession-path round the cell — called Pradakshina — as
that round apse, remained for some centuries as a common but not
a universal feature. The verandah disappeared. Round a windowless
cell it was useless, and the pillared porches contained in themselves,
all the elements of shelter or of the shadow that were required.' —
(Fergusson : Hist, of Ind. and East. Arch., p. 221.) (5) ' In the
pradakshina or passage behind images, are other two gratings over
shafts from the lower hall.' — (Ahmadabad Arch. Burgess : Arch.
Surv., New Imp. Series, Vol. xxxni, p. 87.) PRADAKSHINA-SOPANA—
A surrounding flight of steps. (Kautillya-Arlha-sdstra ; see under
SOPANA.) PRAPATHA — A broad path, long journey by a broad road,
high roads for travellers, rest-houses thereupon (R.-V., x, 17, 4, 6 ;
63, 1 6 ; Kath. Sam., xxxvn, 14; Ait. Bra.) VH, 15). A prince is landed
for his prapathas (R.-V., vra, i, 30). PRAPA (PRAPAfrGA) — A shed on
the roadside for accommodating travellers with water, a place where
water is distributed, a cistern, a tank, a building. (1) Kulluka (M. W.
Diet.} : Panlya-dana-griha — a house where water is given (gratis).
(2) Amarakosha (n, 5, 7) : Avesanarh silpi-sala prapa pamya-salika I
(3) A synonym of harmya (edifice) (M., n, 7). In connexion with the
staircase : Prapange pramukhe bhadre sopanarh purva-parsvayoh I
(M., xxx, 105.) In connexion with mandapas (pavilions) : Bhakti-
manarh tatha bhitti-vistaram chapy-alindakam I Prapahga-
mandapakaram pancha-bhedam kramochyate I (M., xxxiv, 3-4 ; see
also 15.) Madhye prachchhadanam kuryat prapangam vadhikalpayet
I Tasya madhye cha range tu mauktikena prapanvitam I Mandapagre
prapangam syat ... I (Ibid., 201, 218, 222; see also 224-225.) Prapa
is shed as an alternative for pavilion. Prapanga is shed with open
yards. — (M., xxxiv, 567-568.) Mandapasya bahir-de£e praparh
paritas tu karayet I — (Ibid., 290.) 323
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PRAPA AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF In connexion with madhya-

rahga (central quadrangle or courtyard) : Devanam cha nripanarh
cha sthanakasana-yogyakam I Mukta-prapanga-manarh cha
lakshanarh vakshyate'dhuna I Yad-ukta-madhya-rahge tu chatus-
trirhsad vibhajite I Ekaikam-bhaga-hlnarh syat prapa-vistaram
ishyate I . . . prapa-tungam sivam£am syat I (M., XLVII, 1-4, 9.) In
connexion with the pedestals of the images of the Triad : Prapa cha
toranam \api kalpa-vriksham cha sarhyutam I (M., LI, 87.) (4) Prag-
varhsayor anya-vamsais" cha nalikera-daladibhih I Achchhaditah(-ta)
prapa nama prastararh chatra mandapah II (Kamikagama, L, 88.)
(5) Prapayas cha mandapam — ' hall for the supply of water.'
(Inscrip. of the Chandella Viravarman, v. 19, Ep. Ind., Vol. i, pp. 328,
330.) (6) Vapi-kupa-tadaga-kuttima-matha-prasada-satralayan I
Sauvarna-dhvaja-toranapana-pura-grama-prapa-mamdapan I
Vyadhapayad ayarh Chaulukya-chudamanih I Here ' Prapa ' (shed)
does not, evidently, mean a tank, which idea is expressed by the
words vapi, kupa, and tadaga. — (Sridhara's Devapattana Prasasti,
V. 10, Ep. Ind., Vol. u, p. 440.) (7) See Rahganath inscrip. of
Sundarapandya (v. 15, Ep. Ind., Vol. in, pp. 13. l6-) (8) Satra-prapa-
prasraya-vrishotsargga-vapi-kupa-tadarama-devala-
yadikaranopakaranartharh cha I Prapa — (?) a place of distributing
water gratis (D. R. Bhandarkar).— (Cambay Plates of Govinda IV, line
58, Ep. Ind., Vol. vii, pp. 41, 46.) (9) Nadinam ubhato tiraih sabha
prapa-karena — ' erected on both banks shelters for meeting and
such for gratuitous distributing of water.' — (Nasik Cave inscrip. no.
10, line a f., Ep. Ind., Vol. vm, pp. 78, 79.) ( I o) Aneka-
devatayatana-sabha-praparamavasatha-vihara-karayita — ' who
caused to be built many temples of the gods, halls, drinking-
fountains, gardens, rest-houses, and (Buddhist) monasteries.'—
(Palitana Plates of Simhaditya, line 12, Ep. Ind., Vol. xi, pp. 18, 19,
note 3.) (n) Dakshina-diSabhage karapita vapi tatha prapeyam cha
— 'in the southern part there has been made an irrigation well also a
watering-trough. ' Tatha prapa-kshetram dvitlyam tatha grame
uttara-disayam — ' in the northern part of the village there is given a
second field, for the watering trough.' — (Grant of Bhimadeva n,
Vikrama Samvat 1266, lines 26, 27, 31, 32, Ind. Ant., Vol. xvm, pp.
113, 1 15.) 324
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HINDU ARCHITECTURE PRALAMBA (12) 'Apana cannot

have here (Asoka pillar-edict, vn, Mines, 2-3) its usual meaning "
tavern, liquor-shop." As professor Kern (Der Buddhism, Vol. n, p.
385) assumes, it must denote a watering station. Probably the huts
on the roads are meant, where water is distributed to travellers and
their beasts gratis or against payment. The usual Sanskrit name is
prapa.' Dr. Biihler.— (Ep. Ind., Vol. H, p. 274, i.) PRABH AVA — A
type of rectangular building. (Agni-Purana, Chap, civ, vv. 16-17 ; see
under PRASADA.) PRABHAtfJANA— A type of chariot. (M., XLIII, 112;
see under RATHA.) PRABHA — A canopy, a city. Sailam s"obhita-
£ata-kumbha-vilasat kumbham maha-mandapam prakaram
paramalika-vilasitam muktamayim cha prapa(-bha)m I ' A great
maha-mandapa of stone, resplendent with pitchers (? domes) of
shining gold, a surrounding wall, adorned with excellent buildings,
and a canopy of pearls.' Dr. Hultzsch. — (Fourteen inscrip. at
Tirukkovalur, no. K, Inscrip. of Rajendradeva, lines 1-2, Ep. Ind., Vol.
vn, pp. 145-46.) PRAMANA — The measurement of breadth. (M., LV,
3-6 ; see under MANA.) Pramanam dirgham ity-uktaih manonmana-
pramanatah II (Suprabheddgama, xxxiv, 36.) PRALAMBA — The
plumb-lines or the lines drawn through an image in order to find out
the perpendicular and the horizontal measurement of the different
parts of the body. (1) See Bimbamdna (w. 73-91, 92-122, 123-138)
under TALAMANA. (2) Mdnasdra (Chap. LXVTI, named PRALAMBA) :
The instrument by means of which the plumb-lines are drawn is
called pralamba-phalaka. This is a square plank of four, three, two or
one ahgula in thickness with the sides equal to three-fourths or half
of the length of the image (line 6). Another plank of the same size is
made and used as the stool on which the image is placed. The other
plank (pralamba-phalaka) is fixed to the crown of the head of the
image. The planks are kept level to each other. Some holes are
made in the upper plank of the pralamba-phalaka wherefrom are
suspended some strings at the other end of which are attached
small balls made of iron or stone (lines 7-16). The number of holes
and the strings suspended through the planks, by which the plumb-
lines are determined, varies from five to eleven, according to the
different postures and poses of the image. The five principal plumb-
lines consist of one 325
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PRALAMBA AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF drawn from the centre

of the upper plank corresponding to the crown of the head, and four
on the four sides of the body (line 19). Two other lines drawn
adjoining the right and left sides of the face make the number seven
(line 20). Another two lines drawn on the right and left sides of the
back of the head make the number nine (line 22) ; and two lines
drawn from the two armpits make the total of lines eleven (line 28).
The line drawn from the crown of the head (sikha-mani) passes by
the middle of the front, root and patta (band) of the diadem (mauli),
middle of the forehead, eyebrows, nose, chin, neck, chest (hridaya),
navel, sex organ, root of the thighs, halfway between the knees,
nalakas (ankles), heels, soles (feet) and two largest toes (lines 32-
40). The perpendicular and horizontal distances between the
different parts of the body are described in detail (lines 41-78, 99-
139). The variations of these measurements are considered with
regard to postures (lines 1-96), namely, erect (sthanaka), sitting
(asana) and recumbent (Sayana), and poses (lines 98-140), called
abhahga, sama-bhanga, ati-bhanga and tri-bhahga (see under
BHANGA). These plumb-lines are stated to be drawn only for the
purpose of measuring : Evaih tu karya-sutrarh syat lambayet
Silpavittamah I (91) The principles and mechanism of plumb-lines
followed by the European architects are almost similar. The following
quotations from Vitruvius and Gwilt would throw more light on the
point : (3) ' Agatharcus . . . was the first who contrived scenery,
upon which he left a treatise. This led Democritus and Anaxagarus,
who wrote thereon, to explain how the points of sight and distance
ought to guide the k'nes, as in nature, to a centre, so that by means
of pictorial deception, the real appearances of buildings appear on
the scene, which, painted on a flat vertical surface, seem,
nevertheless, to advance and recede.' — (Vitruvius Book vii,
Introduction.) ' This (levelling) is performed either with the dioptra,
the level (libra acquaria) or the chorobates. The latter instrument is,
however, the beste inasmuch as the dioptra and level are often
found to be incorrect. The chorobates is a rod about 20 feet in
length, having two legs at its extremities of equal length and
dimensions, and fastened to the ends of the rod at right angles with
it ; between the rod the legs are cross-pieces fastened with tenons,
whereon vertical lines are correctly marked, through which
corresponding plumb-lines hang down from the rod. When the rod is
set, these will coincide with the lines marked, and show that the
instrument stands level.' — (£6f
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PRALAMBA Pagi
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