This module describes the knowledge, skills and attitude required to apply basic of hydraulic

and pneumatic systems. It is intended to be pursued by learners at TVET certificate level V in

automobile technology. At the end of this module, the trainee will be able to describe
hydraulic system, describe pneumatic system, describe hydraulic and pneumatic circuits

This module is reserved for learners of Level Five (L5) manufacturing technology. It
provides the skills, knowledge and attitude for learners to be competent in Basics of hydraulic
and pneumatic system. After completion of this module, the learner will be able to Describe
principle of hydraulic and pneumatic system, lay down pneumatic and hydraulic circuit and
supply and commission hydraulic and pneumatic system, She/he will be able to perform these
tasks by respecting hydraulic and pneumatic system quality standards and regulations
requirements.

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LO1. DESCRIBE HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
All machines require some type of power source and a way of transmitting this power to the
point of operation. The three methods of transmitting power are:
1. Electrical transmission is the process of delivering generated electricity - usually over
long distances - to the distribution grid located in populated areas.

2. Mechanical power transmission is the transmission of power by either using gears,

chain, or belt from one point to another.
1. chain 2. belt 3. gear

3. Fluid power transmission, is the method of using pressurized fluid to transmit energy

In this course, we are going to deal with the third type of power transmission, which is the
Fluid Power.

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FLUID POWER
Fluid power, it may be defined as the technology that deals with the generation, control and
transmission of power using pressurized fluids (liquid or gas) to transmit power from one
location to another
Fluid power transmissions, on the other hand, specifically refer to the components and
systems within fluid power that are responsible for transferring power from one location
(generally energy generating source) to another (usually energy application point) to do a
useful works.
Fluid power transmission is divided into two main types
1. Hydraulics: Uses a liquid, usually oil or water, to transmit power
2. Pneumatics: Uses a gas, usually compressed air, to transmit power

Comparison between a hydraulic and a pneumatic system

APPLICATION OF FLUID POWER SYSTEM

 Agriculture: Tractor and form equipments & chemical sprayers.
 Automation: Automated transformer machine
 Aviation: landing wheels on airplane, helicopter and aircraft trolleys etc.

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 Building industry: for metering and mixing of concrete ingredients from hopper
Pneumatic conveyors for transmitting powder materials
 Construction equipment: earth moving equipment JCB, dozer, bore well diggers,
 Defence: Missile launching system navigation control
 Entertainment: amusement park, Entertainment rides like roller costar, sky jump,
 Fabrication industry: tools like pneumatic drills grinder, reverting machine, Nut runner
etc.
 Foundry: molding machine, tiling of furnace, die casting operation, automatic pallet
placing system.
 Jigs: fluid power operated opening and closing of jigs and fixtures.
 Machine Tools: Material loading and unloading, clamping and declamping.
 Mining: Rock drills, dig out equipment, ore conveyer, loaders opening and closing.
 Plastic Industry: automatic injection molding machine, raw material feeding .
 Forging: bulk metal forming, sheet metal bending, punching, stamping.
 Robotics: for robotics hand and leg movement, pneumatics grippers.
 Automobile: Power steering, Power brakes, suspension system.
 Glass industry: vacuum friction cups handling.
Identification of pneumatic/ hydraulic symbols
Pneumatic and hydraulic symbols are standardized graphical representations used in fluid
power system diagrams. These symbols provide a universal language for engineers and
technicians to understand the components and their functions within a system. By using these
symbols, complex systems can be easily visualized and analyzed, facilitating design,
troubleshooting, and maintenance.
A. Hydraulic & Pneumatic Symbols
THE VARIOUS fluid power symbols used in fluid power circuits are explained bellow under
the even basic symbol classifications they are:
 Pumps and motors;  Operation/actuating method;
 Cylinders;  Energy transmission;
 Directional control valves  Measuring devices;
 Pressure valves;  Coupling and;
 Flow control valves;  Combination of devices
 Non-return valves;
Pumps and motors are the energy producing to the fluid power systems. The basic general
graphic symbols related to them are given below:
Circle represent pump, motor, compressor or any rotary devices

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 Filled triangle Indicates the direction of flow for hydraulic fluid (systems)

Unfilled triangle Indicates the direction of flow for pneumatic fluid (system)

Line with an arrow Indicates variable displacement

B. Graphic symbols used for motor and pumps

NO Name Symbol

Hydraulic Pneumatic
1 Fixed displacement ,unidirectional pump

2 Fixed displacement, bidirectional pump

3 Variable displacement ,unidirectional pump

4 Variable displacement ,bidirectional pump

5 Fixed displacement ,unidirectional motor

6 Fixed displacement ,bidirectional motor

7 Variable displacement ,bidirectional motor

8 Variable displacement ,bidirectional motor

9 Oscillating motor

C. Cylinders
The cylinders are actuators used to convert the energy of the fluid into linear mechanical
energy. Single acting cylinder has one port and double acting cylinder has two ports.
NO Name Symbol
1 Single acting cylinder returned by external force

2 Single acting cylinder with spring return

3 Double acting Telescopic cylinder

4 Double acting cylinder with single piston rod

5 Double acting cylinder with through piston rod

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6 Double acting cylinder with single end position cushioning

7 Double acting cylinder with end position cushioning at

both ends
8 Double acting cylinder with adjustable end position
Cushioning at both ends
9 Differential cylinder

10 Tandem cylinder

11 Rotary cylinder
Swivel or lack and pinion arrangement

45,90,180 degrees
D. DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES (DCVs)
Pneumatic systems require control valves to direct and regulate the flow of fluid from
compressor or pump to the various load devices.

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E. VALVE ACTUATION SYMBOLS

7
F. PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

G. NON RETURN VALVES

8
H. FLOW CONTROL VALVES

I. MEASURING DEVICES

J. AUXILIARY SYMBOLS

9
2. OTHER SYMBOLS

10
 15 Non return valve(check valve)

BA
16 Flow divider

A B
P
17 P Pressure relief valve

T
18 Manometer

19 A B
C Dual pressure valve(AND Valve)

26 Accumulator

27 Spring loaded accumulator

28 Gas charged accumulator

29 Weighted accumulator

K. Energy transmission

Table bellow presents the various standard symbols used in circuit diagram for energy
transfer and conditioning of the pressure medium.

Graphic smbols used in energy transmission

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J. Couplings

L. Combination of devices

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If several devices are brought together in a single housing the symbols for individual devices
are placed into a box made up of broken lines from which the connections are led away. The
following Table presents standard symbols for combination of devices
Graphic symbols used for combination of devices

Review questions about hydro-pneumatic symbols

1. Below is represented a sketch of a hydraulic circuit. Identify parts 1 to 15. /15marks

2. The figure hereafter shows symbols which represent the components parts of a
hydraulic circuit. Name the two components labeled.

a)
3. Name the component parts labelled on the figure bellow: /10marks

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4. symbolically represent the following components: /10marks
A. Vacuum pump
B. Throttle valve, adjustable, manual operation
C. Shuttle valve
D. Service unit (simplified symbol)
E. An AND logic symbol.
1.1.Description of hydraulic principles
Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid
for transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to
accomplish useful work.
Basic Principles of Hydraulics

Basic Principles of Hydraulics refer to the fundamental laws and concepts that govern the
behaviour of fluids under pressure. These principles includes:

1. Liquids have no shape of their own

They acquire the shape of any container because of this; oil in a hydraulic system will
flow in any direction and into a passage of any size or shape.

2. Liquids are practically incompressible

If we were to push down on cork of the tightly sealed jar (cylinder) the liquid in the
jar would not compress. The jar would shatter first.

3. Liquids transmit applied pressure in all directions and act with equal force on all
equal areas.

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4. Liquids provide great increases in work force.

Now let’s take two more cylinders of different sizes and connect them as shown
above. The first cylinder has an area of one square centimeter (1 cm2), but the second
has an area of ten square centimeters (10 cm 2). A gain uses a force of one kilogram
force (1 kgf) on the piston in the smaller cylinder.
One again the pressure is created throughout the system. So a pressure of one
kilogram force per square centimeter (1 kgf/cm2) is exerted on the larger cylinder.
Since that cylinder has a piston area of ten square centimeters (10 cm2), the total force
exerted on it is ten kilogram force (10 kgf). We have a great increase in work force.
E.g.: his principle helps you to stop a large machine or vehicle by pressing a brake
pedal.
- We use a small force with a jack for raising heavy vehicle
The force (F) exerted by a piston can be determined by multiplying the piston area
(A) by the pressure (P) applied (F=A*P).
1.2.Pascal’s low
The foundation of modern hydraulics was established when Blaise Pascal, a French scientist,
discovered the fundamental law for the science of hydraulics because it provides the
fundamental principle for force amplification known as Pascal's law. Which states that
pressure applied to a confined liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts
with equal force on all equal areas, at right angles to those areas.

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By applying a small force to a small piston, a much larger force can be generated on a larger
piston, as long as both pistons are connected by an incompressible fluid.
This principle is illustrated in the image above, where a force applied to the left piston is
transmitted through the fluid to the right piston. The pressure is the same throughout the
fluid, but the force on the right piston is greater because it has a larger surface area. This is
why hydraulic systems can be used to amplify force, making them useful for tasks like lifting
heavy objects
1.2.1 Pressure and force
Pressure (P): is the amount of push or pull (force) applied to each unit area of the surface
and is expressed In pounds inch (psi) or grams per square centimetre (gm/cm 2). While force
it is pull or push exerted against the total area of a particular surface.

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Fig below shows that, if a downward force is applied to piston A, it will be transmitted
through the system to piston B. According to Pascal’s law, the pressure at piston A (P1)
equals the pressure at piston B (P2)

 Fluid pressure is measured in terms of the force exerted per unit area.

 The values F1, A2 can be calculated using the following formula:

Example 1. In Fig.11, find the weight of the car in N, if the area of piston A is 600 mm2 , the area of
piston B is 10500 mm2 , and the force applied on piston A is 500 N.
Solution:

Example 2 In Fig 1.11, if the weight of the car is 10,000 N, the diameter of piston A is 10 mm, and
the force applied on piston A is 250 N. Calculate the radius of piston B.
Solution:
1. Calculate the area of piston A, the piston shape is circular as shown in Fig. 1.10a,
accordingly the area will be calculated using the following formula.

Apply Pascal’s law

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Examples of Pascal's principle applications include hydraulic crane, hydraulic lift, hydraulic jack, and
hydraulic brake system, in excavators, etc. An excavator digging a hole, a car being lifted by a
hydraulic lift, and even squeezing a toothpaste tube applies Pascal's principle.

Fig A. Hydraulic jack fig B. hydraulic lifter

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGES OF SIMPLE MACHINE

A simple machine is a basic tool that reduces the amount of effort needed to accomplish a
task or used to make the work easier. The mechanical advantage of a simple machine is the
ratio of the output force to the input force. In other words, it tells you how much easier a task
becomes when using the machine.

Types of Simple Machines and Their Mechanical Advantages

1. Lever: A lever consists of a rigid beam that pivots around a fixed point called a fulcrum.
The mechanical advantage of a lever depends on the relative positions of the fulcrum, the
input force (effort), and the output force (load). Simply, A lever is a simple rigid bar
which is free to move around a point which is called fulcrum

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 Classification of levers

There are three types or classes of levers, according to where the load and effort are located
with respect to the fulcrum. Since humans usually provide energy to levers, "effort" and
"load" are often used instead of input and output.

Class 1 has the fulcrum placed between the effort and load.

Class 2 has the load between the effort and the fulcrum.

Class 3 has the effort between the load and the fulcrum

2. Inclined Plane: An inclined plane is a flat surface that slopes upward. It reduces the force
needed to lift an object to a higher elevation. The mechanical advantage of an inclined
plane increases as the slope becomes less steep.

3. Wedge: A wedge is a double-sided inclined plane. It is used to split or separate objects.

The mechanical advantage of a wedge depends on its shape and the angle at which it is
used.

4. Screw: A screw is a spiral inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder. It is used to convert
rotary motion into linear motion. The mechanical advantage of a screw depends on the
pitch of the threads.

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5. Pulley: A pulley is a grooved wheel with a rope or cable wrapped around it. It is used to
change the direction of a force or to increase the mechanical advantage. The mechanical
advantage of a pulley system depends on the number of pulleys involved

Advantages of Fluid Power Transmission

1. Strong power in small size
2. Easy and accuracy to control
3. Easy to change for different uses
4. Can be controlled from far away
5. Multiplications of force
Disadvantages of Fluid Power Transmission
1. leakage oil or compressed air
2. Needs regular care
3. Makes noise during operations
4. Can hurt the environment
5. Bursting of oil lines or air tanks

Basic Components of a Hydraulic System

Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid
for transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to
accomplish useful work. Figure 1.1 shows a simple circuit of a hydraulic system with basic
components.

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Functions of the components shown in Fig. 1.1 are as follows:

1. The hydraulic actuator: is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical
power to do useful work. The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder)
or rotary type (e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary motion, respectively.
2. The hydraulic pump: is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the hydraulic
circuit by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
3. Valves: are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing
through the circuit. Motor 1 – Off 2 – Forward 3– Return 3 2 1 Load Direction control
valve Pump Oil tank Filter Actuator Pressure regulator
4. External power supply (motor) also known as prime mover: is required to drive the
pump.
5. Reservoir: is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.

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6. Piping system: carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
7. Filters: are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and
efficient, as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
8. Pressure regulator: regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the
hydraulic fluid.

Fig: Components of a hydraulic system (shown using symbols).

How does a hydraulic system work?
The hydraulic system consists of five elements: the driver, the pump, the control valves, the
motor, and the load. The engine which drives the pump may be an electric motor or an engine
of any type. The pump acts mainly to increase pressure by continuous supplying the oil in the
system.
Hydraulic systems operate by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy using a
pump, which forces pressurized fluid through valves to actuators. A pump forces fluid into
the system, which is then directed by valves to actuators. The actuators convert this hydraulic
energy into mechanical work, such as linear or rotary motion. A reservoir stores excess fluid,
filters remove contaminants, and a pressure relief valve prevents excessive pressure to be
build up in the system.

TYPES OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

Fluid transport systems: Their sole objective is the delivery of a fluid from one location to
another to accomplish some useful purpose. Examples include pumping stations for pumping
water to homes, cross-country gas lines, etc.
Fluid power systems: These are designed to perform work. In fluid power systems, work is
obtained by pressurized fluid acting directly on a fluid cylinder or a fluid motor. A cylinder

22
produces a force resulting in linear motion, whereas a fluid motor produces a torque resulting
in rotary motion.
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID POWER SYSTEMS
The fluid power system can be categorized as follows:
1. BASED ON THE CONTROL SYSTEM

Open-loop hydraulic systems : are the most common type of hydraulic system.
They use a pump to generate fluid flow and pressure directed to an actuator or motor.
Once the fluid has performed its function, it is released from the system without being
redirected back to the pump. This system lacks feedback control and typically operates at
a constant flow rate.

Advantages
1. Open-loop systems are generally simpler in design and construction.
2. Due to their simpler design, open-loop systems can have lower initial costs.
3. Maintenance is often easier for open-loop systems.
4. They are suitable for applications that do not require high pressures.
5. The open reservoir can help with natural cooling of the hydraulic fluid.

Disadvantages
1. Open-loop systems can be less efficient due to constant fluid flow.
2. The system may have slower response times due to the need to draw fluid from the
reservoir.
3. More fluid is consumed due to the constant flow.
4. Precise control can be more difficult to achieve.
5. Open-loop systems can be noisier due to the constant flow of fluid

Closed-loop hydraulic systems: are designed for applications requiring precise

force or velocity control. These systems incorporate a feedback mechanism using sensors
and control valves to monitor and adjust fluid flow based on real-time conditions. Unlike
open-loop systems, closed-loop systems recycle fluid by redirecting it back to the pump
after use. This enables more efficient usage and greater control over motion and speed.

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Advantages
1. Closed-loop systems are more efficient due to the controlled flow of fluid.
2. The system can respond more quickly due to the constant flow.
3. Precise control is easier to achieve with closed-loop systems.
4. Less fluid is consumed due to the controlled flow.
5. Closed-loop systems can be quieter due to the reduced fluid flow.

Disadvantages
1. Closed-loop systems are generally more complex in design and construction.
2. Due to their complexity, closed-loop systems can have higher initial costs.
3. Maintenance can be more complex for closed-loop systems
4. The controlled flow can lead to higher temperatures, requiring better cooling systems.
5. Closed-loop systems can be more sensitive to contamination, requiring more stringent
filtration.
2. BASED ON THE TYPE OF CONTROL
Fluid logic control: This type of system is controlled by hydraulic oil or air. The system
employs fluid logic devices such as AND, NAND, OR, NOR, etc. Two types of fluid logic
systems are available: .
Electrical control: electrical devices control this type of system. Four basic electrical
devices are used for controlling the fluid power systems: switches, relays, timers and
solenoids. These devices help to control the starting, stopping, sequencing, speed,
positioning, timing and reversing of actuating cylinders and fluid motors. Electrical
control and fluid power work well together where remote control is essential.
Electronic control: microelectronic devices control this type of system. The electronic brain
is used to control the fluid power muscles for doing work. This system uses the most
advanced type of electronic hardware including programmable logic control (PLC) or
microprocessor ( P). In the electrical control, a change in system operation results in a
cumbersome process of redoing hardware connections.

Advantages and disadvantages of using fluid power via a hydraulic system

Advantages:

1. Higher pressure and power density

2. Smoother operation

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 3. Better control and accuracy
4. Lower leakage rates
5. Wider operating temperature range
6. Force multiplications
Disadvantages:

1. Higher initial cost

2. Requires more maintenance
3. Less efficient energy transfer
4. Potential for fire hazards
5. Environmental concerns due to hydraulic fluid
1.2 DESCRIPTION OF HYDRAULIC FLUID TYPES
Every power transmission system has some means or medium to convey power from its
source to the application area. Hydraulic fluid is used to convey power from a power source
such as a motor or engine to the actuator
Types of Hydraulic Fluids
Depending upon the base used for making the hydraulic fluid, they are broadly classified into
three types:
1. Petroleum-based hydraulic fluids
2. Water-based hydraulic fluids
3. Synthetic hydraulic fluids
Petroleum-based hydraulic fluid
The most common hydraulic fluid is petroleum-based oil with additives to improve
lubrication, reduce foaming and inhibit rust. The characteristics or properties of petroleum-
based hydraulic fluids mainly depend on crude oil used, the degree of refining and additives
used. With a proper degree of refining and correct additives, it exhibits the following
advantages.
Advantages of petroleum-based hydraulic fluid
1. It has excellent lubricity.
2. It has a higher demuslibility.
3. Good oxidation resistance.
4. Compatible with most sealing materials.
Disadvantages of petroleum-based hydraulic fluid
The main disadvantage of these oils is that they are combustible. Hence, they cannot be used
in an environment where there is a risk of fire.
Applications of petroleum-based hydraulic fluid
Due to fire hazards, the use of these oils is limited to applications where leakage, etc. could
not raise a fire hazard. For example, petroleum-based oils are not used in coal mines, die
casting machines, etc. where the fire could be a serious hazard.
Commonly used petroleum-based hydraulic oils are Pennsylvania or Paraffin base
oil, Naphthenic or Gulf coast base oils and mixed base ( containing both paraffin and
naphthenic) oils.

25
Water-based hydraulic fluids
Water has ideal fire resistance when water is combined with certain oils, the combination is
fire resistance.
There are two water-based hydraulic fluids
1. Water oil emulsion
2. Water glycols
Water oil emulsion
Emulsion type fluids are the least expensive fire resistance fluids. They contain about 35.40%
water and remaining oil.
Hence, all the water droplets are covered with oil; hence oil is the continuous phase. In
addition to oil, it contains emulsifiers, stabilizers, and other additives to hold the two liquids
together.
Water Glycols
Another water-based hydraulic fluid is a water-glycol mix. This consists of about 40% water,
glycol plus additives to improve viscosity, inhibit foaming and prevent rust to which water-
based fluids are vulnerable.
Advantages of water-based fluids
1. Due to the presence of water, they are fire-resistant.
2. They are compatible with seals hoses and packing materials used for petroleum-based
oils.
3. They exhibit better cooling ability.
Disadvantages of water-based fluids
1. The low operating temperature of not more than 50-degree Celcius to avoid
evaporation and oxidation.
2. A regular check is required to compensate for the loss of water due to evaporation, to
maintain the correct oil-water ratio.
3. Leather, asbestos, and cork impregnated materials should be avoided since they
absorb water.
4. In the case of water-oil emulsion, phase separation can occur.
5. Viscosity decreases as the water content are reduced and hence changes in oil
performance.
6. Evaporation causes the loss of certain additives which in turn reduces the life of the
fluid.
Synthetic fluids
Synthetic fluids are laboratory synthesized chemicals, which are flammable than petroleum
oils. Typical synthetics are,
1. Phosphate esters
2. Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Since the synthetics do not contain any water or volatile material, they operate well at high
temperatures without the loss of any essential elements. They are also suitable at high
pressure.
Synthetic type fluids do not operate best in low-temperature systems, the auxiliary heater may
be required in a cold environment.

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Advantages of Synthetic Fluid
1. Synthetic fluids are non-flammable and can be used at high temperatures also.
2. Synthetic fluids are also suitable for high-pressure applications.
3. Synthetic fluids are available in lower ranges of viscosity. This feature makes it
suitable for precision motion applications.
4. Replenishing fluids can be added directly without regard for changing the viscosity or
other properties, as in case of water-based fluids.
Disadvantages of Synthetic Fluid
1. Synthetic fluids do not operate at low temperatures, to make these fluids work at low-
temperature additional oil heaters are to be added in the tank.
2. Synthetic fluids are the most expensive forms of hydraulic oil.
3. Synthetic fluids have high densities, which limit the height allowed between the tank
and the pump inlet without cavitation to occur.
Desirable properties of Hydraulic fluids
1. Viscosity 7. Compatibility
2. Viscosity index 8. Pour point
3. Demulsibility 9. Flashpoint
4. Lubricity 10. Hygroscopic
5. Resistance to oxidation 11. Oxidation Stability
6. Resistance to foaming 12. Biodegradability

Hydraulic Fluid: A liquid used to transmit power in hydraulic systems

Viscosity: A measure of a fluid's resistance to flow and is measured by using instrument

called viscometer. A higher viscosity means the fluid flows more slowly. In hydraulic
systems, viscosity affects the power transmission, efficiency, and heat dissipation. Gases do
have viscosity and even semi-solids also have viscosity. When the temperature increases, the
viscosity of the liquid decreases. But for gas, it will increase with the increase in the
temperature.

Hygroscopic: The ability of a substance to absorb moisture from the air. Hygroscopic
hydraulic fluids can absorb water, which can lead to problems such as corrosion,
contamination, and reduced performance.

Oxidation Stability: The ability of a hydraulic fluid to resist breakdown due to oxidation, a
chemical reaction that can occur when the fluid is exposed to air.

Anti-Wear Additive: A chemical added to hydraulic fluids to reduce wear on moving parts.

Foaming: the formation of bubbles in a hydraulic fluid.

Corrosion Inhibitor: A chemical added to hydraulic fluids to prevent or slow down the
corrosion of metal components.

Biodegradability: the ability of a substance to be broken down by microorganisms.

Biodegradable hydraulic fluids are less harmful to the environment in the event of a leak, as
they can decompose naturally.

Demulsibility: Emulsification is the process of oil getting mixed with water and forming a
milky and foaming mixture.
27
Viscosity Index: Ideally, the viscosity of hydraulic oil should remain the same at all
operating temperatures, but this is not true in practical cases, the viscosity of oil decreases
with an increase in temperature. This rate of change of viscosity with temperature is defined
as Viscosity Index.
Fire point is the lowest temperature at which a lubricant's vapors will continue to burn after
being ignited.

Lubricity is the ability of a lubricant to reduce friction and wear between two contacting
surfaces.

Resistance to oxidation is the ability of a lubricant to resist chemical degradation caused by

exposure to oxygen.

Resistance to foaming is the ability of a lubricant to minimize the formation of foam.

Compatibility refers to the ability of a lubricant to be mixed with other fluids or materials
without causing adverse reactions or degradation.

Pour point is the lowest temperature at which a lubricant will flow under specified
conditions.

Flashpoint is the lowest temperature at which a lubricant's vapors will ignite when exposed
to a flame or spark.

ADDITIVES: Various additives are added to the fluid to improve their properties.. Few such
additives are:
 Anti foaming: They are added to reduce foaming of fluid.
 Anti-wear: Wear resistant chemicals are added to the fluid to protect critical hydraulic
components from wear.
 Corrosion inhibitor: Chemicals are added to protect surfaces from chemical attack by
water.
 Biocide: Emulsifying chemicals are added to the fluid to inhibit growth of water-borne
bacteria
 Emulsifier: These are added to facilitate formation and stabilisation of an emulsion.
 Lubrication Oiliness agents: Extreme Pressure (EP) agents are added to the fluid to
enhance lubrication characteristics for effective full film boundary lubrication between
the mating parts.
 Flocculants: Chemicals added to dispersion of solids in a liquid to combine fine particles
to form floe or small solid masses in the fluid.
 Deionisation: Elements which provide hardness like calcium, manganese, iron, and
aluminium salts are removed through deionisation of the water.
 Oxidation inhibitor: Anti-oxidation additives are added to provide anti-oxidation
characteristics. Oxidation changes the chemical characteristics of the fluid.
 Vapour phase inhibitor: Prevention of oxidation or corrosion of metals in contact with
the vapour phase of the fluid is ensured by addition of appropriate chemicals.

A hydraulic fluid (oil) has the following five primary functions in any fluid
power system
28
 1. Transmit Power
2. Lubricate moving parts
3. Seal clearances between mating parts
4. Dissipate heat generated within the system
5. To prevent rust and corrosion of internal parts.

A good hydraulic oil require the following qualities

FLUID FLOW
LAMINAR FLOW: It is one in which paths taken by the individuals partials do not cross
one another and move along well defined paths. This type of flow is also called streamline or
viscous flow.

TRUBULENT FLOW: It is the flow in which fluid particles move in zigzag way. This
cause more resistance to flow, greater energy loss and increase fluid temperature.

1.3 DESCRIPTION OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND THEIR

SYMBOLS.

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1.3.1 Hydraulic power pack
The hydraulic power pack combines the pump, the motor, and the tank. The hydraulic power
pack unit provides the energy required for the hydraulic system. The parts of the hydraulic
power pack unit are shown in Fig bellow

Hydraulic power units supply the hydraulic fluid flow, up to the specified pressure, into a
system. They should also maintain the fluid at a suitable temperature, cleanliness, and
quality level. Power units generally warn their operator of any problems in the main
circuit e.g. loss of fluid, high or low temperatures, filter condition.
The simplified and detailed symbols of the hydraulic power pack are shown bellow:

1. Hydraulic reservoir
The hydraulic reservoir is a container designed to the following function in hydraulic
system
1. To hold the fluid required to supply the system
2. Dissipating heat from the fluid
3. Separating the air from the oil
4. Setting out contaminations in the oil
The parts of hydraulic reservoir

Fig : typical hydraulic reservoir

30
 It is represented by a rectangle in which horizontal side is kept longer than the other side.
A reservoir if vented to the atmosphere, the top of the symbol is open and a reservoir if
pressurized, the top is closed. Lines which connect to a reservoir usually drawn from the
top. But the line terminates below the fluid level, it is drawn to the bottom of the symbol.

Fig: reservoir symbols

2. Hydraulic pump
The function of the pump is to supply the hydraulic system with a sufficient flow of oil to
enable the circuits to operate at the correct speed by converts the mechanical energy of
the drive (i.e. torque, speed) into Hydrostatic energy (i.e. flow, pressure). It is the heart of
any hydraulic system because it generates the force necessary to move the load.
Graphic symbols for the pumps

Classification of hydraulic pump

Pumps are classified into three different ways
1. Classification based on displacement
 Non-positive displacement pumps (hydrodynamic pumps).
 Positive displacement pumps (hydrostatic pumps).
2. Classification based on delivery
 Constant delivery pumps.
 Variable delivery pumps.
3. Classification based on motion
 Rotary pump.
 Reciprocating pump
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON DISPLACEMENT
Positive displacement pumps: In Positive Displacement Pump, the same amount of fluid is
displaced regardless of the system pressure for every revolution of the pump shaft.
Types of Positive Displacement Pumps
1. A fixed displacement pump as the name suggests is a type of pump in which the
flow of fluid can not be changed. These types of the pump do not have any
mechanism to change its displacement.
Remember!: Rate of flow is a measurement of volume over time, such as liters per minute,
(LPM), or gallons per minute, (GPM).

31
These types of pumps have the drawback that they will always displace the same amount of
fluid per revolution.
If we want to change the displacement of such type of pumps there is only one way i.e. by
changing the pump’s RPM by changing the speed of the prime mover.
Examples of fixed pumps
 Gear Pump
 Balanced Vane Pump

2. A variable Displacement Pump can change flow while continuing to turn the rotor
shaft at the same RPM. Many variable displacement pumps are “reversible”, which
means they can act as a hydraulic motor and convert fluid energy into mechanical
energy.
Examples of variable pumps:
 Unbalanced Vane Pump
 Axial Piston Pump

In Non- Positive Displacement Pump the rate of flow from the pump, (GPM or LPM),
changes as the restriction on the pump outlet is changed. In other words, if the pressure at the
pump outlet is decreased, the flow rate will increase, and vice versa.
Examples of non-positive displacements pumps
1. Centrifugal Pump
2. Axial Flow Pump
3. Multistage Pump
4. Screw Pump
Advantages and disadvantages of non-positive displacement pumps

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CLASSIFICATION BASED ON DELIVERY

1. Constant Delivery Pumps

Constant volume pumps always deliver the same quantity of fluid in a given time at the
operating speed and temperature.
Examples:
 Piston pumps
 Plunger pumps
 Gear pumps
 Screw pumps
 Lobe pumps
 Peristaltic pumps
2. Variable Delivery Pumps
The output of variable volume pumps may be varied either manually or automatically
with no change in the input speed to the pump.
Examples:

1. Centrifugal Pumps:
 Single-stage centrifugal pump
 Multistage centrifugal pumps
 Axial flow pumps
2. Vortex Pumps
3. Jet Pumps:
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MOTION
1. Reciprocating pumps
Reciprocating pumps are a type of positive displacement pump that uses a reciprocating
(back-and-forth) motion to displace fluid. This motion is typically created by a piston or
plunger moving within a cylinder.
Examples:
1. Piston pumps
2. Plunger pumps
3. Diaphragm pumps
2. Rotary Pump
Rotary Pumps are a type of positive displacement pump that uses rotating components to
displace fluid. They are known for their continuous flow and ability to handle a wide
range of fluids.
Examples:

33
 1. Gear pumps
2. Lobe pumps
3. Screw pumps
4. Peristaltic pumps
5. Centrifugal pumps
6. Axial flow pumps
7. Vortex pumps
8. Jet pumps

Pumping Theory
A positive displacement hydraulic pump is a device used for converting mechanical
energy into hydraulic energy. A prime mover such as an electric motor drives it. It
performs two functions. First, it creates a partial vacuum at the pump inlet port. This
vacuum enables atmospheric pressure to force the fluid from the reservoir into the pump.
Second, the mechanical action of the pump traps this fluid within the pumping cavities,
transports it through the pump and forces it into the hydraulic system. It is important to
note that pumps create flow not pressure. Pressure is created by the resistance to flow.

Fig: illustrating the pump theory

34
 1. As the piston moves to the left, a partial vacuum is created in the pump chamber that
holds the outlet valve in place against its seat and induces flow from the reservoir that
is at a higher (atmospheric) pressure. As this flow is produced, the inlet valve is
temporarily displaced by the force of fluid, permitting the flow into the pump
chamber (suction stroke).
2. When the piston moves to the right, the resistance at the valves causes an immediate
increase in the pressure that forces the inlet valve against its seat and opens the outlet
valve thereby permitting the fluid to flow into the system. If the outlet port opens
directly to the atmosphere, the only pressure developed is the one required to open the
outlet valve (delivery stroke).
THE MOST TYPES OF HYDRAULIC PUMP
1. Gear pumps
 External gear pumps
 Internal gear pumps
 Lobe pump
 Screw pumps
2. Vane pumps
 Unbalanced vane pumps
 Balanced vane pumps
3. Piston pumps
 Axial design piston pumps
 radial design piston pumps
1. GEAR PUMPS
Gear pumps are a type of rotary pump that uses intermeshing gears to displace fluid. The
gears rotate in opposite directions, creating a pumping action that forces fluid through the
pump.
1.1 External Gear Pumps
External gear pumps are used in industrial and mobile (e.g. log splitters, lifts) hydraulic
applications. Typical applications are lubrication pumps in machine tools, fluid power
transfer units and oil pumps in engines
These pumps have some unique features characteristics:
1. Low weight
2. Relatively high working pressures
3. Wide range of speeds
4. Wide temperature and viscosity range
5. Low cost

In an external gear pump, only one of the gear wheels is connected to the drive. The other
gear wheel rotates in the opposite direction so that the teeth of the rotating gear wheels
interlock. With use of a bearing block, the gear wheels are positioned in such a way that

35
 they interlock with the minimum clearance. Volume is created between the gear tooth
profiles, housing walls and surfaces of the bearing blocks.
As the pump rotates, the gear teeth carrythe oil from the inlet to the outlet side of the
pump. The direction of rotation of the drive gear shaft is determined by the location of the
inlet and outlet ports and drive gear will always move the oil around the outside of the
gears from inlet to outlet port. This is true on both gear pumps and gear motors. On most
gear pumps the inlet port is larger in diameter than the outlet port to ensure that there is
always an example supply of oil for the demand of the system and to ensure pump
starvation does not occur. On bi-directional pumps and motors, the inlet port and outlet
port will be the same size.
1.2 INTERNAL GEAR PUMP

Internal gear pumps are primarily used in non-mobile hydraulics (e.g. machines for
plastics and machine tools, presses, etc.) and in vehicles that operate in an enclosed space
(electric fork-lifts, etc.). The internal gear pump is exceptionally versatile and also
capable of handling thick fluids.
Key features are:
 Low flow pulsation
 Low operating noise
 High efficiency

Advantages and disadvantages of gear pumps

The advantages are as follows:
 They are self-priming.
 They give constant delivery for a given speed.
 They are compact and light in weight.
 Volumetric efficiency is high.

The disadvantages are as follows:

 The liquid to be pumped must be clean, otherwise it will damage pump.

 Variable speed drives are required to change the delivery.
 If they run dry, parts can be damaged because the fluid to be pumped is used
as lubricant.
LOBE PUMPS

Lobe pumps are similar to external gear pumps in operation in that fluid flows around the
interior of the casing. Unlike external gear pumps, however, the lobes do not make
contact. Lobe contact is prevented by external timing gears located in the gearbox. Pump

36
 shaft support bearings are located in the gearbox, and since the bearings are out of the
pumped liquid, pressure is limited by bearing location and shaft deflection.

STAGES OF OPERATION OF LOBE PUMP

1. As the lobes come out of mesh, they create expanding volume on the inlet side of the
pump. Liquid flows into the cavity and is trapped by the lobes as they rotate.
2. Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in pockets between the lobes and the
casing (it does not pass between the lobes).
3. Finally, the meshing of the lobes forces the liquid through the outlet port under
pressure.

The advantages of lobe pumps are as follows:

 Lobe pumps can handle solids, slurries, pastes and many liquid.
 No metal-to-metal contact.
 Superior CIP (Cleaning in Place) /SIP (Sterilization in Place) capabilities.
 Long-term dry run (with lubrication to seals).
 Non-pulsating discharge.
The disadvantages of lobe pumps are as follows:

 Require timing gears.

 Require two seals.
 Reduced lift with thin liquids.
Applications

 Polymers.
 Paper coatings.
 Soaps and surfactants.
 Paints and dyes.
 Rubber and adhesives.
 Pharmaceuticals.
 Food applications.
SCREW PUMP

37
A screw pump is a rotary displacement pump comprising one or several screws that
intermesh inside a casing to move water from one location to another. It works on the
principle of positive displacement (PD) whereby it repeatedly encloses a fixed of water
between sealed cavities and transfers it mechanically through the pump system. Screw water
pump manufacturers design the pump in different types, including single-screw, twin-screw,
triple- screw and four-screw water pumps.

VANE PUMPS
Vane pumps are a type of rotary pump that uses rotating vanes to displace fluid. The vanes
are inserted into slots in a rotor and expand outward as the rotor rotates, creating a pumping
action that forces fluid through the pump.
1. Balanced Vane Pumps
Balanced vane pumps have multiple vanes evenly spaced around the rotor. The forces
exerted by the vanes on the rotor tend to balance each other, reducing vibration and noise.
Balanced vane pumps generally provide smoother and quieter operation compared to
unbalanced vane pumps.

38
 2. Unbalanced Vane Pumps
Unbalanced vane pumps typically have fewer vanes than balanced vane pumps. The
forces exerted by the vanes on the rotor are not balanced, leading to increased vibration
and noise. Unbalanced vane pumps may be less efficient and have a shorter lifespan
compared to balanced vane pumps.

Advantages of Vane Pumps

1. Variable Displacement
2. Self-Priming
3. Dry Run Capability
4. Low NPSH RequirementsWide Range of Applications
Disadvantages of Vane Pumps
1. Higher Maintenance
2. Noise
3. Vibration
4. Limited Pressure Range
5. Sensitivity to Fluid Viscosity
Piston Pump
The piston pump can be defined as it is a positive displacement pump. These pumps use a
piston, diaphragm, otherwise plunger for moving liquids. These pumps use check valves as
the input and output valves. The general piston-pump is a rotary pump which uses a wheel or
revolving shaft for operating the piston.

39
Types of Piston Pumps

These pumps are classified into different types namely lift pump, a force pump, axial pump,
and radial piston-pump. From these pumps, lift and force pumps can operate manually
otherwise with the help of an engine.

1. Radial piston pumps

Radial hydraulic pumps are used when pressure requirements exceed those of axial piston
pumps. Radial pumps are capable of achieving pressures over 400 and up to 1000 bar. This
makes them ideal for applications such as machine tools, test rigs, presses or clamping
applications that require higher loads.

Radial piston pumps generally have fairly low flows but also low noise. They have good low-
speed operation and reliability along with high efficiency.

Radial piston pumps work by having an eccentric shaft that pushes radially positioned pistons
outward to provide flow, then when they are drawn backward, a valve inside the piston opens
to allow new fluid into the piston and stop the pressurised fluid from returning into the piston
cavitypu

2. Axial piston pump

The cylinder block is fixed to the pump shaft. Pistons are supported on a swashplate. When
the shaft rotates with the block, the pistons due to the inclination of the disc will move in the
cylinder block.

40
Advantages and disadvantages of piston pumps

PUMP PERFORMANCE

41
42
43
44
Hydraulic pump problems, causes and their corrections
Common problems includes:
1. Low Fluid Pressure
2. High Fluid Pressure
3. Noise or Vibration
4. Overheating
5. Fluid Leakage
6. Seizure
7. Cavitation
8. Slip
9. Pump ripple

▪ Low Fluid Pressure: When the pressure of the hydraulic fluid is below the desired or
required level.
▪ High Fluid Pressure: When the pressure of the hydraulic fluid is excessively high.
▪ Noise or Vibration: Unusual sounds or vibrations coming from the hydraulic system.
▪ Overheating: When the hydraulic fluid or system components are operating at
excessively high temperatures.

45
▪ Fluid Leakage: When hydraulic fluid is escaping from the system, such as through leaks
in seals, hoses, or fittings.
▪ Seizure: When a component of the hydraulic system becomes locked or unable to move
due to excessive friction or damage.
▪ Cavitation: the formation, growth, and collapse of vapour filled cavities or bubbles in a
flowing liquid due to local fall in fluid pressure.
▪ Pump slip: This is the difference between the theoretical and actual flow rate of a pump
(discharge side and suction side)
▪ Pump ripple: is a small variations of fluid flow that takes place during pumping due to
some design problems.
Problem Possible Causes Corrections
Air in the system, clogged filters, Bleed the system, clean/replace filters,
Low Fluid
worn pump components, leaky replace worn components, repair leaks,
Pressure
seals, cavitation address cavitation.
Excessive load, restricted flow, Reduce load, remove restrictions, verify
High Fluid
incorrect pump selection, high fluid pump selection, adjust fluid viscosity,
Pressure
viscosity, pump malfunction inspect/repair pump.
Address cavitation, reduce slip, ensure
Cavitation, slip, misalignment,
Noise or proper alignment, replace bearings,
worn bearings, foreign objects,
Vibration remove foreign objects, address pump
pump ripple
ripple.
Excessive load, insufficient Reduce load, ensure proper lubrication,
Overheating lubrication, clogged filters, clean/replace filters, improve cooling,
overheating of fluid, cavitation address cavitation.
Worn seals, damaged Replace seals, repair/replace
Fluid Leakage hoses/fittings, loose connections, hoses/fittings, tighten connections,
cavitation address cavitation.
Ensure proper lubrication, address
Lack of lubrication, overheating,
Seizure overheating, flush system, address
contamination, cavitation
cavitation.
Low inlet pressure, high flow rates, Increase inlet pressure, reduce flow rate,
Cavitation incorrect suction line design, improve suction line design, use lower
excessive fluid viscosity viscosity fluid.
Worn pump components, excessive Replace worn components, reduce
Slip
clearances, high temperatures clearances, cool the fluid.
Improve flow conditions, consider
Non-uniform flow, pump design,
Pump Ripple different pump design, address external
external factors
factors.

Common checks and tests performed on hydraulic pumps

1. Visual Inspection

46
  External condition: Check for leaks, cracks, or damage to the pump housing, seals,
and fittings.
 Shaft alignment: Ensure the pump shaft is properly aligned with the driving shaft.
 Coupling condition: Inspect the coupling for wear, damage, or misalignment.
2. Performance Tests
 Pressure test: Measure the pump's output pressure at various flow rates.
 Flow rate test: Measure the pump's flow rate at different pressures.
 Efficiency test: Calculate the pump's efficiency by comparing the output power to the
input power.
 Noise and vibration analysis: Measure the pump's noise and vibration levels to
identify any abnormalities.
 Temperature monitoring: Monitor the pump's temperature to ensure it is operating
within the recommended range.
3. Fluid Analysis
 Fluid level: Check the fluid level in the reservoir and ensure it is within the specified
range.
 Fluid quality: Test the fluid for contamination, oxidation, or degradation.
 Viscosity: Measure the fluid's viscosity to ensure it meets the manufacturer's
specifications.
4. Internal Inspection
 Disassembly: If necessary, disassemble the pump to inspect internal components for
wear, damage, or contamination.
 Component replacement: Replace any worn or damaged components.
 Reassembly and testing: Reassemble the pump and perform functional tests to
ensure proper operation.
SPECIFIC TESTS FOR DIFFERENT PUMP TYPES
 Gear pumps: Check gear meshing, clearances, and bearing condition.
 Piston pumps: Inspect piston seals, swashplate alignment, and valve operation.
 Centrifugal pumps: Check impeller condition, shaft seal, and bearing alignment.
Regular maintenance and testing are essential for ensuring the long-term performance and
reliability of hydraulic pumps. By following these checks and tests, you can identify potential
problems early and take corrective action to prevent downtime and costly repairs.
COMMON CAUSES OF PUMP FAILURE

 Cavitation: This occurs when the liquid being pumped vaporizes due to low pressure,
causing damage to the impeller and other components.

 Abrasion: Solid particles in the liquid can wear down the pump's internal components,
leading to reduced efficiency and eventual failure.

 Corrosion: Corrosive liquids can damage the pump's metal parts, leading to leaks and
reduced performance.

 Overloading: Operating the pump beyond its capacity can cause excessive wear and
tear, leading to premature failure.

 Misalignment: Improper alignment of the pump and motor can cause vibrations and
increased stress on components.

47
  Seal Failure: Seals prevent leaks but can fail due to wear, damage, or improper
installation.

 Bearing Failure: Overheating, contamination, or improper lubrication can lead to

bearing failure.

 Impeller Wear: The impeller can wear down over time, reducing the pump's efficiency.

 Shaft Failure: Excessive vibration, overloading, or misalignment can cause shaft

failure.

 Electrical Issues: Motor burnout, wiring problems, or power surges can cause pump
failure.

Prevention Tips

1. Regular inspections and maintenance

2. Proper pump selection for the application

3. Filtration of the pumped liquid

4. Avoiding dry running

5. Monitoring vibration and temperature

Proper installation and alignment By understanding these common causes and implementing
preventive measures, you can significantly improve the reliability and lifespan of your pump.
THE IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN THE SELECTION OF A PUMP FOR
ANY GIVEN APPLICATION ARE:
 Flow rate requirement  Cost
 Operating speed of pump  Noise level of the pump
 Pressure rating  Oil compatibility
 Performance/application  Type of pump control
 Reliability  Pump contamination tolerance
 Maintenance  Availability of pump and spars

3. HYDRAULIC VALVES
These are hydraulic devices provided to control pressure, direction and flow rate of the fluid
in the hydraulic system.
TYPES OF HYDRAULIC CONTROL VALVES
1. Directional control valves (DCV)
2. Pressure control valves
3. Flow (volume) control valves
VALVE CONFIGURATIONS
They are three essential types of control valves based on the their configurations or modes of
operations:
1. Poppet (or seat) valves
2. Sliding spool valves
3. Rotary spool valves

48
Poppet valves, also known as seat valves, are a type of valve that uses a conical plug, ball or
disc, called a poppet, to control the flow of fluid. The poppet fits snugly into a valve seat, and
when lifted or lowered, it opens or closes the flow path.

The normal position of this valve is closed conditions. There is no connection between port 1
and port 2. When the push button is depressed, the ball is pushed out of its seat, and the flow
is permitted from port 1 to port 2. When the push button is released spring and fluid pressure
force the ball up against its and so closes off the flow. These valves are called two way valves
and are used where flow reversal is not required, lower pressure applicable. Example of
poppets valves are check valves and relief valves.
The advantages of these valves
1. Simple design
2. Less expansive
3. Very robust
4. Less sensitive too fluid contaminations
The disadvantages of these valves, they require more force to operate, that why they are
used where low pressure used in system.

Sliding spool valves are a type of directional control valve that uses a cylindrical spool to
control the flow of fluid. The spool slides within a valve body, and its position determines
which ports are connected, thereby controlling the direction and flow rate of the fluid.

Rotary spool valves are a type of directional control valve that uses a rotating spool to
control the flow of fluid. Unlike sliding spool valves, which move linearly, the spool in a
rotary valve rotates within the valve body. This rotation changes the alignment of ports,
directing the fluid flow in different ways

49
DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES (DCVs)
Directional control valves are like traffic lights for hydraulic fluid. They control where the
fluid goes, just like traffic lights control where cars go. They can start, stop, or change the
direction of the fluid's flow, making hydraulic machines move in different ways.
Simply the DCV is device used to control the directions of fluid flow in hydraulic circuit.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
There are different ways to classify these valves:
1. According to the construction:
 Poppet Valves
 Sliding Spool Valves
 Rotary Spool Valves
2. Based on the number of Ports
 Two-Way Valves
 Three-Way Valves
 Four-Way Valves
3. Based on the mode of Actuation
 Manually operated valves
 Mechanically operated valves
 Solenoid operated valves
 Pilot-Operated valves
For Our Study: We can also classify them into three main types for our study:
 Check Valves: Allow fluid to flow in only one direction.
 Position Valves: Control the position of hydraulic cylinders.
 Shuttle Valves: Switch the flow of fluid between two sources or destinations.
CHECK VALVES
A check valve, also known as a non-return valve or one-way valve, is a mechanical device
that allows fluid (liquid or gas) to flow through it in only one direction. It prevents backflow,
ensuring that the fluid moves in the intended direction. These valves are also known as two-
way valves as its contain tow ports 9inlet and outlet)

50
Check valves typically have a simple design. They contain a movable element, often a disc or
ball, that is held open by the forward flow of fluid. When the flow reverses, the element is
forced closed, blocking the backflow. When fluid pressure pushes against the disc, it lifts off
the seat, allowing flow. As the pressure decreases or reverses, the disc falls back onto the
seat, preventing backflow.
Its symbol

TYPES OF CHECK VALVE

1. Direct (Poppet type or ball) operated check valves
2. Pilot operated check valves

DIRECT OPERATED CHECK VALVES

When flow is in normal direction, the liquid pressure acts against the spring tension to hold
the poppet or ball offset the seat. When the liquid pressure overcomes the spring force, as
shown, the valve allows the free flow. When the flow stops, the spring seats the poppet and
liquid can not pass in the reverse directions.
PILOT OPERATED CHECK VALVES

51
Pilot-operated check valves are specialized valves that allow for both normal one-way flow
and controlled reverse flow. They consist of a main valve body, a poppet or ball, and a pilot
port. Under normal operation, the valve functions like a standard check valve, allowing fluid
to flow in one direction only. However, when a pilot pressure is applied to the pilot port, it
overcomes the spring force holding the poppet or ball in place, allowing reverse flow. This
pilot pressure can be controlled, enabling precise regulation of the reverse flow. This feature
makes pilot-operated check valves valuable in various applications, such as hydraulic
systems, pneumatic systems, and industrial machinery, where controlled reverse flow is
required for specific operations.
POSITION VALVES

BASIC VALVE SYMBOLS AND DESCRIPTIONS

52
APPLICATIONS OF COMMON HYDRAULIC VALVE CONFIGURATIONS

53
2/2-Way Valve: Simple On/Off Control used to completely open or close a hydraulic circuit.
Common applications
1. Emergency stop valves
2. Manual override valves
3. Pressure relief valves
3/2-Way Valve: Single-Acting Cylinder Control, Controls the extension and retraction of a
single-acting cylinder.
Common applications
1. Clamping mechanisms
2. Lifting and lowering operations
3. Simple automation sequences
4/2, 4/3, 5/2, and 5/3Way Valve: Double-Acting Cylinder Control. Controls both the
extension and retraction of a double-acting cylinder.
VALVE ACTUATIONS SYMBOLS

54
55
SHUTTLE VALVE
A shuttle valve is a type of valve that allows fluid to flow through it from one of two sources.
It typically has two inlet ports and one outlet port. The valve's internal mechanism, often a
ball or spool, moves to select the higher pressure inlet port, allowing fluid to flow through the
outlet port while blocking the lower pressure inlet port.

Shuttle valve is generally used to shift the fluid flow from the secondary backup pump
(source) when the main pump becomes inoperative.
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Pressure control valves are essential components in hydraulic and pneumatic systems,
designed to regulate and limit system pressure. They ensure safe and efficient operation by
preventing excessive pressure buildup, which can lead to system damage or failure.
Function of pressure control valves
1. prevents excessive pressure buildup in a hydraulic system
2. reduces the incoming pressure to a lower, predetermined level.
3. controls the sequence of operation in a hydraulic system
4. maintains a constant load on a hydraulic actuator, preventing uncontrolled movement or
free fall.
5. reduces system pressure by bypassing excess flow to the tank

56
TYPES OF PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Pressure Relief Valves: These valves are designed to automatically open when the system
pressure exceeds a pre-set limit, diverting excess fluid to a reservoir or tank. They protect
components from damage caused by overpressure. These valves came in two types: direct
operated and pilot operated relief valves

Pilot operated relief valves

Pressure Reducing Valves: These valves reduce the incoming pressure to a lower,
predetermined level. They are commonly used to regulate downstream pressure in parts of a
system that require lower pressure.

Sequence Valves: These valves control the sequence of operation in a hydraulic system.
They ensure that certain components or functions are activated in a specific order.

57
Counterbalance Valves: These valves maintain a constant load on a hydraulic actuator,
preventing uncontrolled movement or free fall. They are commonly used in lifting and
positioning applications.

Unloading Valves: These valves reduce system pressure by bypassing excess flow to the
tank. They are used to reduce energy consumption and improve system efficiency.

Hydraulic Fuse: A safety device that protects hydraulic systems from excessive pressure. It
is designed to rupture at a predetermined pressure, diverting excess fluid to a reservoir.
Similar to a fuse in an electrical circuit, it sacrifices itself to protect the system.

58
Pressure Switch: An electromechanical device that senses pressure changes in a hydraulic
system. It can be used to trigger various actions, such as activating alarms, stopping pumps,
or switching valves.

FLOW (VOLUME) CONTROL VALVES

Flow control valves, also known as flow regulators, are devices used to regulate the flow rate
of a fluid within a hydraulic or pneumatic system. They control the amount of fluid passing
through a specific point in the system by restricting or allowing the flow.
PRIMARY FUNCTIONS OF FLOW CONTROL VALVES
1. Regulating Flow Rate: Controls the speed of fluid flow through a system. Used to
adjust the speed of hydraulic cylinders or pneumatic actuators.
2. Maintaining Constant Flow: Ensures a consistent flow rate, even under varying
pressure conditions.
3. Protecting System Components: Limits the flow of fluid to prevent damage to
components due to excessive pressure or flow rate

TYPES OF FLOW (VOLUME) CONTROL VALVES

1. Non-Compensated Flow Control Valves: The flow rate through a non-compensated

valve is dependent on the pressure drop across the valve. As the pressure drop increases
or decreases, the flow rate will fluctuate.
Examples: globe, needle, butterfly and gate and ball valves

59
2. Compensated Flow Control Valves: These valves maintain a constant flow rate,
regardless of variations in system pressure

FLOW CONTROL VALVE SYMBOLS

3. HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

Hydraulic actuators are devices that convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
Types of Hydraulic Actuators:
1. Linear Actuators:
o Convert hydraulic pressure into linear motion.
o Used in applications like lifting, pushing, pulling, and clamping.

60
 o Examples: hydraulic cylinders, telescopic cylinders.
2. Rotary Actuators:
o Convert hydraulic pressure into rotary motion.
o Used in applications like rotating valves, steering mechanisms, and robotic
arms.
o Examples: hydraulic motors, gear motors
LINEAR ACTUATORS (HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS)
Hydraulic cylinders convert hydraulic pressure into linear motion

SINGLE-ACTING CYLINDERS
A single-acting cylinder is a type of hydraulic or pneumatic actuator that can only perform
work in one direction. It uses pressurized fluid to extend the piston rod, and then relies on a
spring or gravity to return the piston rod to its original position.

61
Operation of a Single-Acting Cylinder
Extension Stroke:
When pressurized fluid is supplied to a single-acting cylinder, it flows into the cylinder
chamber. This pressurized fluid exerts force on the piston, causing it to move outward. As the
piston moves, it extends the piston rod, which can then perform work.
Retraction Stroke:
To retract the piston rod, the supply of pressurized fluid is either stopped or reduced. This
allows a spring or gravity to take over and pull the piston rod back to its original position.
The spring or gravity provides the necessary force to overcome any resistance and return the
cylinder to its initial state.
DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
A double-acting cylinder is a type of hydraulic or pneumatic actuator that can perform work
in both directions: extending and retracting. Unlike single-acting cylinders, which rely on
springs or gravity for the return stroke, double-acting cylinders use pressurized fluid to power
both strokes.

Operation of double acting cylinder

Extension Stroke: Pressurized hydraulic fluid is directed to one side of the piston within the
cylinder. This pressurized fluid exerts force on the piston, causing it to move outward. As the
piston moves, it extends the piston rod, which can then perform work such as lifting, pushing,
or pulling.
Retraction Stroke: To initiate the retraction stroke, the flow of pressurized fluid is redirected
to the opposite side of the piston. This shift in fluid pressure forces the piston to move in the
opposite direction, retracting the piston rod. This allows for precise control over the cylinder's
movement and enables it to perform work in both directions.

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CYLINDER CUSHIONING
Cylinder cushioning is a technique used to slow down the piston of a hydraulic or pneumatic
cylinder as it approaches the end of its stroke. This controlled deceleration prevents the piston
from abruptly hitting the end cap, reducing the impact force and minimizing wear and tear on
the cylinder components

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Double-acting cylinder with cushioning on one side symbol.

Double-acting cylinder with cushioning on both sides symbol.

7 COMMON CYLINDER MOUNTING STYLES:

1. Foot Mounting: The cylinder is mounted directly to a flat surface using its base. This is a
simple and common method for fixed installations.
2. Flange Mounting: The cylinder is attached to a flange, which can be bolted to a machine
or structure. This allows for more flexibility in orientation and alignment.
3. Trunnion Mounting: The cylinder is mounted on trunnion pins, allowing it to pivot and
rotate. This is useful for applications where the cylinder's orientation needs to change.
4. Clevis Mounting: The cylinder is attached to a clevis pin, which allows for angular
adjustment. This is often used for applications where the cylinder needs to be adjusted to
different angles.
5. Pivot Mounting: The cylinder is mounted on a pivot point, allowing it to rotate around
that point. This is useful for applications where the cylinder needs to swing in a specific
arc.
6. Side Mounting: The cylinder is mounted on its side, which can be useful for space-
saving applications or when the cylinder needs to be positioned horizontally.
7. Base Mounting: The cylinder is mounted on its base, but with additional features like
lugs or brackets for more secure attachment. This is often used for heavy-duty
applications or where additional support is needed.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A HYDRAULIC CYLINDER
Here are 10 key criteria to consider when selecting a hydraulic cylinder:
1. Bore Size: Determine the required force output based on the load to be moved. A
larger bore size will generate more force.
2. Stroke Length: Calculate the necessary distance the piston needs to travel to
complete the required task.
3. Operating Pressure: Consider the maximum pressure the cylinder will be subjected
to and ensure it aligns with the system's pressure rating.
4. Rod Diameter: Select a rod diameter that can withstand the side load and bending
moment, especially for long stroke lengths.
5. Mounting Style: Choose a mounting style (foot, flange, trunnion, clevis, etc.) that is
compatible with the application and provides adequate support.
6. Cushioning: Determine if cushioning is required to reduce impact forces at the end of
each stroke. Consider mechanical or hydraulic cushioning options.
7. Seal Type: Select appropriate seals to prevent fluid leakage and ensure long-term
performance.
8. Material Compatibility: Ensure that the cylinder materials are compatible with the
hydraulic fluid and operating environment.
9. Environmental Factors: Consider factors like temperature, humidity, and corrosive
agents that may affect the cylinder's performance and lifespan.

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 10. Safety Factor: Incorporate a safety factor to account for unexpected loads or
variations in operating conditions.
ROTARY ACTUATORS
Rotary actuators are devices that convert energy into rotational motion, producing torque to
turn a shaft or mechanism

TYPES OF ROTARY ACTUATORS

Semi-Rotary Actuators (limited rotation): Semi-rotary actuators are designed to rotate a
limited number of degrees, typically less than 360°. They are commonly used in applications
where a specific angular displacement is required, such as valve actuation, damper control,
and machine tool positioning.
Continuous Rotary Actuators: Continuous rotary actuators are designed to rotate
continuously through 360 degrees or multiple rotations. They are used in applications where
continuous rotation is required, such as conveyor systems, robotic arms, and machine tool
spindles.
Hydraulic motor is common types of rotary actuator that can be piston, vane, and gear
types similar construct like hydraulic pump

While hydraulic pumps and motors share similarities in their design, they operate in opposite
directions. Both can utilize gear, vane, or piston designs, but their internal components are
configured to either pump fluid or be driven by fluid.
A hydraulic pump uses mechanical energy to draw in fluid and increase its pressure. The
internal components, such as gears, vanes, or pistons, are designed to force fluid outward.
Conversely, a hydraulic motor uses pressurized fluid to drive its internal components. These
components, whether gears, vanes, or pistons, are designed to convert the fluid energy into
rotational mechanical energy.
In essence, a pump converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy, while a motor converts
hydraulic energy back into mechanical energy.
WHEN SELECTING A HYDRAULIC MOTOR FOR A SPECIFIC APPLICATION,
SEVERAL FACTORS MUST BE CONSIDERED:
1. Required Torque and Speed: Determine the necessary torque and speed to drive the
load.
2. Operating Pressure and Flow Rate: Ensure the motor can handle the available pressure
and flow rate from the hydraulic system.

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3. Motor Type: Choose the appropriate motor type (gear, vane, or piston) based on the
application's specific needs.
4. Displacement: Select a motor with the correct displacement to achieve the desired speed
and torque.
5. Efficiency: Consider the motor's efficiency to minimize energy consumption and
maximize performance.
6. Operating Environment: Account for factors like temperature, humidity, and
contamination levels that may affect the motor's performance and lifespan.
7. Noise Level: Assess the acceptable noise level for the application and select a motor that
meets the requirements.
8. Reliability and Durability: Choose a motor from a reputable manufacturer with a proven
track record of reliability.
9. Maintenance Requirements: Consider the ease of maintenance and the availability of
spare parts.
10. Cost: Balance the initial cost of the motor with its long-term operating costs, including
energy consumption and maintenance.

4. HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC ACCESSORIES

4.1 ACCUMULATORS
An accumulator is a pressure storage reservoir in which hydraulic fluid is stored under
pressure from an external source. These are used to supply additional fluid when main
line fluid pump is inadequate to perform the actuation.
USE OF ACCUMULATOR
 Peak Load Handling: Provide a surge of fluid to handle sudden demands, reducing the load
on the pump.
 Emergency Power Backup: Supply fluid in case of temporary pump failure.
 Shock Absorption: Cushion pressure surges and reduce system shock.
 Leakage Compensation: Compensate for minor leaks in the system.
 Energy Storage: Store hydraulic energy for later use, improving system efficiency.
 Pressure Maintenance: Maintain a constant pressure in the system, even during periods of
low demand.
 Thermal Expansion Compensation: Accommodate fluid expansion due to temperature
changes.
 System Stabilization: Reduce pressure fluctuations and improve system stability..

THE MAJOR TYPES OF ACCUMULATORS

1. pneumatic (gas-loaded)
2. weight-loaded
3. spring-loaded.

Figure: Various graphical symbol of accumulators

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In the pneumatic (gas-loaded) accumulators, gas and oil occupy the same container.
When the oil pressure rises, incoming oil compresses the gas. When oil pressure drops,
the gas expands, forcing oil out. In most cases, the gas is separated from the oil by a
piston (Figure a), a bladder (Figure b), or a diaphragm (Figure c). This prevents mixing of
gas and oil, keeping gas out of the hydraulic system.
The weight-loaded accumulator uses a piston and cylinder along with heavy weights on
the piston for loading or charging the oil. It is loaded by gravity, and operation is very
basic. The pressure oil in the hydraulic circuit is pushed into the lower section of the
cylinder, raising the piston and weights. The accumulator is now charged and ready for
work. The major disadvantages are its bulky size and heavy weight, which render it
impractical for mobile equipment.

The spring-loaded accumulator is very similar to the weight-loaded accumulator except that
springs do the loading (Figure d).
In operation, the pressure oil loads the piston by compressing the spring. When the pressure
drops, the spring forces oil into the system

Figure: Spring – loaded accumulator

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 1. Control of a Single- Acting Hydraulic Cylinder

In single acting cylinder hydraulic force is exerted on the piston for forward
movement (to right in the figure shown). For retraction, no hydraulic force is applied
and the rod moves (to left) due to a spring force or weight of the piston and
rod .Figure shows a two-position, three way, manually operated, spring offset
directional control valve ( DCV ) used to control the operation of a single – acting
cylinder.

As valve is moved to occupy position 1 (left) flow goes to rod end and rod is pushed
to right. When valve is moved to position 0, i.e. shifted to right indicated position,
flow from pump is blocked in the valve. There is no hydraulic pressure on the piston
side. The flow goes to tank via relief valve at the set pressure. The actuator moves to
left due to spring force acting on the rod end of piston.

1. Control of Double Acting Hydraulic Cylinder:

Double –Acting cylinders can be extended and retracted hydraulically. Thus, an output
force can be applied in two directions.

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The valve is manual 3postion /4-way valve. In the neutral or valve central (0)
position, oil from pump goes to tank, and no action on actuator. Note that the valve
does not go through relief valve to tank, thereby saving power (Pressure set in relief
valve x pump flow rate ).

There is minor power loss due to drop in valve orifices, and piping. In position 1 of
valve, oil flow is P to A. ie. from pump to piston side and rod moves to right acting on
the load.

Oil from rod side chamber of cylinder goes to tank (B to T). In position 2, Oil from pump
goes to rod end (P to B) and Oil from piston end goes to tank. (A toT) thereby pushing the
rod (load) to left.

2. Regenerative circuit:

Operation: Figure shows a regenerative circuit that is used to speed up the extending
speed of a double-acting hydraulic cylinder.

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It can be seen that in position 1 when pump is connected to piston side chamber, ie.,
when main load is operated, fluid from piston side also flows into it. Thereby the
flow rate is more than pump flow. Thus the velocity of actuation on piston side is
increased by the ratio ( Ap /Ar), where Ap is the piston area and Ar is the rod area.

However, the net force due to the piston rod is reduced to Ar x Pressure. In position 2,
when flow is directed to rod side, oil from the piston side flows to tank directly.

3. Pump Unloading Circuit

The figure shows a circuit using an unloading valve to unload a pump. The unloading
valve opens when the cylinder reaches the end of its extension stroke because the
check valve keeps high-pressure oil in the pilot line of the unloading valve. When the
DCV is shifted to retract the cylinder, the motion of the piston reduces the pressure in
the pilot line of the unloading valve.

This resets the unloading valve until the cylinder is fully retracted, at which point the
unloading valve unloads the pump. Thus, the unloading valve unloads the pump at
the ends of the extending and retraction strokes as well as in the spring-centered
position of the DCV.

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 4. Counter Balance Valve Application
Counter balance valve is used to hold loads in vertical position without descending
while idling in neutral position. Rod side fluid cannot flow unless a pilot pressure
acts on the valve and permits flow to tank. The valve spring so set that pressure
required is higher than for upward stroke.

5. Speed Control

Speed control of Hydraulic Cylinder: Speed control of a hydraulic cylinder is

accomplished using a flow control valve. A flow control valve regulates the speed of
the cylinder by controlling the flow rate to and of the actuator.
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There are 3 types of speed control:
• Meter-in circuit ( Primary control )
• Meter-out circuit ( Secondary control )
• Bleed -off circuit ( By pass control )

1. Meter – in Circuit: In this type of speed control, the flow control valve is
placed between the pump and the actuator. Thereby, it controls the amount of
fluid going into the actuator. Figure below shows meter-in circuit.When the
direction is reversed, oil from piston side flows to tank via check valve as well
as FC valve freely. The excess flow is dumped to tank via relief valve.

2. Meter – out Circuit: In this type of speed control, the flow control valve is
placed between the actuator and the tank . Thereby, it controls the amount of
fluid going out of the actuator and thereby the speed of retraction.

Meter out circuits are useful to control free fall of loads due to gravity etc. connected
to the load. Oil is dumped at load pressure but not at relief valve set pressure.
However, meter –out can lead to high pressure intensification sometimes twice
supply pressure, leading to damage of seals etc. Still it is favored in drilling, reaming
and milling when it is required to control the tool feed rate.

3. Bleed off circuit:

This circuit is used to overcome the disadvantages of meter-in and meter out circuits.
Here, a flow control valve is kept between either ends. Flow is controlled in each
direction, and excess flow to tank is not through relief valve.

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SPEED CONTROL OF HYDRAULIC MOTOR

AUTOMATIC CONTROL

73
Figure: Automatic control
Basic principles of electrical control

Electrical control is by far the most popular type of automatic control used for
industrial hydraulic applications. As Figure 1-2 shows, an electrical control circuit
consists of the following parts:
1) Input element(s)
2) Controller
3) Actuating mechanism(s)

Figure: Breakdown of an electrical control circuit.

An input element is a device that provides an electrical signal to indicate that a

hydraulic actuator (cylinder or motor) has reached a specific position, or that it is
time to start the sequence of operations. Examples of input elements are limit
switches, pushbutton switches, and relay contacts. The signal issued from input
elements called input signal because it is sent to the input of a controller.
A controller is a device that decides what action to take based on the signals sent to
it from the input element(s). The controller may be a set of electromechanical relays,
a programmable logic controller (PLC), or a computer. The signal issued from the
controller is called control signal because it is used to control the motion of a
hydraulic actuator through an actuating mechanism.

74
An actuating mechanism is a device that provides oil flow to a hydraulic actuator
according to the control signal sent to it from the controller. Examples of actuating
mechanisms are hydraulic solenoid-operated valves and electro-hydraulic servo
valves.

Some examples of automatic control are listed below:

6. Hydraulic Cylinder Sequencing Circuits:

Figure shows an example where two sequence valves are used to control the sequence
of operations of two double-acting cylinders C1 and C2 . When the DCV is shifted
into its left position, the left cylinder extends completely, and pressure builds up and
only when the left cylinder pressure reaches the pressure setting of sequence valve,
the sequence valve connected to the right cylinder opens and permits flow to
rod end of C2, and extend it.
If the DCV is then shifted to right position, flow to rod end of C1 is blocked, but
flows freely to rod end of C2. After C2 retracts fully, pressure builds up till the valve
connected to C1 opens. Thus the sequence is C1Ext - C2Ext - C2Retr – C1 Retr. One
can find the application of this circuit in press circuit. For example, the left cylinder
the clamping cylinder C1 could extend and clamp a workpiece. Then the right
cylinder C2, the punching cylinder extends to punch a hole in the workpiece. The
right cylinder then retracts the punch , and then the left cylinder retracts to declamp
the workpiece for removal.

7. Automatic Cylinder Reciprocating System

(i) Using Sequence Valves

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 Operation: In the left position of valve shown, P is connected to rod-side, and the
rod retracts. After piston reaches the left end, pressure builds up on rod side
which opens the sequence valve on the right and permits pilot hydraulic line to act
on the main DCV to switch to right position. Check valves allow pilot oil to leave
either end of the DCV while pilot pressure is applied to the opposite end.

Figure: Automatic cylinder reciprocating system using sequence valve

(ii) An alternative circuit is shown using limit switches and solenoid valve,
and a pilot operated DCV.

Operation:

Suppose the left position of the main DCV is on. Then the piston rod moves to
right .It hits the limit switch 2 which energizes solenoid valve D2 which shifts the
solenoid operated DCV (D2) to position (top as shown) which now permits pilot oil
from D2 to right end of DCV D1 changes D1 position 2 flow is now to rod end rod
moves to left till it hits limit switch 1.Now the reverse of the above sequence is
repeated so that Position 1 of the main DCV becomes operative. Thus it leads to
automatic reciprocation of the actuator between the limit switch positions.

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 8. Cylinder Synchronizing Circuits :
Circuits are shown for synchronizing the operation of two cylinders (ie simultaneous
equal movement).
a. Cylinder connected in Parallel

In the circuit shown, piston or rod ends of both cylinders are connected to one line.
Thus oil flows simultaneously. However, if load on one cylinder is more, the other
cylinder needing less pressure operates first, and after completion of stroke, pressure
builds up to operate the second cylinder. This operation is not synchronized. The
problem may arise with slight differences in the size of cylinders as well.

b. Cylinders connected in Series: The rod end of C1 is connected to piston end of

C2. Thus C1 and C2 have to move together. However, for to have equal stroke,
rod end area of C1 should be equal to piston area of C1. Also, rod end of C2 has
to have high pressure to do work by C2. Hence piston side pressure would be
that much higher.

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- SEMI- AUTOMATIC
Semi- automatic operation of a double- acting hydraulic cylinder using a sensor .The
hydraulic part and the electrical part of the circuit for the semi-automatic operation of
a double-acting hydraulic cylinder using a proximity sensor (S2) are given in the
Figure below which is self explanatory.

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PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
The term “pneumatics” has been derived from the Greek word “pneuma” which means air,
wind, or breath.
 Definition: the pneumatic may be defined as that branch of engineering science which
deals with the study of the behaviour and application of compressed air. Like hydraulics,
pneumatic is a branch of fluid power technology. Thus, the pneumatic is the technology
that deals with the generation, control, and transmission of power using pressurized
air.
PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS: is the one that uses a pressurized gas to transmit and control
power.
 However, almost all pneumatic systems prefer to use air rather than some other gas as
their fluid medium.
The air is popularly used as the fluid medium in pneumatic system due to the following
reasons:
 Air is abundantly available.
 It is safe to use (as it has the fire-proof characteristics)
 It is very cheaper in cost
 Easier maintenance and easy handling.
 It can be exhausted easily to the atmosphere after use.
ADVANTAGE OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEM OVER HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
(What are the reasons for considering the use of pneumatic system instead of hydraulic
system)

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In many applications, the pneumatic systems are preferred over the hydraulic systems, due
to the following reasons (advantages):
 Since the weight density of gas is many times lesser than liquid, therefore inertia effect of
pneumatic components are lesser than hydraulic system components. Thus, the force
required to accelerate gas (air) is much lesser than that required to accelerate an equal
volume of oil.
 Since viscosity of air is much lesser than that of oil, therefore the pneumatic systems
experience lesser friction pressure and power losses than the hydraulic systems.
 Unlike in hydraulic systems, pneumatic systems can be exhausted its fluid medium (air)
to the atmosphere after completing its assigned task. This reduces the requirements of
special designs for reservoirs and leak-proof systems.
 Pneumatic systems are comparatively cheaper in cost than the hydraulic systems.
 Pneumatic systems provide better operation advantages when compared to hydraulic
systems.
 Compared to hydraulic systems, pneumatic are lesser in weight.
 Unlike in hydraulic systems, leakage of air in pneumatic system will not affect the system
performance very much (because the air compressor supplies the pressurized air
continuously).
DISADVANTAGES OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

 Due to the high compressibility of air, pneumatic systems cannot provide precise actuator
control and precise positioning control.
 Due to compressor design limitations, pneumatic systems can be applied only to low
pressure (less than 17bars) applications; whereas hydraulic systems can be applied to
high-pressure (up to 700bars) applications.
APPLICATION OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
Like hydraulic systems, the application of pneumatic systems can be found in almost all
industries/fields. However, some of the industrial applications are listed below:
1. Stamping
2. Drilling
3. Punching
4. Clamping
5. Hoisting
6. Assembling
7. Riveting
8. Material handling
9. Logic control and
10. Hammering
SELECTION OF HYDRAULIC PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
For a Given application, there is no and fast rule to follow to decide which of the system
should be used. However, the following guidelines may be followed for the selection:
1. If the application requires a very high pressure or extremely accurate feed, then an oil
hydraulic system can be used.

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 2. If the application requires speed, a medium of pressure, and only a fairly accurate
feed, then an air pneumatic system can be used.
3. If the application requires only a medium amount of pressure and a feed of great
accuracy, then a combination of air and hydraulic system can be used.
COMPOSITION OF AIR
What is the composition of air?
 Actually, speaking air is a mixture of gases. Air is invisible, colorless, and tasteless
 Composition: the main constituents of air by volume are 78% of nitrogen, 21% of
oxygen and 1% other gases such argon and carbon dioxide.
 The gaseous layer of air around the earth is known as Atmosphere

PROPERTIES OF AIR
1. Compressibility: this is the quality of being compressible or the property of being able
to occupy less space.
2. Expansibility: the capacity of being expanded or to increase in size or bulk
3. Invisibility: the state or the quality of being invisible or the quality of not being
perceivable by the eyes
4. No odour
5. Takes up spaces
6. No colour
7. Impacted by temperature
8. Tasteless

Basic Components of a Pneumatic System

A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air,
as a fluid for transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an
energy-using point to accomplish useful work. Figure 1.3 shows a simple circuit
of a pneumatic system with basic components.

Figure 1.3 Components of a pneumatic system.

81
82
The functions of various components shown in Fig. 1.3 are as follows:
 The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform
useful work.
 The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
 The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
 The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
 External power supply (motor) is used to drive the
compressor.
 The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another and connect
system components together.
Air is drawn from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised to required pressure by an
air compressor. As the pressure rises, the temperature also rises; hence, an air cooler is
provided to cool the air with some preliminary treatment to remove the moisture. The treated
pressurized air then needs to get stored to maintain the pressure. With the storage reservoir,
a pressure switch is fitted to start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and reaches
the required level, respectively. The three-position change over the valve delivering air to
the cylinder operates in a way similar to its hydraulic circuit.
A basic pneumatic system consists of two main sections:

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 Figure: Basic Pneumatic System
SECTION 1: THE AIR PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

(1) Compressor: Air taken in at atmospheric pressure is compressed and delivered

at higher pressure to the pneumatic system. It thus transforms mechanical energy
into pneumatic energy.
(2) Electric Motor: Transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy
(3) Pressure Switch: Controls the electric motor by sensing the pressure in the
tank.
(4) Check valve: Lets the compressed air from the compressor into the tank. It is set
to a maximum pressure at which it stops the motor and a minimum pressure at
which it restarts it.
(5) Tank: Stores the compressed air.
(6) Pressure Gauge: Indicates the Tank Pressure.
(7) Auto Drain: Drains all the water condensing in the tank without supervision.
(8) Safety Valve: Blows compressed air off if the pressure in the tank should rise
above the allowed pressure.
(9) Refrigerated Air Dryer: Cools the compressed air to a few degrees above
freezing point and condenses most of the air humidity.
(10) Line Filter: It helps to keep the line free from dust, water and oil.
SECTION 2: THE AIR CONSUMING SYSTEM
11. Air Take Off: The air take-off is the point where compressed air is extracted
from the main supply line. It's essentially the entry point for air into the specific
pneumatic circuit
12. Auto Drain: Auto drains are devices designed to automatically remove
condensate (water vapor) that accumulates within the compressed air lines.
13. Air Service Unit: An air service unit is a combination of several
components typically mounted together for convenience. These components
often include:

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  Filter: Removes particulate matter (dust, dirt) from the compressed
air stream.
 Regulator: Controls and maintains a constant downstream pressure,
regardless of fluctuations in the upstream supply pressure.
 Lubricator: Injects a small amount of oil into the air stream to
lubricate moving parts within pneumatic actuators.
Purpose: To prepare the compressed air for use in the pneumatic circuit by
ensuring it is clean, dry, and at the correct pressure and lubricity
14. Directional Valve: Alternatively pressurizes and exhaust the cylinder
connections to control the direction of movement.
15. Actuator: The actuator is the component that converts the energy of
compressed air into mechanical motion
16. Speed Controllers: Allows easy speed adjustment of the actuator
movement.

A COMPRESSOR: A compressor is a device used to compress air (or any gas) from a low
inlet pressure (usually atmospheric pressure) due to a higher desired pressure level.

A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its
volume. An air compressor is a specific type of gas compressor.
There are two basic types of compressors, based on their method of energy transfer
and pressure generation. They are:

1. Positive displacement compressors: work on the principle of increasing the

pressure of a definite volume of it by reducing that volume in an enclosed
chamber.
2. Dynamic type compressors: also known as turbo compressors, employs
rotating vanes or impellers to increase the pressure of the air.

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS: Positive displacement compressors are a

type of compressor that works by trapping a fixed volume of gas and then reducing that
volume to increase the pressure

CLASSIFICATIONS OF POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT AIR COMPRESSOR

1. According to design and principle of operation:
 Reciprocating compressors in which a piston reciprocates inside the cylinder.
 Rotary compressors in which a rotor is rotated.
2. According to number of stages:
 Single stage compressors in which compression of air takes place in one cylinder
only.
 Multi stage compressors in which compression of air takes place in more than
one cylinder.
3. According to pressure limit:
 Low pressure compressors in which the final delivery pressure is
less than 10 bar,

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  Medium pressure compressor in which the final delivery pressure is
10 bar to 80 bar
 High pressure compressors in which the final delivery pressure is 80
to 100 bar.
4. According to capacity:
 Low capacity compressor (delivers 0.15m3 /s of
compressed air),
 Medium capacity compressor (delivers 5m3 /s of
compressed air) and
 High capacity compressor (delivers more than
5m3 /s of compressed air).
5. According to method of cooling:
 Air cooled compressor (Air is the cooling
medium) and
 Water-cooled compressor (Water is the
cooling medium).
6.According to the nature of installation:
 Portable compressors (can be moved from one place to another).
 Semi-fixed compressors and
 Fixed compressors (They are permanently installed in one place).
7. According to applications:
 Rock drill compressors (used for drilling rocks),
 Quarrying compressors (used in quarries),
 Sandblasting compressors (used for cleaning of cast iron) and
 Spray painting compressors (used for spray painting).
6. According to number of air cylinders
 Simplex - contains one air cylinder
 Duplex - contains two air cylinders
 Triplex - contains three air cylinders

Figure: Air Compressor Family Tree

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Figure: Graphical symbol of compressor

3. According to design and principle of operation:

 Reciprocating compressors in which a piston reciprocates inside the cylinder.
 Rotary compressors in which a rotor is rotated.
4. According to number of stages:
 Single stage compressors in which compression of air takes place in one cylinder
only.
 Multi stage compressors in which compression of air takes place in more than
one cylinder.

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Piston compressors are the most commonly used as reciprocating compressors in the fluid
power industry. It has the same construction and working as an internal combustion(IC)
engine.
In a reciprocating compressor, a volume of air is drawn into a cylinder; it is trapped, and
compressed by piston and then discharged into the discharge line. The cylinder valves control
the flow of air through the cylinder; these valves act as check valves.

Figure: Reciprocating piston compressor

Reciprocating compressor working principle:
A typical reciprocating compressor consists of housing with an internal piston connected to a
crankshaft. As the crankshaft turns, a piston reciprocates within the cylindrical housing.
There are two valves at the head of the cylinder, an inlet and an outlet. The inlet (sometimes

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called the suction valve), allows atmospheric air to enter the cylinder. The outlet (sometimes
called the discharge valve), ejects the newly compressed air from the cylinder. As the
crankshaft turns, the piston lowers and rises changing the available volume within the
cylinder.
The downward stroke of the piston is called the suction stroke. The upward stroke is called
the compression stroke. As the piston moves downward on its suction stroke the volume
increases within the cylinder. As the volume increases the pressure within, the cylinder air
pressure becomes lower than the inlet air pressure. This allows the higher pressure outside air
to push open the inlet valve and allow more air into the cylinder. As the piston begins its
upward compression stroke , the volume within the cylinder decreases. The decrease in
volume causes the pressure within the cylinder to increase. The increase in pressure opens the
outlet valve and compressed air discharges from the cylinder to the air storage tank.
TYPES (CLASSIFICATIONS) OF PISTON-TYPE COMPRESSORS
Piston-type compressors are further classified based on several key characteristics:
1. by Number of Stages:
 Single-Stage: A single-stage compressor is a device that compresses air in a single
stroke and then delivers it to a storage tank.

 Multi-Stage: A two-stage air compressor is a type of compressor that compresses air

in two distinct stages, as opposed to a single-stage compressor which does it in one. In
a two-stage compressor, the air is first compressed to an intermediate pressure in the

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 first stage, then cooled, and finally compressed to the final desired pressure in the
second stage.

Why Two Stages?

The primary advantage of a two-stage compressor lies in its increased efficiency and
reduced operating temperature. Here's why:
 Reduced Heat of Compression: When air is compressed, its temperature rises
significantly. In a single-stage compressor, this heat can lead to increased wear and tear
on the components and reduced efficiency. By dividing the compression process into two
stages with an intercooler between them, the heat generated in the first stage can be
dissipated, leading to a cooler and more efficient second stage.
 Lower Power Consumption: Due to the reduced heat and more gradual compression,
two-stage compressors generally require less power to achieve the same final pressure as
a single-stage compressor.
 Longer Lifespan: The cooler operating temperatures and reduced stress on components
contribute to a longer lifespan for two-stage compressors compared to their single-stage
counterparts.

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2. by Piston Action
 Single-Acting: Compression occurs on only one side of the piston.
 Double-Acting: Compression occurs on both sides of the piston.
3. by Lubrication:
 Lubricated: Oil is used for lubrication, cooling, and sealing.
 Oil-Free: Operates without oil.Suitable for applications requiring clean air (e.g., food
processing, pharmaceuticals).
4. by Cylinder Arrangement:
 V-Type: Cylinders are arranged in a V-configuration.
 W-Type: Cylinders are arranged in a W-configuration.
 Horizontal: Cylinders are arranged horizontally.
 Vertical: Cylinders are arranged vertically.
5. By Cooling:
 Air-Cooled: Cooled by ambient air.
 Water-Cooled: Cooled by circulating water.
6. by Drive Mechanism:
 Direct Drive: Compressor is directly coupled to the motor.
 Belt Drive: Compressor is driven by a belt connected to the motor.

INTERCOOLERS:
An intercooler is a simple heat exchanger. It exchanges the heat of compressed air from the
LP compressor to the circulating water before the air enters the HP compressor. It consists of
a number of special metal tubes connected to corrosion resistant plates at both ends. The
entire nest of tubes is covered by an outer shell.

Working: Cold water enters the bottom of the intercooler through water inlet (1) and flows
into the bottom tubes. Then they pass through the top tubes and leaves through the water
outlet (2) at the top. Air from LP compressor enters through the air inlet (3) of the intercooler
and passes over the tubes. While passing over the tubes, the air is cooled (by the cold water
circulated through the tubes). This cold air leaves the intercooler through the air outlet (4).
Baffle plates are provided in the intercooler to change the direction of air. This provides a
better heat transfer from air to the circulating water.

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Staging: Staging means dividing the total pressure among two or more cylinders by allowing
the outlet from one cylinder into the inlet of the next cylinder and s on. Why should we go
for staging?
As we know, as per the general gas laws, the compression of air will result in significant
increase in temperature. For instance, if a single- stage compressor gives the compressed air
of about 5 bar, the compressed air temperature can rise to over 200 0C . This in turn increase
the motor power needed to drive the compressor. Thus the effective cooling of compressor is
necessary.
When the multistage compressors are used, the effective cooling can be implemented
between stages. This effective cooling:
1. Reduce input power requirements, and
2. Increases the efficiency of the compressor.

MULTI-CYLINDER PISTON COMPRESSORS: Though a single-cylinder compressor can

provide pressure up to about 10 bars, usually multicylinder compressors having (2 to 16
cylinders) are used for increasing compression capacity and also due to many practical
reasons.
MULTI-STAGE COMPRESSORS : When the compression of air from the initial pressure to
the final pressure is carried out in more than one cylinder into the inlet of the next cylinder
and so on
ADVANTAGES OF PISTON TYPE COMPRESSOR
 Piston type compressors are available in wide range of capacity and pressure
 The overall efficiency of piston compressors are high when compared to other
compressors.
 Very high air pressure and air volume flow rate can be obtained by using the
multistage compressors
 Better mechanical balance can be achieved with multistage compressors

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Figure: Multi-stage compressor

ROTARY COMPRESSOR
A rotary compressor is a type of compressor that uses rotating elements to compress air or
gas. Unlike reciprocating compressors, which rely on a piston moving back and forth, rotary
compressors utilize continuous rotary motion for compression.
Common Types of Rotary Compressors:
1. Rotary Screw Compressor: This is the most common type, featuring two intermeshing
screws that rotate in opposite directions. As the screws turn, they trap and compress the
air between their lobes, gradually increasing the pressure

2. Lobe and gera Compressor: This compressor uses two or more lobes or gear that
rotate within a housing. The lobes mesh and de-mesh, trapping and compressing the
air between them

3. Vane compressor: A vane compressor, also known as a rotary vane air compressor or slidi ng
vane compressor, is a type of positive displacement compressor that uses rotating vanes within
a rotor to compress air or gas.

OPERATION: The air at atmospheric pressure is entrapped between two vanes. As the
rotor rotates, the entrapped air is compressed between the vanes and then discharged through
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a port to the receiver.
b. Advantages
1. Rotary vane compressors are pulse free and therefore can be used without a
receiver if needed.
2. They are smaller in size and lighter in weight
3. They can work at high speed

DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR

A dynamic compressor is a type of compressor that utilizes the kinetic energy of a fluid to
achieve compression. Unlike positive displacement compressors, which trap and compress a
fixed volume of gas, dynamic compressors accelerate the fluid to high velocities and then
convert that kinetic energy into static pressure.
COMMON TYPES OF DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS
1. Centrifugal Compressor: Uses a rapidly rotating impeller with blades to accelerate the
fluid to high velocities.

2. Axial Compressor: Employs a series of rotating blades (rotor) and stationary blades
(stator) arranged along an axis. Each stage of blades increases the fluid's velocity and
pressure. Commonly used in aircraft engines and large industrial gas turbines.

Figure: Axial type compressor

How Dynamic Compressors Work

Dynamic compressors achieve compression by accelerating the fluid to high velocities and
then converting that kinetic energy into static pressure. Here's a breakdown of the process:
1. Kinetic Energy Impartation:

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  Centrifugal Compressors: A rapidly rotating impeller with blades draws in the fluid
at its center. The blades accelerate the fluid outward, increasing its velocity
significantly.
 Axial Compressors: A series of rotating blades (rotor) and stationary blades (stator)
are arranged along an axis. As the fluid passes through each stage, the blades impart
kinetic energy, increasing its velocity.
2. Kinetic Energy Conversion:
 Centrifugal Compressors: After being accelerated by the impeller, the high-velocity
fluid enters a diffuser. The diffuser gradually slows down the fluid, converting its
kinetic energy into static pressure.
 Axial Compressors: The combination of rotor and stator blades in each stage
gradually increases the fluid's pressure and velocity.
3. Pressure Increase:
 The continuous acceleration and subsequent conversion of kinetic energy into static
pressure result in a significant increase in the fluid's pressure.

AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

Introduction

The atmospheric air that is compressed in the compressor is obviously not clean because the
atmospheric air contains many contaminants such as smoke, dirt, water vapor, etc. This
contaminated air may lead to excessive wear and failure of pneumatic components. The
system performance and accuracy depend mainly on the supply of clean, dry and
contamination – free compressed air. Therefore fluid conditioners are used to condition the
compressed air before leaving into various pneumatic components.
The purpose of air conditioning system is to make the compressed air more acceptable and
suitable fluid medium for the pneumatic system components as well as for operating
personnel. o The important elements of air conditioners are:
0. Filters
1. Regulators
2. Lubricators
3. Mufflers
4. Air dryers
In these, the first three units together are called FRL (Filter-Regulator-Lubricator) unit
or air service unit.

AIR SERVICE UNIT

In most pneumatic systems, the compressed air is first filtered and then regulated to the
specific pressure and made to pass through a lubricator for lubricating the oil. Thus usually a
filter, regulator and lubricator are placed in the inlet line to each air circuit. These may be
installed as separate units, but more often they are used in the form of a combined unit.
The combination of filter, regulator, and lubricator is often labeled as FRL Unit or Service
unit. o Figure below illustrate the arrangement of a FRL Unit.

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Figure: compressed air generation and distribution system showing a FRL Unit
o Composite symbol: figure below illustrate how individual component
symbols form a composite symbol of a FRL Unit.

Figure: FRL unit graphic symbol

Figure: FRL image

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I. FILTER
Function : The function of air filter is to remove all foreign matter and allow dry, clean air to
flow without restriction to the regulator and then on to the lubricator.
Filters are available in wide ranges starting from a fine mesh wire cloth (which only strains
out heavier foreign particles) to elements made of synthetic materials(which are designed to
remove very small particles)
Usually in-line filter elements can remove contaminants in the 5 to 50 μm ranges.
FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF FILTERS
While selecting the filters, the following factors at least should be taken into account:
1. Size of particles to be filtered from the system
2. Capacity of the filter
3. Accessibility and maintenability
4. Life of the filter
5. Ability to drain the condensate
THE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF A TYPICAL CARTRIDGE-TYPE
FILTER SYSTEM

Figure: typical air- filter system Figure : Image of filter

OPERATION

The air to be filtered is allowed downward with a swirling motion that forces the moisture
and the heavier particles to fall down. The deflector used in the filter mechanically separates
the contaminants before they pass through the cartridge filter.
The filter cartridge provides a random zig-zag passage for the air flow. This type of air flow
arrests the solid particles in the cartridge passage .

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The water vapour gets condensed inside the filter and is collected at the bottom of the filter
bowl. Also heavier foreign particles that are separated from the air are collected at the bottom
of the bowl. Then the accumulated water and other solid particles at the bottom of the filter
bowl are drained off with the use of an on-off drain valve located at the bottom of the filter
bowl.
TYPES OF AIR FILTERS

There are three general types of air filters:

 General purpose
 coalescing (oil removal)
 Vapour removal
General Purpose, are used to remove water and particles, while Coalescing filters remove oil,
and Vapour Removal filters remove oil vapour and odour.
II. PRESSURE REGULATOR
A pneumatic pressure regulator is a specialized valve designed to control and maintain a
constant, lower air pressure within a pneumatic system.
Here's how it works:
 Reduces Pressure: It takes the higher pressure of the incoming compressed air
supply and reduces it to a lower, desired output pressure.
 Maintains Constant Pressure: It actively regulates the output pressure, ensuring it
remains consistent even if the input pressure or air demand fluctuates. This is crucial
for the proper and reliable operation of pneumatic components like cylinders, valves,
and motors.
 Mechanism: Typically, a pneumatic regulator uses a spring-loaded diaphragm or
piston that responds to changes in the output pressure.
o If the output pressure drops, the mechanism opens the valve slightly to allow
more air flow, increasing the pressure.
o If the output pressure rises, the mechanism closes the valve to restrict flow,
reducing the pressure
TYPES : THE TWO TYPES OF AIR PRESSURE REGULATORS ARE:
1. Diaphragm-type regulator
2. piston-type regulator
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION
It consists of diaphragm, valve, main and dampening springs, etc. Usually the diaphragm
is made of oil-resistant synthetic rubber with nylon cloth reinforcements
A PRESSURE REGULATOR IS COMPRISED OF THREE FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS
1. A pressure reducing or restrictive element, Often this is a spring loaded poppet valve.
2. A sensing element, typically a diaphragm or piston.
3. A reference force element, most commonly a spring.

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Fig: Typical air pressure regulator and the graphical symbol of the air pressure regulator
WHEN SELECTING A PRESSURE REGULATOR, THE IMPORTANT FACTORS TO
CONSIDER ARE:
 Normal line pressure.
 Minimum and maximum regulated pressure required: Regulators can have a broad
adjustment range and may require a specific spring or accessory to match the
requirements. Also, minimum and maximum pressure should be within the middle third
of the regulator range.
 Maximum flow required at regulated pressure.
 Pipe size: Not all regulators are available in all pipe sizes; note where adapters are
required.
 Also, pipe size should be consistent with flow requirements.
 Regulator adjustment frequency: A number of different adjusting methods are possible.
 When selecting a regulator, consider the location, application, adjusting method, and
user.
 Degree of pressure precision required.
 Accessories or options include gages and panel mounting.
 Environmental or fluid conditions that could be incompatible with materials used in the
regulator.
 Special features such as high relief or remote control.
The consequences of a regulator malfunction or failure: A damper or relief valve might be
needed to protect personnel or equipment. Also, dead-end service or intermittent actuation
may require positive valve shutoff, bleed units, or close control of pressure-relief points.
Filters, lubricators, relief devices, and other system options should be considered in the
selection process.

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 III. LUBRICATOR
Function: the function of air lubricator is to add controlled quantities of tool oil with air to
ensure proper lubrication of internal moving parts of pneumatic components.
The lubricator adds the lubrication oil in the form of a fine mist to reduce the friction and
wear of the moving parts of pneumatic components such as valves, packing used in air
cylinders, etc.
At the same time excessive lubrication is also undesirable. Excessive lubrication may result:
i. Malfunction components; ii. Increased environmental problems, and
ii. Seizing of components after prolonged downtime
 WHAT IS THE BEST TYPE OF LUBRICANT FOR A PNEUMATIC SYSTEM?
Generally a good-quality, light-grade spindle oil is used in pneumatic systems 2. Sometimes a
mixture of 50% kerosene and 50% SAE 30 oil is also used as lubricant.
TYPES OF AIR LUBRICATORS
Air lubricators come in one of two types:
1. Oil-Fog
2. Micro-Fog
Oil-Fog air lubricators are used for heavy applications such as single tools, cylinders and
valves, while Micro-Fog lubricators are used for multiple applications, several cylinders or
valves.
In oil-fog lubricators, all the oil droplets visible in the sight dome are added directly into the
air flow. This results in relatively large oil droplets passing downstream. In micro-fog
lubricators, the oil droplets visible in the sight dome are atomized and collected in the area
above the oil in the bowl. The smaller, lighter particles are drawn into the air flow and pass
downstream. As a result, typically only 10% of the visible oil drops in the sight dome is
passed downstream.
CONSTRUCTION
The construction and operation of a typical force-feed type air lubricator is illustrated in the
figure below. Its operation is similar to the principle of simple carburetor used in the petrol
engines to obtain air-fuel mixture.

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 Figure: Air l ubricators and its graphical symbol

Operation
As the air to be lubricated enters into the inlet pipe, the venture ring located in the pipe
increases its velocity of low. It causes a local reduction in the upper chamber. This pressure
differential between upper and lower chambers causes suction of lubrication oil from the oil
reservoir to the upper chamber. Now the oil in the form of mist is sprayed in the air stream
and the air-oil mixture is obtained. This air-oil mixture is forced to swirl as it leaves the
central cylinder causing more oil particles to be spread out of the air stream. The amount of
oil dropping into the upper chamber can be controlled by a needle valve.

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WATER SEPARATOR
a. AIR DRYER
Function : the function of air dryers is to remove all water vapour/moisture from the air
leaving the compressor
As we know, the atmospheric air contains moisture to a varying amount depending on the
prevailing atmospheric conditions. Even after compression in the compressor, the air contains
the same amount of moisture. This moisture should be removed before the air is fed into any
pneumatic system components. Thus air dryers are placed at suitable points in the pressure air
line to safeguard the pneumatic components from the corrosive effects of moisture.
 Types of air dryers
There are various types of compressed air dryers. These dryers are generally fall into two
different classes:
Primary which includes Refrigerated and Deliquescent
Secondary which includes desiccant ; Absorption and membrane
The three main types of air dryers are used to remove the moisture in the compressed
air are:
1. Refrigerated dryer
2. Deliquescent dryer
3. Absorption dryer
Refrigerated dryer : Humid, hot air coming into the air dryer will be cooled down by a
cooler re-heater (heat exchanger). Water condensed at this time will be removed from the air
by an auto drain and drained out automatically. Air separated from the water will be heater by
a cooler re-heater (heat exchanger) to obtain the dried air, which goes through to the outlet
side.

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Figure: Refrigerated air dryer
Deliquescent dryer : Deliquescent dryers are used for removing water vapor from
compressed air, natural gas, and waste gases such as landfill gas and digester gas.
The performance of a deliquescent dryer as measured by outlet dew point (dew point is
defined as the temperature at which water vapor will begin to condense into liquid water.), is
highly dependent on the temperature of the air or gas being processed, with cooler
temperatures resulting in better performance
Construction and operation
The construction and operation of a typical deliquescent –type dryer is illustrated in figure
below

Figure: Deliquescent dryer

It uses a chemical agent called a dessicant. As shown on figure, the moisture air enters at one
end, passes through the chemical agent, and passes out at the other end. The chemical agent
absorbs water vapour/moisture and slowly dissolves it as a liquid. The liquid is collected at
the bottom of the unit where it can be drained.
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Energy generated by prime movers transforms to thermal energy which increases the
temperature
of the working fluid. High temperatures deteriorate the fluid properties and result in
shorter fluid life. Hence it is required to cool the oil to certain level for smooth
operation.
Typical heat exchangers used are:
• Tubular heat exchangers: This delivers cooling fluid through copper tubes
to accomplish heat exchange between fluid and cooling water.
• Plate heat exchanger: This consists of many thin cooling plates which
exchange heat with cooling water.
• Air cooing radiator: Forced air flows through tubes and cools the fluid
• Refrigerant exchanger: This is like a domestic refrigerator and dissipates
heat from fluid. It consists of a hydraulic pump, a motor and thermos stat . It
is used when accurate temperature control is needed.
HEATERS: In cold regions, viscosity becomes high causing high pressure loss in the
system. Hence electronic heater or steam heaters are used for heating the oil to the

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desired temperature.
IDENTIFICATION OF PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
INTRODUCTION
BRAKE SYSTEM

There are many important things on a commercial vehicle. One of the most important is the
brake system.
Function of brake system
 It has to reduce the speed of the vehicle or
 It has to keep the speed of the vehicle constant on downhill gradient.
 It has to bring the vehicle stop and keep it stopped even on a slope when the driver is
not there.
There is various compressed-air brake system depend depending on the type and size of the
vehicle: for trucks, buses and special vehicles. This booklet informs you of the construction
and operation of seven commonly found compressed-air brake systems.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF A BRAKE SYSTEM
Every brake system can be broken down into four basic components:
1. Energy supply
2. Control
3. Transmission
4. Brake
The control controls the flow of energy from the energy supply through the transmission to
the brake which acts on the wheels.
Energy Supply
The source of energy supplies the energy required for braking. Devices for regulating,
conditioning and where necessary, storing the energy are also counted as part of the energy
supply in so far as they do not belong to the transmission. The most important types of
braking energy are pneumatic, hydraulic and mechanical energy as well as the muscle power
of the driver. The braking equipment of commercial vehicles may be based exclusively on
compressed air or may also be operated by several types of energy, for example in truck with
a compressed air service brake and secondary braking system and a muscle-power- operated
parking brake system.
Control
The control comprises those parts of a brake system which control the operation of the
system. The control ends where the transmission of the braking energy begins. In
compressed-air brake systems the control is triggered either by the driver by means of brake
pedal or hand brake level, or automatically e.g. if the trailer breaks away.

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Transmission
The transmission includes all those parts of brake system which the energy is transmitted to
the brake lever and ends at the wheel brake circuits including the protection of these brake
circuits is considered as part of the transmission.
Brake
The brake is that part of the brake system which produces the forces the forces which oppose
the motion of the vehicle or its tendency to move. These braking forces convert the kinetic
energy of the vehicle into heat.
Brake can be broken down into friction brakes and retarders.

CLASSIFICATION OF BRAKE SYSTEM

Brake systems can be classified according to four features:
1. purpose
2. type of energy used
3. type of transmission
4. number of connecting lines in vehicle combinations

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1. BRAKE SYSTEMS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO PURPOSE
Legal requirements dictate that the three functions of the braking equipment mentioned in the
introduction be distributed over three brake systems:
1. Service brake system
2. Secondary braking system
3. Parking brake system
Service brake system: The service brake system (foot brake) can be used firstly, to reduce
the speed of the vehicle or to keep the speed constant on a downhill gradient. Secondly, it can
be used to bring the vehicle to a stop. This system is used in normal vehicle operation. It can
be stepless foot-operated and acts on all wheels.
Secondary braking system: If the service brake system fails, the secondary braking system
must assume both these functions with reduced effect. The secondary braking system need
not be an independent third brake system (in addition to the service brake and parking brake
systems) having a special control, but may be either the intact brake circuit of a dual-circuit
service-brake system or a variable parking-brake system.
Parking brake system: The parking brake system (hand brake, parking brake) fulfils the
third function of the braking equipment. It must hold the vehicle stationary, even on a slope
and when the driver is not there.
For safety reasons, the parking brake system must be fully effective even if there is a failure
in the pneumatic or hydraulic energy. For this reason, there must be a continuous mechanical
connection between energy supply and wheel brake e.g. by means of a linkage or cable
between hand brake lever and wheel brake or by means of a spring brake cylinders which are
mechanical connected to the wheel brake.
The parking brake system on the tractor vehicle is operated from the driver’s seat, usually by
means of hand brake lever, and the trailer by means of a hand brake lever mounted on the
trailer. It acts on the wheels of one axle there are variable and non-variable parking brake
system.
2. BRAKE SYSTEMS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO TYPE ENERGY USED
 Muscle-power brake systems
 Power-assisted brake systems
 Power brake system

3. BRAKE SYSTEMS (SERVICE-BRAKE SYSTEMS) CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO

TYPE OF TRANSMISSION
Single circuit brake system: in the simplest case the braking energy is transmitted to all
brakes through one single transmission usually referred to as brake circuit. We then speak of
a single-circuit brake system. If a defect occurs on such a brake system the entire system is
then inoperative.
Dual-circuit brake system: for increased safety, the transmission of the service-brake
system is of dual-circuit design. In commercial vehicles the front axle and real axle brake
cylinders are usually each controlled by an independent brake circuit. If there is a failure in

105
one of the two brake circuits in a dual-circuit service brake system, the other intact brake
circuit remains in operation. Providing it has sufficient effect, the remaining circuit can serve
as a secondary braking system.
4. BRAKE SYSTEM IN VEHICLE COMBINATIONS
In vehicle combinations (tractor vehicle with trailer or semitrailer) the tractor vehicle has an
additional device for the energy supply and control of the trailer braking equipment. This is
because the tractor vehicle has to transmit the braking energy and control forces to the brakes
of the vehicle being towed. Transmission takes place between tractor and trailer by means of
a single line in the cases of single-line systems, and by two or more lines in multi-line (e.g.
dual line) systems.
Single line brake system: in single line brake systems one line fills the energy storage
device (air compressor) in the trailer i.e. supplies it with braking energy and controls the
trailer brakes by way of the trailer brake valve which operated by pressure drop. The
disadvantage of single line brake systems is that no supply air can flow to the trailer during
braking. Constant braking on long downhill gradients can exhaust the supply of compressed
air in the trailer air reservoir.

Dual line brake system: in dual line brake systems both parts of a vehicle combination are
connected by two lines. One supply line and one brake line which works on the principle of a
rise in pressure. Since compressed air can continuously flow through the supply line to refill
the trailer air reservoir, the trailer brake system can never be exhausted, usually the coupling
heads of both lines are such that the supply and brake lines cannot be connected the wrong
way round. If the trailer breaks away from the tractor the resulting pressure drop in the supply
line causes the trailer to brake.

IDENTIFICATIONS OF COMPRESSED AIR SUPPLY COMPONENTS

Purpose: to produce and store compressed air

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Figure: compressed-air supply components
1. Compressor
A compressor is the source of the compressed air, which takes in air from the
atmosphere and compresses (pressurizes) it. The compressed air is then pumped
through an air line to a supply reservoir

Symbol of air compressor

2. The pressure regulator
The pressure regulator conducts the compressed air constantly being supplied by
the air compressor as long as vehicle engine is running either in the air reservoir
or into the open circuit, It regulates the supply pressure of the compressed air
brake systemwich remain within the operating range.

Symbol of pressure regulator

3. The antifreeze pump
The antifreeze pump injects antifreeze into the brake system so that the water
vapor which is contained in the intake air and which precipitates as condensate
does not freeze thus jeopardizing the operation of the brake system.

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 Symbol of antifreeze pump

4. The four-circuit protection valve

The four-circuit protection valve is used in dual-circuit compressed-air brake
system for supplying compressed air and safeguarding the pressure of the two
service brake circuits, of the parking brake and trailer circuits and of the
secondary load circuit

symbol of 4circuit protection valve

5. dual-circuit protection valve dual-circuit protection valve has a three-fold

purpose in dual-circuit compressed-air brake systems:
• Distribution of the compressed air from one energy source to two supply
circuits separated from one another
• Safeguarding the pressure in the intact circuit in the event of the failure of
one of the two circuits

• Safeguarding the pressure in both circuits in the event of the failure of the
energy source.

Symbol of dual circuit protection valve

6. The air reservoir

The air reservoir is used for storing the air compressed by the air compressor in
the compressed-air brake systems of vehicles. Due to the storage of air in the air
reservoir, it is possible to use more compressed air over a short period than can
be supplied by the air compressor and even to actuate the compressed-air brake
system if the air compressor is not operating

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 Symbol of air reservoir

7. drain valves:
Manually-operated drain valve: is used for draining condensate from air reservoirs of
compressed-air brake systems so as to prevent the condensate from freezing and to fight
corrosion

Symbol of manual drain valve

Automatic drain valve: is used to drain condensate automatically from the air
reservoir of compressed-air brake system

Symbol of automatic drain valve

8. Overflow valves
Overflow valves safeguard compressed-air loads or compressed-air circuits with
respect to one another so that in the event of a loss of pressure in one circuit, the
other circuit continue to be supplied with compressed air, Dual-circuit protection
valve and 4 circuit protection valve are constructed using 2or4 overflow valves
respectively.

Symbol of over flow valves

9. Low pressure indicator
Using a visual signal, the dual-circuit, low-pressure indicator signals, in the case
of a dual-circuit compressed-air brake system, that the pressure in one of the two
energy storage elements or both energy storage elements has dropped below the
minimum pressure

Symbol of low pressure indicator

10. Air pressure repeater switch
The repeater switch triggers a visual or acoustical warning signal if the minimum
pressure is not reached in a compressed-air circuit. This switch involves a

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 normally-closed contact which in the normal position, interrupts the contact
( opens the contacts) and closes them in the warning position

Symbol of air pressure switch

11. Pressure relief element
The pressure relief element is used to limit the pressure in the system to a specific level
Limiting the pressure is necessary for example in the following cases:
• In system with high-pressure storage and low-pressure operation for all
loads
• In systems with a high-pressure pneumatic suspension and low-
pressure brake system

Symbol of pressure relief valve

 Content/ topic 2. Identify service brake component

Purpose: to reduce the speed of a vehicle or to keep the speed constant on a down-
grade, to stop a vehicle
Depending upon the size of the vehicle, the service brake system is designed
differently, in principle, there are four different type of service brake systems.
The design of each is shown in the following

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• Brake servo-unit cylinder
The brake servo-unit cylinder controls the braking energy for the service
brake system in light commercial vehicle in this respect, the pedal force
supplied by the driver is amplified by means of compressed air and
transmitted to the brake wheel cylinders by means of a hydraulic master
cylinder(tandem master cylinder

Symbol of brake servo- unit cylinder

• Dual-circuit brake assembly
The dual-circuit brake assembly is used for controlling and actuating the hydraulic
transmission by means of compressed air. In accordance with the position of the
brake pedal, compressed air flows into the component and acts on the pistons which
mechanically actuate the flange-mounted hydraulic tandem master cylinder by way
of the spindle

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 Symbol of dual circuit brake assembly

• Service-brake valve
The dual-circuit service brake valve controls two independent pneumatic or pneumo-
hydraulic service brake circuit in a tractor vehicle and by way of the trailer-control
valve, the service brake system of trailer

Symbol of service brake valve

• Dual-circuit actuating cylinder for the brake master cylinder

The dual-circuit actuating for the brake master cylinder mechanically actuates a flange-
mounted hydraulic sensing cylinder ( tandem master cylinder). Both components convert
the pneumatic brake pressure into hydraulic brake pressure which is transmitted to the
brake wheel cylinder

Symbol Dual-circuit actuating cylinder for the brake master cylinder

• Tandem master cylinder ( hydraulic)

The tandem master cylinder is a hydraulic master cylinder which converts the
mechanical force of the spindle of the pneumatic dual-circuit brake assembly,
of the dual-circuit actuating cylinder for the brake master or of brake servo-
unit cylinder into hydraulic force for two hydraulic brake circuits
It forces the hydraulic fluid in to the hydraulic brake wheel cylinder thus controlling the
braking operation

Symbol Tandem master cylinder (hydraulic)

• Load sensing valve
In service brake system with hydraulic transmission, the hydraulic-sensing valve
automatically regulates the input brake pressure as a function of vehicle load. If the
vehicle is fully loaded, the input brake pressure is transmitted completely to the

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hydraulic brake wheel cylinder whereas, with an empty or partially loaded vehicle, only
a portion of the input brake pressure acts on the brake wheel cylinder

Symbol of Load sensing valve

• Wheel brake cylinder ( hydraulic)

the wheel cylinder, a hydraulic slave cylinder, transfers the hydraulic brake force
generated by the tandem master cylinder to the brake shoes of the drum brake . This
action converts the hydraulic brake force into mechanical tension for the brake shoes

Symbol of Wheel brake cylinder (hydraulic)

• Diaphragm actuator
The diaphragm actuator operates the wheel brakes of motor vehicles and trailers by
converting pneumatic force into mechanical force

Symbol of diaphragm actuator

• Combined brake cylinder
The combined brake cylinder is a component of the service brake system and of the
parking brake system of a motor vehicles and actuates the wheel brakes for both systems

Symbol of combined brake cylinder

• Content/ topic 3. identify parking brake component

Purpose: to keep the vehicle stationary, even on a sloping road and when

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 Figure: parking brake components

• Parking –brake valve

The parking-brake valve controls the parking brake system, when the brake are not
applied, the spring brake cylinder is pressurized and depressurized when the brake are
applied

• relay valve
The relay valve is used to pressurize and depressurize the brake cylinders at a faster rate.
In this means it accelerates the brake response of the service brake and parking brake
systems

Symbol of relay valve

• shuttle valve
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Using the shuttle valve with return flow, a single brake circuit can be controlled by
means of two separate control circuits which are safeguarded against one another, in this
manner, for example, a spring brake cylinder can be released by way of the second
control circuit when the first is defective.

Symbol of shuttle valve

• spring brake cylinder
Spring brake cylinder actuates the wheel brakes in parking brake systems. They are
particularly suited to parking brake systems because when depressurized, they are in the
braking

Symbol of spring brake cylinder

• check valve
Check valve protect compressed air circuits against a loss of pressure by preventing
compressed air from flowing back to the supply circuit

Symbol of check valve

• content/ topic 4. identify trailer control components

Purpose: to control the brake system of the trailer and supply it with compressed air

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Figure: trailer control components
1. Dual line trailer control valve
In motor vehicles with dual-line brake system, the dual-line trailer control valve installed
in the tractor vehicle controls the service brake system of trailer

Symbol of dual line trailer control valve

2. coupling heads
The coupling head has a threaded connection for the supply line of the trailer and a
coupling connection for the supply line to the tractor vehicle. It does not have the shutoff
element or the swivel cover. The stop lugs in the claw and in the claw guide prevent
interchanging the trailer lines during coupling.

Symbols of coupling heads

3. dual-line trailer brake valve
The dual line trailer brake valve, which is installed in the trailer, regulates the
compressed-air supply of the trailer and converts the braking pressure transmitted from
the brake line into braking actions of the service brake system of the trailer

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 Symbol of dual line trailer brake valve

LO 1.3: Describe compressed-air brake component

 Content/ topic 1. Describe the compressed- air brake components

• Air compressor
• Compressor is the source of the compressed air, which takes in air from the
atmosphere and compresses (pressurizes) it. The compressed air is then pumped
through an airline to a supply reservoir

Figure: typical air compressor

OPERATION
A piston-type compressor operates on the same principle as the intake and compression
strokes of an engine.
• Intake stroke: The downward stroke of the piston creates a vacuum within the
cylinder which causes the inlet valve to open. This causes atmospheric air to flow past
the inlet valve into the cylinder.
• Compression stroke: The upward motion of the piston compresses the air in the
cylinder. The rising pressure cannot escape past the inlet valve (which the compressed
air has closed). As the piston nears the top of the stroke, the pressurized air is forced past
the discharge valve and into the discharge line leading to the reservoir.

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  Governor or pressure regulator
The pressure regulator conducts the compressed air constantly being supplied by the air
compressor as long as vehicle engine is running either in the air reservoir or into the
open circuit
It regulates the supply pressure of the compressed air brake system which remains within
the operating range.

Figure: pressure regulator

3. Antifreeze pump/ air dryer

The antifreeze pump injects antifreeze into the brake system so that the water vapor
which is contained in the intake air and which precipitates as condensate does not freeze
thus jeopardizing the operation of the brake system.

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 An air dryer may be installed between the compressor and the wet reservoir to help
remove moisture from the compressed air. It may be partially filled with a high
moisture-absorbent desiccant and an oil filter, or it may be hollow with baffles designed
to assist in separating the moisture from the air. Both types of air dryers use air pressure
to purge or eject the accumulated contaminants from their desiccant bed. The purge
valve has a heater element, which prevents the moisture from freezing in cold climate
operation. The wiring connected to the heater should be inspected for loose or
disconnected wires. They are also equipped with a safety valve.

• overflow valve
Overflow valves safeguard compressed-air loads or compressed-air circuits with respect
to one another so that in the event of a loss of pressure in one circuit, the other circuit
continue to be supplied with compressed air
Dual-circuit protection valve and 4 circuit protection valve are constructed using 2or4
overflow valves respectively.

• circuit protection valves

Dual circuit protection valve
The dual-circuit protection valve has a three-fold purpose in dual-circuit compressed-air
brake systems:

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 • Distribution of the compressed air from one energy source to two supply
circuits separated from one another
• Safeguarding the pressure in the intact circuit in the event of the failure of
one of the two circuits • Safeguarding the pressure in both circuits in the
event of the failure of the energy source.

Four circuit protection valve

The four-circuit protection valve is used in dual-circuit compressed-air brake system for
supplying compressed air and safeguarding the pressure of the two service brake circuits,
of the parking brake and trailer circuits and of the secondary load circuit

• Air reservoir/ tank

The air reservoir is used for storing the air compressed by the air compressor in the
compressed-air brake systems of vehicles. Due to the storage of air in the air reservoir, it
is possible to use more compressed air over a short period than can be supplied by the air
compressor and even to actuate the compressed-air brake system if the air compressor is
not operating

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Construction
The cylindrical reservoir is made of welded steel sheet and has three or two fittings for
connecting compressed air as well as one fitting for draining condensate. This last fitting
must face downward and be easily accessible. Due to the formation of condensate, which
is unavoidable, the interior of the air reservoir must be protected by means of a coating.
In order not to damage this protective coating, no mounting parts may be welded to the
air reservoir.

• drain valves
Manually-operated drain valve
The manually-operated drain valve is used for draining condensate from air reservoirs of
compressed-air brake systems so as to prevent the condensate from freezing and to fight
corrosion

Automatic drain valve

The automatic drain valve is used to drain condensate automatically from the air
reservoir of compressedair brake system

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 • Low pressure indicator
Using a visual signal, the dual-circuit, low-pressure indicator signals, in the case of a
dual-circuit compressed-air brake system, that the pressure in one of the two energy
storage elements or both energy storage elements has dropped below the minimum
pressure

• Air pressure repeater switch

The repeater switch triggers a visual or acoustical warning signal if the minimum
pressure is not reached in a compressed-air circuit. This switch involves a normally-
closed contact which in the normal position, interrupts the contact (opens the contacts)
and closes them in the warning position

• Pressure relief element

The pressure relief element is used to limit the pressure in the system to a specific level
Limiting the pressure is necessary for example in the following cases:
• In system with high-pressure storage and low-pressure operation for all
loads
• In systems with a high-pressure pneumatic suspension and low-pressure
brake system

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• Brake servo-unit cylinder
The brake servo-unit cylinder controls the braking energy for the service brake
system in light commercial vehicle in this respect, the pedal force supplied by the
driver is amplified by means of compressed air and transmitted to the brake wheel
cylinders by means of a hydraulic master cylinder(tandem master cylinder)

• Dual-circuit brake assembly

The dual-circuit brake assembly is used for controlling and actuating the hydraulic
transmission by means of compressed air. In accordance with the position of the
brake pedal, compressed air flows into the component and acts on the pistons which
mechanically actuate the flange-mounted hydraulic tandem master cylinder by way
of the spindle

• Service-brake valve
The dual-circuit service brake valve controls two independent pneumatic or pneumo-
hydraulic service brake circuit in a tractor vehicle and by way of the trailer-control

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 valve, the service brake system of trailer

• Dual-circuit actuating cylinder for the brake master cylinder

The dual-circuit actuating for the brake master cylinder mechanically actuates a flange-
mounted hydraulic sensing cylinder( tandem master cylinder). Both components convert
the pneumatic brake pressure into hydraulic brake pressure which is transmitted to the
brake wheel cylinder

• Tandem master cylinder ( hydraulic)

The tandem master cylinder is a hydraulic master cylinder which converts the
mechanical force of the spindle of the pneumatic dual-circuit brake assembly,
of the dual-circuit actuating cylinder for the brake master or of brake servo-
unit cylinder into hydraulic force for two hydraulic brake circuit.
It forces the hydraulic fluid in to the hydraulic brake wheel cylinder thus controlling the
braking operation

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 • Load sensing valve
• In service brake system with hydraulic transmission, the hydraulic-
sensing valve automatically regulates the input brake pressure as a
function of vehicle load. If the vehicle is fully loaded , the input brake
pressure is transmitted completely to the hydraulic brake wheel cylinder
whereas, with an empty or partially loaded vehicle, only a portion of the
input brake pressure acts on the brake wheel cylinder
• In service-brake systems with pneumatic transmission, the pneumatic
load-sensing valve automatically regulates the input brake pressure as a
function of the vehicle load. If the vehicle is fully loaded, the input brake
pressure is transmitted completely to the brake cylinders whereas with an
empty or partially-loaded vehicle only some of the input brake pressure
acts on the brake cylinders. In this manner- assuming normal roadway
conditions - excessive braking and, as a result, locking of the wheel is
prevented to a large extent

• wheel brake cylinder ( hydraulic)

the wheel cylinder, a hydraulic slave cylinder, transfers the hydraulic brake force
generated by the tandem master cylinder to the brake shoes of the drum brake . This
action converts the hydraulic brake force into mechanical tension for the brake shoes.

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 • Diaphragm actuator
The diaphragm actuator operates the wheel brakes of motor vehicles and trailers by
converting pneumatic force into mechanical force
A brake chamber is a circular container divided in the middle by a flexible diaphragm.
Air pressure pushing against the diaphragm causes it to move away from the pressure,
forcing the push rod outward against the slack adjuster. The force exerted by this motion
depends on air pressure and diaphragm size. If a leak occurs in the diaphragm, air is
allowed to escape, reducing the effectiveness of the brake chamber. If the diaphragm is
completely ruptured, brakes become ineffective.

• Combined brake cylinder

The combined brake cylinder is a component of the service brake system and of
the parking brake system of a motor vehicles and actuates the wheel brakes for
both systems

Content / topic 2. Describe the foundation brake

Foundation brakes are used at each wheel. The most common type is the s-cam drum
brake. The parts of the brake are:

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Brake Drums, Shoes, and Linings. Brake drums are located on each end of the
vehicle's axles. The wheels are bolted to the drums. The braking mechanism is inside the
drum. To stop, the brake shoes and linings are pushed against the inside of the drum.
This causes friction, which slows the vehicle (and creates heat). The heat a drum can
take without damage depends on how hard and how long the brakes are used. Too much
heat can make the brakes stop working.

S-cam Brakes. When you push the brake pedal, air is let into each brake chamber. Air
pressure pushes the rod out, moving the slack adjuster, thus twisting the brake camshaft.
This turns the s-cam (so called because it is shaped like the letter "S"). The s-cam forces
the brake shoes away from one another and presses them against the inside of the brake
drum. When you release the brake pedal, the s-cam rotates back and a spring pulls the
brake shoes away from the drum, letting the wheels roll freely again.

Wedge Brakes. In this type of brake, the brake chamber push rod pushes a wedge
directly between the ends of two brake shoes. This shoves them apart and against the
inside of the brake drum. Wedge brakes may have a single brake chamber, or two brake
chambers, pushing wedges in at both ends of the brake shoes. Wedge type brakes may be
self-adjusting or may require manual adjustment.

Disc Brakes. In air-operated disc brakes, air pressure acts on a brake chamber and slack
adjuster, like s-cam brakes. But instead of the scam, a "power screw" is used. The
pressure of the brake chamber on the slack adjuster turns the power screw. The power
screw clamps the disc or rotor between the brake lining pads of a caliper, similar to a
large c-clamp.
Wedge brakes and disc brakes are less common than s-cam brakes.

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 • Parking –brake valve
The parking-brake valve controls the parking brake system, when the brake are not
applied, the spring brake cylinder is pressurized and depressurized when the brake are
applied

• relay valve
The relay valve is used to pressurize and depressurize the brake cylinders at a faster rate.
In this means it accelerates the brake response of the service brake and parking brake
systems

• Shuttle valve
Using the shuttle valve with return flow, a single brake circuit can be controlled by
means of two separate control circuits which are safeguarded against one another, in this
manner; for example, a spring brake cylinder can be released by way of the second
control circuit when the first is defective.

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 • Spring brake cylinder
Spring brake cylinder actuates the wheel brakes in parking brake systems. They are
particularly suited to parking brake systems because when depressurized, they are in the
braking position

• Check valve
Check valve protect compressed air circuits against a loss of pressure by preventing
compressed air from flowing back to the supply circuit

• Dual line trailer control valve

In motor vehicles with dual-line brake system, the dual-line trailer control valve installed
in the tractor vehicle controls the service brake system of trailer

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 • Coupling heads
The coupling head has a threaded connection for the supply line of the trailer and a
coupling connection for the supply line to the tractor vehicle. It does not have the shutoff
element or the swivel cover. The stop lugs in the claw and in the claw guide prevent
interchanging the trailer lines during coupling.
Color Code of the Coupling Heads “Supply”: Red

• dual-line trailer brake valve

The dual line trailer brake valve, which is installed in the trailer, regulates the
compressed-air supply of the trailer and converts the braking pressure transmitted from
the brake line into braking actions of the service brake system of the trailer

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DESCRIBE HYDRO-PNEUMATIC CIRCUITS
This section describes the application, construction and operation principle of seven
compressed-air brake systems. There is a constant expansion in the scope of equipment used
where by each subsequent system description is based on the description of the preceding
brake systems. Each brake system is composed of equipment groups which are put together
using the “building block” principle.
 Equipment group A:
Compressed-air supply (generating and storing of compressed air)
 Equipment group B:
Service brake system
 Equipment group C:
Parking brake system
 Equipment group D:
Trailer control
 Equipment group E:
pneumatic suspension
 Equipment group F:
Door control

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The identification of connections used in conjunction with the graphic symbols are
accordance with DIN 74254 whereby the first digits signify:
0 Intake connection
1 Energy input
2 Energy output (not for output into the atmosphere: see identification 3)
3 Connection to atmosphere
4 Control connection (inlet on equipment)
5 Unoccupied

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 6 Unoccupied
7 Antifreeze connection
8 Lubricating-oil connection
9 Coolant connection
A second digit is to be provided if there are several similar connections, e.g.
21 Energy output to energy-storage device (compressed-air reservoir)
22 Energy output (switching connection)
If one connection can fulfil several functions, it must be identified by two (first) digits. These
are to be separated from each other by means of a dash,
e.g. 1- 2 Either energy input or energy output
1.3.1. Description of: single circuit, power assisted compressed-air brake system (low
pressure) with mechanical parking brake

Function of each component

1. Air compressor: generates compressed air by drawing in the air and compressing it.
2. Pressure regulator: regulates the operating pressure of the compressed-air brake
system.
3. Air reservoir: stores the energy necessary for braking
4. Drain valve: is used for draining condensation water from the compressed-air brake
system
Left: manually operated, right: automatic
5. Monitoring switch: monitors the operating pressure of the compressed-air brake
system.
6. Brake servo-unit cylinder: boosts the muscle power of the driver when braking
(installation: exhaust at bottom)
7. Tandem master cylinder (hydraulic): converts mechanical force into hydraulic force
for two brake circuits.
8. Wheel cylinder (hydraulic): produces the actuating force in drum brakes

1.3.2: Dual-circuit, compressed-air power system (low pressure) with mechanical

parking brake

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Function of new component
3. Dual-circuit safety valve: Distributes the compressed air coming from the pressure
regulator to two compressed-air supply circuit and, should one circuit fail, maintains the
supply to the intact circuit.
6. Low- pressure indicator: swings a pointer into the field of vision of the driver if the
pressure in one of the compressed-air supply circuit drops below a set minimum.
7. Dual-circuit brake assembly: actuates the hydraulic transmission through compressed-air
when braking (installation: connections and exhaust at bottom)
1.3.3. Dual-circuit, compressed-air brake system (low pressure) with no-linkage parking
brake.
For commercial vehicles without trailer with a gross vehicle weight from approx..8 to 15
tonnes
Construction
As in brake systems 1 and 2 there are three equipment groups: compressed-air supply (A),
service-brake system (B) and parking brake system (C). there are the following differences
from brake system 2
Four compressed-air supply circuits with three air reservoirs (instead of two compressed-air
supply circuits with two air reservoir)
 Four-circuit safety valve (instead of dual-circuit safety valve)
 Antifreeze pump (additional)

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  Monitoring switch (switch of low-pressure indicator)
 Hydraulic load-sensing valve (additional)
 No-linkage pneumatic power parking brake system instead of mechanical muscle-
power parking brake system)

Function of new component

3.Antifreeze pump: supplies antifreeze to the braking equipment to prevent condensation
water from freezing
4.four-circuit safety valve: distributes the compressed air coming from the pressure
regulator to four individual compressed-air circuits and ensures that if one circuit fails the
pressure remaining circuits is maintained.
10. load-sensing valve (hydraulic): regulates the brake pressure as a function of the loading
condition of the vehicle.
14. relay valve: accelerates the admission of air and removal of air from the brake cylinder.
15. spring-brake cylinder: converts the potential energy stored in a spring into mechanical
energy, e.g. into braking energy for the parking brake.

1.3.4: Dual circuit compressed-air power brake system (hight pressure) with no-linkage
parking brake
For commercial vehicles without trailer with a gross vehicle weight from approx. 6 to 13
tonnes
Construction

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As in brake systems 1 and 3 there are three equipment groups: compressed-air supply(A),
service brake system (B) and parking-brake system (C). There are the following differences
from brake system 3:
 High-pressure operation for service-brake system
 No anti-free pump
 Service-brake valve and actuating cylinder for brake master cylinder (instead of dual-
circuit brake assembly)
 Pressure limitation for parking-brake system and secondary loads
 No hydraulic load-sensing valve
 No relay valves

Function of new component

7. pressure limiter: limits the air pressure to a given level
9.dual-circuit actuating cylinder: converts pneumatic force into mechanical force for
actuating hydraulic master cylinder
8. service brake valve: actuates the air-controlled brake circuits of a service-brake system
Top: for high pressure, bottom, for low pressure

1.3.5: Dual-circuit, compressed-air power-brake system (low pressure) With pneumatic

suspension, pneumatic door control and no linkage parking brake
For bus with pneumatic suspension

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Function of new component
9.brake cylinder (diaphragm-type cylinder): acts on the wheel brakes when the service-
brake system is operated
11.combination brake cylinder (with diaphragm-type cylinder) acts on the wheel brakes
when the service-brake system is operated.
14. shuttle valve: of two compressed-air inlets, connects the higher-pressure inlet to the
compressed-air outlet
16. height -control valve: regulates the amount of air in the spring bellows so that the
vehicle body and road surfaces. Also ensures that there is the same clearance between body
and road surface irrespective of vehicle loading.
17. air-spring bellows: damp the vehicle body when the road surface is uneven and maintain
the surface irrespective of vehicle loading.
18. solenoid-operated valve: converts electric pulses into compressed-air surges for
actuating the working cylinders for opening the vehicle doors.

1.3.6: Dual-circuit, dual-line compressed-air power-brake system (low pressure)

For trailer operation with no-linkage parking brake
For commercial vehicle for trailer operation with a gross vehicle weight above 16 tonnes
Construction
The brake system is composed of four equipment groups. The compressed air supply group A
generates compressed air at low pressure 8 bar stores it and delivers it to the service brake
system group B to the parking brake system group C and through the trailer control group D
to the trailer air reservoir. A part from the absence of pneumatic suspension and door control,
there are the following differences from brake system 5:
 Trailer control for supplying and controlling the trailer-brake systems

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  Pneumatic load-sensing valve
 Combination brake cylinders with piston actuators instead of diaphragm-type
cylinders
 Non-return valve for safeguarding the parking-brake system

Function of new component

10.load-sensing valve (pneumatic): regulates the brake pressure as a function of the loading
condition of the vehicle.
11. combination brake cylinder (with piston actuator): acts on the wheel brakes when the
service brake system is actuated.
12. non-return valve: allows compressed air to flow in but prevents it from flowing back.
16. trailer control valve: transmits the control pressure of the brake systems of the tractor
vehicle through the brake line to the trailer.
17. coupling head “supply”: connects the supply line between tractor and trailer.
18. coupling head “brakes”: connects the line between tractor and trailer.
1.3.7. Single-circuit, dual-line compressed-air trailer power-brake system (low pressure)
with mechanical parking brake
For trailers with single-circuit dual-line brake system and a gross weight of not more than 16
Tonnes
Construction
The brake system is composed of three equipment groups : the compressed-air supply and
control (equipment group A) supplies the system with compressed air from the tractor vehicle
and controls the service-brake system (equipment group B) in accordance with the pressures
applied to the brake line from the tractor vehicle the service brake system acts pneumatically
on the wheel brakes of all axles. The parking system (equipment C) acts on the rear axle
wheel brakes through a linkage.
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3.Trailer-brake valve : is pneumatilly controlled and actuates the service-brake system in
the trailer.
PUMPING THEORY (PRINCIPLE OF PUMP)
Normally the powered electric motor converts the electrical energy into
mechanical energy which is used to drive the shaft of the pump. The pump in
turn coverts the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by creating a partial
vacuum at the inlet, which induces the atmospheric pressure to force the fluid
through the inlet line. Then the internal design of the pump mechanically pushes
the fluid to the outlet line.
1. How a Pump Works ?
The working principle of the pump can be better explained by referring to the
simple piston pump as shown in Fig.4.1.
• In contrast, the devices used to convert hydraulic energy into mechanical
energy are known as turbines or motors.
• Instead of liquid, if gas is employed then other terms may be used. If the
primary objective is to increase the pressure of the gas, the device is termed a
compressor. On the other hand, a device used primarily for causing the
movement of a gas is known as a fan or blower.

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As shown in Fig.4.1, the pump has the following two ball-check valves :
Inlet check valve: It is connected to the pump inlet to allow fluid to enter the
pump.
Outlet check valve: It is connected to the pump outlet to allow fluid to leave the
pump.
When the piston is pulled to the right, a partial vacuum is generated in pump
cavity. The vacuum created in the cavity makes the outlet check valve to close
the outlet line and allows the atmospheric pressure to push fluid from the
reservoir into the pump via the inlet check valve.
When the piston is pushed to the left, the fluid movement forces the inlet check
valve to close and open the outlet check valve. The quantity of fluid displaced
by the piston is ejected out through the outlet line. Thus the pump produces
flow of fluid.
2. Uses of Pump (Where Do You Need a Pump ?)
The two broad applications of pump are given below:
1. Pump is used to transport liquid as the case in pumps for the irrigation or
pumps used in house. In this case, the outlet line is open to the atmosphere.
There is no resistance to the fluid flow, so there will be no discharge pressure
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above atmosphere but there will be flow. These types of pumps will fall into
positive displacement pumps (refer Section 4.3.1).
2. Pump is used to develop pressure in fluid-power systems. In fluid-power
systém, outlet line is not exposed to atmosphere (output line is blocked). Liquid
is ideally an incompressible fluid, so the resistance to the fluid flow delivered at
the outlet line is the pressure developed by the pump. The hydraulic power
developed by pumps is converted back into mechanical energy by hydraulic
actuators connected to the output line. Theoretically we have infinite resistance
to flow. The pressure will therefore rise until some component breaks unless
pressure relief is provided. That's why the pressure relief valve is used in fluid-
power systems. When the pressure reaches the set value, the relief value will
open to allow the flow back to the oil tank.

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