CHAPTER- 1
INTRODUCTION
Man is the wisest of all living beings by only one thing- his extraordinary power of thinking
and expressing emotions. Without this power, he will be no better species than innumerable
other ones. Except for knowledge, all other beings have the exact necessities as human beings-
food, shelter, and covering. However, in man's case, we can say that he has four needs in today's
world- food, shelter, clothing, and education. The government has made the fourth necessity
plausible to all through various initiatives.
In his speech, the former Prime Minister of India, Dr. Manmohan Singh, said that India's
education policies should be implemented practically.1 One will be moved if goes through the
text of Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh's televised address to the nation where he took a
leaf out of his modest background to urge all the nation's States to join the national effort that
the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act embodies. He was born to a
family with little means. He had to walk for a longer distance to reach the school and used the
dim light of the kerosene lamp for reading. He indicated how he managed to achieve so much
with minimal support and emphasized that only education could lead to one’s success in life.
Therefore, education is a crucial sphere to look forward to. India is a developing country. And,
a country's roots should be healthy to proceed towards development.
Similarly, Prime Minister Narendra Modi taking oath for his second term in 2019, focussed on
the new concept of 'outcome-based quality education.' In the BJP manifesto, they incorporated
"while keeping the education system in pace with modern trends…our efforts will continue
towards an outcome-focused, knowledge-oriented and students focused education system".2
The manifesto also emphasized that the Human Resource Development Ministry has identified
the learning outcomes for various classes, and therefore, the main concern in the next five years
would be to ensure that the children achieve these learning outcomes in the targeted areas.
In the globalizing world, the importance of quality education is gaining momentum across the
globe. The Indian government has already acknowledged that access, equality, and quality are
1
PM’s address on Fundamental Right of Children to Elementary Education, THE HINDU (April 1, 2010),
https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/PMs-Address-on-Fundamental-Right-of-Children-to-Elementary-
Education/article16327375.ece, (Last visited on August 23, 2019, 5:16 PM).
2
Prashant K. Nanda, What to expect in education from PM Modi's second term in office, MINT (May 30, 2019,
13:22 PM), https://www.livemint.com/news/india/what-to-expect-in-education-from-pm-modi-s-second-term-in-
office-1559194177586.html.
1
the necessary pillars of the universalization of elementary education. Children having access
to schools are not receiving a quality education. The data result of the thirty schools in Bhopal
attempts to examine the quality of education in terms of access and learning outcomes. The
present study also investigates the problems of inadequate infrastructure and poor academic
facilities:
a) How is the quality of education affected by inadequate educational facilities?
b) Children most affected by the low quality of schools face problems relating to education
and vocational disadvantage. Identification of these groups of children.
c) Lastly, is there any influence of lack of resources (both physical and technical) on
children's access to quality education?
In India, the need to promote faster access to information facilitates communication with
people, and the improvement of educational standards enables human development. The
current study results will help various government officials, school administrators, and parents
see the key requirements for achieving the dream of making India a 100% educated country in
almost a decade. In addition, the primary data collected in this study will serve as a guide for
other researchers in their research for additional information. It can also help those who are
interested in the field of primary education research.
1.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
1.1.1 EDUCATION IN THE VEDIC AGE (3000 B.C.-1400 B.C.):- played a vital role in
society's upliftment. In the infancy of humanity, education was quite conscious, and the chief
purposes for attaining education were self-realization, character building, the fulfillment of
social responsibility, etc. As we know, Rig-Veda is the earliest piece of literature, and it is a
perfect picture of the Hindu civilization of that period. The history contains a transparent and
linked account of arts and industries, the advancement of learning, the progress of the mind,
and the evolution of ideas. Veda's word means 'knowledge,' something distinguished from
learning, and refers to the human mind's intuitive faculty.3 During this period, education was a
rule given by the father to his son at home. Reaching the ideals was through morality and family
values. The young generations were told to use their knowledge of actual life to attain their
objectives.
3
V P BOKIL, THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN INDIA, 172 (1925).
2
The priest taught his son the art of language and recitals of hymns, which was no doubt the
beginning of Brahman's teachings. Sanskrit was undoubtedly the official language of usage and
also a language of instruction. Brahmin's children went to the priest to learn the hymns. The
children of Kshatriya and Vaishyas also leaned the hymns. The school was held in a cottage or
under a shady tree near the priest's residence for an hour a day. The teacher, by his personality
and ability, provided all the needs of an organized institution. He received no ordinary money
from the king but was allowed to enjoy tax-free land around his cottage and was given
occasional gifts by wealthy family members for their sacrifices or school visits.
The instructors were of two classes, namely Acharya and Upadhyaya. According to the ancient
texts, Acharya conducted a Upnayana ceremony and taught Veda, cult literature, and the
Upanishads. The Acharya was superior to the learned brahmins, whereas the Upadhyay was
superior to the Acharyas. The function of Acharya was to impart knowledge, and the Upadhyay
imparted the knowledge by combining information. The Brahmins provided information on
religion, philosophy, and other auxiliary branches, while the Kshatriyas were trained in various
military units.4 The Vaishyas were taught their trade, and the lowest in class Shudras, could
also benefit from education.5 Vedic education was accessible to all. All fields of religion and
belief could join Vedic education. The manuscript, Manu Smriti, and book on political
administration, the Arthashastra, were among the works that influenced the thinking era and
reflected the worldview and understanding.6 Monasteries, higher institutions of learning and
universities grew up in India prematurely and continued to provide education.7
1.1.2 EDUCATION IN THE EPIC AGE (1400 B.C.-600 B.C.):- In the Epic Age, history
confirms the priestly domination. Little boys were taken to the teacher for instruction, and this
became a sacred ritual performed regularly by Brahmana, Vaishya, or Kshatriya, known as
Upnayana Sanskaar. In the Later Vedic period, education was reserved for families, and there
was no such ceremony. Pupils acquiring Vedic knowledge were called Dwija (born twice)
because Upanayana was considered the second birth. Great importance was given to education,
the beginning of which was a form of student rebirth. As interpreted by Mahabharata, religion
was the main aim of education, 'Dharma' was the term given. Brahmin priests controlled all
4
Major Features of the Vedic System of Education in Ancient India, VEDIC EDUCATION, (August 10, 2019,
8:23 AM), https://educational-system.blogspot.com/2013/07/vedic-education.html.
5
Dr. Mahesh V. Chaudhary, Education System and Sanskrit Literature of Vedic Age, 10 RESEARCH G.J.3, 21
(2016).
6
Supra 3.
7
Vedic and Post Vedic Education, ARCHIVE, (July 19, 2019, 10:45 AM),
http://archive.mu.ac.in/myweb_test/ma%20edu/History%20of%20Edu..pdf.
3
learning, and the lower caste ‘Shudras’ were kept in darkness. The Brahmin families kept intact
the Vedic knowledge and passed it on from generation to generation. While writing or printing
was unknown, some people became involved in the arts and manufacturing industries. At a
practical level, stratification was based on castes where the educational benefit was not granted
to them as they were involved in different occupations and the upper two castes were dominant.
The woman maintained a special status in the family and participated in sacrificial events. Not
only she received education in home science but also reading and writing. Brahmin girls got
the best access to education as the ancient education system produced many geniuses like
Maitreyi, Arundhati, and Gargi. They were well-trained as they participated in philosophical
discussions with their husbands. Women and men of the lower classes gradually lost their right
to self-education, or we may say that during that period, education was not a concept of
'privilege' but a religious duty to preserve one's interests. A Non-Governmental Organization
(NGO) study called Eklavya states that forms of discrimination in education may have changed
in terms of gender and demographics, but they continue to exist in subtle ways. There is some
blindness in the discrimination of minority groups that seems to have improved over time, and
bias is defined in more complex and tangible ways as impunity or restricted access to space.
The truth, which included these forms of prejudice, is regarded as a historical event, which may
have continued as a wave of silent anger that needed to be dealt with in political demonstrations
rather than everyday life. The spread of Jainism and Buddhism has had some effect on the
liberation of women and the Shudras.
Along with the monks, the Buddhist institutions also appeared. These institutions taught
practical subjects like medicine, etc. The most significant urban centers of learning were Taxila
and Nalanda. During his visit, the Islamic scholar Alberuni (973-1048 CE) said India already
had a complex mathematical and scientific system and developed many innovations.
1.1.3 EDUCATION IN THE MEDIEVAL AGE (2ND CENTURY B.C.):- In this period,
education was personal. Firoz Shah Tughlaq instituted several Madrasas (Islamic schools
which provided Koranic education). However, the British culture and the revolutionary
movement in the nineteenth century had a beneficial effect on India. The upper classes in the
Indian culture became acquainted with the western education. Although the Britishers are often
criticized for devastating the economy of India, but they incorporated several radical changes
to the education system. An example we can find is a social reformer Raja Ram Mohan Roy,
4
who focused on education and founded the Anglo-Hindu school & Vedanta College where he
offered courses that were a synthesis of Indo-Western learning.
Lord Macaulay, who arrived in India (Madras) on June 10, 1834, focused on the academic
improvement of only those people who wanted to pursue higher studies and had sufficient
means for the same. He emphasized the importance of the English language, which had become
the ruling class's language. In the mid-nineteenth and the early twentieth century, the primary
and secondary education was uplifted by the British from around 0.6% in 1867 to over 3.5%
in 1941. Though, in Europe, primary education was 8% in 1911, and secondary education was
18%.8 Literacy rate improved as India's literacy rate was only 5%; however, after
independence, it was almost 20%.9
1.1.4 EDUCATION IN POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD:- Shortly after gaining
independence in 1947, education was the forefront concern of the GOI as a significant obstacle
for improving the lives of Indian people. The major achievement during this period was that
access to education which was only confined to the elite classes became accessible to all. The
GOI drafted the National Education Policy 1986 and ratified the Program of Action. In its
Program of Action, the government-initiated measures to set up the District Primary Education
Program and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. Shortly after that, the Constitution (Eighty-Sixth
Amendment), 2002, made primary education a fundamental right for children between six and
fourteen years. It was followed by the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education
Act, 2009, coming into effect on August 26, 2009.
1.1.5 EDUCATION IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY:- In the 2011 census, the total
literacy rate in India was 74.04 %. The female literacy rate was only 65.46 % in comparison to
males, 82.14 %. However, the discrepancy between male and female literacy rates improved
in 2011 by 6% (21.59 % in 2001 and reduced to 16.68 %) in 2011.10 Likewise, in the 2011
census, Madhya Pradesh stood in the 28th position (out of the 29 states), ranking among the
least educated states with only 70.63% literacy. If we look at the recent 2017-2018 data, the
national literacy rate is 77.7 %, with Kerala having the highest literacy rate.11 The literacy rate
8
NIALL FERGUSON, EMPIRE: HOW BRITAIN MADE THE MODERN WORLD, 191 (3rd ed. 2003)
9
State of Literacy, CENSUS OF INDIA, (July 22, 2019, 5:36 PM), https://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-
results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter6.pdf.
10
Id.
11
Anisha Singh, International Literacy Day 2019 Today; Figures On Language And Literacy In India, NDTV EDUCATION
(September 8, 2019), https://www.ndtv.com/education/international-literacy-day-2019-figures-on-language-and-
literacy-in-india-2097323 (Last visited on July 30, 2019).
5
among males is more elevated than women, i.e., 84.7% and 70.3%.12 This disparity is similar
in all the states. UNESCO announced September 8 as the ‘International Literacy Day’ for the
first time in 1966. The theme for ‘International Literacy Day: 2020’ was “literacy, teaching,
and learning in the COVID-19 crisis and beyond”. After the striking of the pandemic, the
educational patterns and teaching-learning techniques have changed in the entire world.
Education has taken a digital form. Particularly in India, people have become more prone to
technology and digital media. Most private schools organized online classes in the entire
period, but it was still a question mark for Government schools.
1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW
India's education system has grown steadily over the past six decades affecting national literacy
rates from 16% in 1951 to 65% in 2001. Of late, India's census commissioner released
provisional data from the 2011 census, according to which the literacy rate reached 75%. In
her study, Tanushree Chandra (2019) states that official statistics direct the enrollment of all
children 6-14 compulsory education, and the number of schools has grown to more than one
million, yet the quality of education provided in these schools remains a matter of concern.13 It
is intimidating that many Vth grade children lack the necessary learning skills and remain
excluded from conventional development. Many educationists and researchers have criticized
the quality of education in India. Bajpai and Goyal (2004) found that quality education in India
has often been an issue, and GOI has taken several efforts from time to time giving quality
much importance.14 Also, special attention is given to 'backward regions,' which have lower
levels of education. In her study, Joanna Harma (2010) stated that even though the government
takes extraordinary efforts to prioritize quality education, many researchers have argued that
the situation is not satisfactory, particularly in educationally backward states.15 NUEPA (2008)
data shows that though approximately 93% of children enroll in schools, only about 30%
12
Nandini, International Literacy Day 2020: Kerala Most Literate State in India, HINDUSTAN TIMES
(September 8, 2020), https://www.hindustantimes.com/education/international-literacy-day-2020-kerala-most-
literate-state-in-india-check-rank-wise-list/story-IodNVGgy5hc7PjEXUBKnIO.html (Last visited on July 19,
2021).
13
Tanushree Chandra, Literacy in India: The gender and age dimension, 322 Observer Research Foundation, 23,
45 (2019).
14
Bajpai, Nirupam; Goyal, Sangeeta, Primary Education in India: Quality and Coverage Issues, COLUMBIA
ACADEMIC COMMONS, (July 20, 2021, 10:12 PM),
https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8G1604S.
15
Joanna Harma, Low-cost private schooling in India: Is it pro poor and equitable? 31 International Journal of
Ed. Devp. 350-356 (2011).
6
continue to complete five years of study, and nearly 50% drop out without completing an eight-
year academic period.16 Field study conducted by a non-governmental organization called
PROBE indicate that children begin to fall behind academically from the earliest grades and
eventually drop out of school during the first phase.17
On the one hand, the problem arises when many children do not progress in the early stages,
and on the other hand, the pace of the curriculum requires a rapid acceleration in Grades III
and IV, thus creating the difficulty of catching up. One of the critical findings of the All-India
Survey conducted in 28 districts in India by the NGO Pratham (2006) was that 47% of children
in Grade V could not even read Grade II text fluently.18 The primary reasons are that it is not
enough to realize that many children, especially those from economically-disadvantaged
families and communities, are first-generation students, and adults at home have never gone to
school at all.
In addition, there is not enough support, space, hope, time, attention to educate a child and
strengthen them to succeed in the formal school system. A study conducted by the National
Council for Education and Training Research (2009) also found similar results, showing the
need to improve children's skills in early school.19 Other studies by Banerji et al. report low
passing rates in the final grades of primary schools, e.g., a national NCERT survey in 1994,
which found that children achieved 47% in language and 41% in mathematics.20 Studies
conducted with Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Delhi, and Madhya Pradesh also show similar results. L.
Pritchett et al. describes a typical III to V graders survey; it was found that only 12% of students
could do a single-digit subtraction, whereas 46% could not.21 A study by Das et al. (2007)
found that for public school students in Grades VI-VIII, who have completed elementary
school and successfully passed V Grade in school records, 31% could not read a simple story,
16
National University of Educational Planning and Administration, Annual Report 2007-2008, NUEPA, (July 20,
2019, 3:55 PM), http://14.139.60.153/handle/123456789/6959.
17
Public Report on Basic Education in India, THE PROBE TEAM, (July 20, 2019, 11:05 AM)
https://www.undp.org/content/dam/india/docs/public_report_basic_education_india.pdf.
18
Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2006, ASER, (July 20, 2019, 11:29 AM),
https://img.asercentre.org/docs/Publications/ASER%20Reports/ASER_2006/AnnualStatusofEducationReportRu
ral2006FullReport.pdf.
19
Eight All India School Education Survey, NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND
TRAINING, (July 23, 2020, 12:20 AM),
https://ncert.nic.in/pdf/programmes/AISES/8th_AISES_Concise_Report.pdf.
20
Abhijit V. Banerjee Shawn Cole, et. al., Remedying Education: Evidence from Two Randomised Experiments in
India, (July 21, 2021, 9:15 AM), https://economics.mit.edu/files/804.
21
Lant Pritchett and Martina Viarengo, The Illusion of Equality: The Educational Consequences of Blinding Weak
States, For Example, 78 CENTRE FOR GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT WORKING PAPER 1, 12 (2009).
7
29% could not do the calculation.22 Pritchett and Pandey (2006) point out that between 50% -
80% of children do not have adequate primary education skills is a significant cause of
concern.23
With the duties of the State, it is also the duty of the parents, students, schools, and other
educational institutions to take education seriously for the human dignity of an individual. The
admission procedure and the role of the teachers are crucial. So, one should not only
concentrate on the State's duties and the individuals' rights, but each one has a duty to be
performed. All of us shall take steps to curb illiteracy in our surroundings as we can always
stop children from being taken as labor instead helping them attend schools. Article 21-A of
the Constitution of India, read with the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education
Act, 2009, makes education a fundamental right of every child between the ages of 6 and 14
and specifies minimum government schools' norms.24 The Act requires the reservation of 25%
seats in private schools for children from low-income families25; the unrecognized schools are
prohibited from practice26 and makes provisions for no donation or capitation fees and no child
or parent’s interview for admission.27
In addition, the Act provides that no child may be detained, expelled, or required to pass a
board examination until primary school.28 There is also a unique training program for school
leavers to fit in with their peers.29 The Right to Education for Persons with Disabilities is also
included under this Act.30 The Act establishes the National Commission for the Protection of
the Rights of the Child and State Commissions to oversee the proper implementation of the
Act, the monitoring of complaints, and the protection of children's rights. There are also
provisions for improving school infrastructure, teacher-student ratios, and expertise within the
Act. The Expenditure Committee was set up in 2010 under the Government of India to study
the financial requirement of Rs 1.71 trillion over the next five years to implement the Act, and
22
Ashwini Tiwari and Ajay Kumar Das et. al., Inclusive Education a ‘rhetoric’ or ‘reality’? Teacher’s
Perspectives and Beliefs 52 TEACHING AND TEACHER EDUCATION 128, 132 (2015).
23
Supra 3.
24
The Constitution (Eighty-Sixth Amendment) Act, 2002.
25
Section 12(1) (c) of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009.
26
Section 18(1) of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009.
27
Section 13 of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009.
28
Section 16 of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009.
29
Section 4 of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009.
30
Anuradha Mohit, Meera Pillai et. al., Rights of the Disabled 35 NHRC 11 (2006).
8
the government agreed to allocate the fund at 65:35 between the Central Government and the
provinces, and 90:10 ratio for north-eastern regions.31
Almost 160 countries enrolled themselves in the year 2000 to progress towards education as
72 million students are still out of school, indicating slow economic growth and rising poverty.
However, as per the GMR Report 2010, the number of children not attending school has fallen
by 33 million, and more children are completing an entire cycle of primary education. In India,
the gender gap has declined because the number of children not in school dropped by 15 million
in barely two years, from 2001 to 2003.32 Thus, all studies show that more than 50% do not
acquire essential reading and writing competencies. One of the critical questions raised in this
research is whether low levels of learning have been the cause of illiteracy and the inability to
continue productively in adulthood.
1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
To get a good education, the following conditions must be met: a) ensure enrollment and
regular attendance b) quality teaching c) meaningful and practical learning d) appropriate
opportunities of transition to further education, especially within the vital educational cycle e)
equal learning opportunities for children especially for girls. Lack of adequate funding is one
of the biggest problems in improving education in India. Due to financial constraints, many
educational institutions lack the infrastructure, scientific-digital resources, libraries, etc.
Without financial protection and planning, we are not ready to achieve 100% literacy due to
the country's high illiteracy. Our education system depends on general education. Dropout rates
are high, which need necessary and helpful measures. Children between the ages of 6-14 drop
out of school before completing their studies, which leads to the wastage of funds and
resources. A large number of primary schools have single-teacher schools. We can say that
there is an increase in several training programs for the teachers and students, but we are
lagging in self-development.
31
Centre- States to share funds at 65:35 ratio for RTE, India, INDIA TODAY (July 4, 2020, 7:55 AM),
https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/centre-states-to-share-funds-at-6535-ratio-for-rte-79551-2010-07-29.
32
Id.
9
1.4 HYPOTHESIS
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, has partially succeeded
in providing quality education in the Bhopal district. The two quality parameters, i.e., the access
and standard of education, and the infrastructural facilities available in schools, are essential
and need to be analyzed.
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
a) Whether the implementation of the right of children to receive elementary education is
adequate and proper?
b) Whether the quality of education imparted in schools is satisfactory?
c) Whether the children from disadvantaged society are provided with the same quality
of education when they are admitted to the private schools under the reservation
scheme of Section 12 (1) (c) of the RTE Act?
d) Which of the different pedagogical approaches have the most significant impact on the
development of quality education?
e) Is there appropriate exposure to the use of ICT (Information and Communication
Technology) in schools?
1.6 STUDY SAMPLE AND METHODOLOGY
The sample selection of schools was from the Bhopal district of Madhya Pradesh, wherein the
area was divided into five zones, i.e., north, south, east, west, and central. It includes ten
government schools, ten private schools, and ten minority schools from the entire district. The
district's selection was purposive based on the researcher's home state and its ranking (28th
position) among the 29 states at present. Five schools were tried to cover within each zonal
area to remain unbiased and retain objectivity in the study, thereby making a sample of 30
schools in the Bhopal district of Madhya Pradesh. A questionnaire for four target groups
(teachers, Principals, students, and their parents) was used to collect school data.
10
1.7 LIMITATION OF RESEARCH
This research is confined to the analysis and survey conducted in Bhopal District. The city was
chosen for the study as it was the researcher's hometown. Thirty sample schools across the
district were selected for this study. These models were chosen randomly, prioritizing the
researcher’s accessibility. The instant research is not a comparison as to the status of quality
education among other states. It evaluates how effectively the RTE Act, 2009 is being
implemented in Bhopal city and how effectively we may expect quality learning outcomes
from the elementary schools. Data for this research were collected in 2018; conclusions and
suggestions are based up to that period.
1.8 CHAPTER OUTLINE
Chapter-I discusses the giant strides made towards implementation of education; there
remains an open question as to declining quality education in government schools, particularly
in backward areas, mainly due to ineffective leadership, inadequate training of teachers, the
low salary of teachers, limited professional development opportunities to the teachers, focus
on quantity rather than quality, a weak economic environment of the parents. This research
demonstrates that providing quality education at the primary level remains a challenging task
for the government. It can be stated that the GOI has a long way to go to achieve the Education
for All Goals within the customary indicated time frame, and, before that, it is essential for the
government to also focus upon rendering the quality standards of the primary and middle
schools. Low quality of schooling compromises the whole human capital development system
as it results in the unpreparedness of the students for secondary and higher education and
unfurnished for lifelong learning. The following Chapters attempts to identify the main
problems threatening the quality of primary education.
Chapter-II is about the historical evolution of the Indian education system, which looks at the
state of education in India in ancient times, examines its development over millennia, and
proposes its future trajectory. The first part of the Chapter briefly looks at the foreign influence
on the educational landscape in India. The second part presents different teaching perspectives
of different thinkers as well as practices in other countries. The third part considers the current
Indian educational landscape and provides well-thought-out "glamor-free" suggestions to
improve the system as a whole. It will bring back the pride of Indian civilization in education
11
to revive the traditional attitude of the people towards education, yet they will resume their
traditional leadership in teaching the newest and best in this field. Students from Greece, China,
and other parts of the world have a delighted time studying in educational institutions in India.
India must restore that pride. This Chapter strongly suggests that this can be achieved if
policymakers combine traditional Indian systems with new experimental ideas and methods.
Chapter-III focuses on the post-independence scenario and various government policies and
judicial pronouncements to universalize education by making education a fundamental right
through Article 21-A of India's Constitution. This Chapter comprehensively chronicles India's
education policymaking from 1947 to 2016, focusing on the developments after 1964 when the
Kothari Commission was constituted. It brings out a crucial analysis of the Indian educational
system against national and global political, economic, and educational developments. In
writing this narrative as a participant-observer, the researcher has tried to be as objective and
self-critical as a human being could be. However, the researcher is conscious that being human
and only all too human, she failed to escape her personal preferences and prejudices totally and
what follows is not so much history as ‘his-story’.
Nevertheless, it is believed that this narrative has merit when the dust settles down, and a
scholar could write of this period as an outsider and not as one lived through by him; he needs
sources. Suffice to say that this history would serve as the source for future scholars of Indian
education. Chapter-IV deals with the critical analysis of the RTE Act, 2009. The core issues
discussed in this Chapter are: first, this law condemns the age standard because it only allows
children aged 6-14 and does not allow children under 18 to enjoy the same rights. Second, the
law mandates a 25% reservation policy for needy children in private schools; This leads to a
wide gap between the cost of education per student and the reimbursement provided by the
government, resulting in a deficit question. Third, the law prescribes the inclusion of children
in a class according to age but does not prescribe any bridge course to prepare children to adjust
to the class they have entered. Another critical flaw in the law has not prescribed penalty if
government officials fail to perform their duties. Chapter-V discusses the status of primary
education in the State of Madhya Pradesh vis-à-vis Bhopal. Since Madhya Pradesh comprises
most rural areas, Bhopal is its capital; it is essential to evaluate primary education quality in
government schools. That has been examined with various government, and non-government
reports have been analyzed, state government schemes have been appraised, budget allocation
(both at state as well as Centre level) has been discussed and, it has been found that Madhya
12
Pradesh has failed to render quality education in the Government primary schools despite its
efforts.
A report submitted by the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (2010) assessing the
implementation of the Right to Free and Compulsory Education of India (RTE) Act, 2009,
clearly states that the performance of the RTE Act in the State of Madhya Pradesh is
disorganized as no separate budget has been allocated for this purpose and activities are carried
out through the funds available under Sarva Siksha Abhiyan.33 Chapter-VI deals with the
statistical study of the implementation of the RTE Act, 2009 in Bhopal, based on the data
collected and compiled and people interviewed from among the 30 schools of Bhopal city. This
Chapter discusses the standard of primary education in Bhopal city, which is judged on quality
parameters as prescribed in the hypothesis. The findings suggest how the RTE Act has failed
in providing quality education among primary school children in Government schools. Finally,
the last Chapter-VII is the conclusion and suggestions based on the study's findings
enumerated in the preceding Chapters.
33
Comptroller and Auditor General of India, Report No. 23 of 2017 – Compliance Audit Union Government
Implementation of Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education, CAG, (July 30, 2021, 8:15 AM),
https://cag.gov.in/cag_old/content/report-no23-2017-compliance-audit-union-government-implementation-right-
children-free-and.
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