CHAPTER 13

Prof Tanya Stott

T: 051 401 2754 [email protected] www.ufs.ac.za/it

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 Objectives (cont’d.)
• About the types of decisions the query
optimizer has to make
• Some common practices used to write
efficient SQL code
• How to formulate queries and tune the
DBMS for optimal performance

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 Database Performance-Tuning
Concepts
• Goal of database performance is to
execute queries as fast as possible
• End users and DBMS interact as follows:
– The end user application generates a query
– The query is sent to the DBMS
– The DBMS executes the query
– The DBMS sends the resulting data set to the
end user
• This must occur as fast as possible

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 Database Performance-Tuning
Concepts
• Database performance tuning
– Set of activities and procedures designed to
reduce response time of database system
• All factors must operate at optimum level with
minimal bottlenecks
• Good database performance starts with good
database design – no amount of fine-tuning
will make a poorly designed database
perform as well as a well-designed database

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 Performance Tuning:
Client and Server
• Client side
– Generate SQL query that returns correct answer
in least amount of time
• Using minimum amount of resources at server
– SQL performance tuning
• Server side
– DBMS environment configured to respond to
clients’ requests as fast as possible
• Optimum use of existing resources
– DBMS performance tuning

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 DBMS Architecture
• All data in database are stored in data files
• Data files
– Automatically expand in predefined
increments known as extends
– Grouped in file groups or table spaces
• Table space or file group
– Logical grouping of several data files that
store data with similar characteristics

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 DBMS Architecture (cont’d.)
• Data cache or buffer cache: shared, reserved
memory area
– Stores most recently accessed data blocks in
RAM
• SQL cache or procedure cache: stores most
recently executed SQL statements
– Also PL/SQL procedures, including triggers and
functions
• DBMS retrieves data from permanent storage
and places it in RAM

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 DBMS Architecture (cont’d.)
• Input/output request: low-level data access
operation to/from computer devices
• Data cache is faster than data in data files
– DBMS does not wait for hard disk to retrieve data
• Majority of performance-tuning activities
focus on minimizing I/O operations
• Typical DBMS processes:
– Listener, user, scheduler, lock manager, optimizer

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 Database Query Optimization
Modes
• Most of the algorithms for query
optimization are based on two principles:
– The selection of the optimum execution order
– The selection of sites to be accessed to
minimize communication costs

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 Database Query Optimization
Modes
• Automatic query optimization
– DBMS finds the most cost-effective access
path without user intervention
• Manual query optimization
– Requires that the optimization be selected
and scheduled by the end user or
programmer

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 Database Query Optimization
Modes
• Query optimization algorithms can be
classified according to when the
optimization is done:
– Static query optimization
• Takes place at compilation time (when the query is
compiled by the DBMS)
– Dynamic query optimization
• Takes place at execution time (Database access
strategy is defined when the program is executed)

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 Database Query Optimization
Modes
• Dynamic query optimization
– Uses the most up-to-date information about
the database
– Dynamic query optimization is efficient but its
cost is measured by run-time processing
overhead
– The best strategy is determined every time
the query is executed, which could happen
several times in the same program

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 Database Query Optimization
Modes (cont’d.)
• Statistically based query optimization
algorithm
– Uses statistical information about the
database
– Dynamic statistical generation mode
– Manual statistical generation mode
• Rule-based query optimization algorithm
– Based on a set of user-defined rules to
determine the best query access strategy

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 Database Statistics
• Measurements about database objects
and available resources:
– Tables
– Indexes
– Number of processors used
– Processor speed
– Temporary space available

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 Database Statistics (cont’d.)
• Make critical decisions about improving
query processing efficiency
• Can be gathered manually by DBA or
automatically by DBMS

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 Query Processing
• DBMS processes queries in three phases
– Parsing
• DBMS parses the query and chooses the most
efficient access/execution plan
– Execution
• DBMS executes the query using chosen execution
plan
– Fetching
• DBMS fetches the data and sends the result back
to the client

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 SQL Parsing Phase
• Break down query into smaller units
• Transform original SQL query into slightly
different version of original SQL code
– Fully equivalent
• Optimized query results are always the same as
original query
– More efficient
• Optimized query will almost always execute faster than
original query
– Statistics are used to determine the most efficient
way to execute the query

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 SQL Parsing Phase (cont’d.)
• Query optimizer analyzes SQL query and
finds most efficient way to access data
– Validated for syntax compliance
– Validated against data dictionary
• Tables and column names are correct
• User has proper access rights
– Analyzed and decomposed into components
– Optimized
– Prepared for execution

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 SQL Parsing Phase (cont’d.)
• Once the SQL statement is transformed, the DBMS
creates an access or execution plan
• Access plans are DBMS-specific
– Translate client’s SQL query into a series of complex I/O
operations
– Required to read the data from the physical data files and
generate result set
• DBMS checks if access plan already exists for query
in SQL cache
• DBMS reuses the access plan to save time
• If not, optimizer evaluates various plans
– Chosen plan placed in SQL cache

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 SQL Execution Phase
• All I/O operations indicated in access plan
are executed
– Locks acquired
– Data retrieved and placed in data cache
– Transaction management commands
processed

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 SQL Fetching Phase
• All rows matching the specified condition
are retrieved, sorted, grouped and/or
agrregated
• Rows of resulting query result set are
returned to client
• DBMS may use temporary table space to
store temporary data

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 Query Processing Bottlenecks
• Delay introduced in the processing of an
I/O operation that slows the system
– CPU
– RAM
– Hard disk
– Network
– Application code

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Indexes and Query Optimization
• Indexes
– Crucial in speeding up data access
– Facilitate searching, sorting, and using
aggregate functions as well as join operations
– Ordered set of values that contains index key
and pointers
• More efficient to use index to access table
than to scan all rows in table sequentially

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 Indexes and Query Optimization
(cont’d.)
• Data sparsity: number of different values a
column could possibly have
• Indexes implemented using:
– Hash indexes
– B-tree indexes
– Bitmap indexes
• DBMSs determine best type of index to
use

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 Optimizer Choices
• Rule-based optimizer
– Preset rules and points
– Rules assign a fixed cost to each operation
• Cost-based optimizer
– Algorithms based on statistics about objects
being accessed
– Adds up processing cost, I/O costs, resource
costs to derive total cost

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 Using Hints to Affect
Optimizer Choices
• Optimizer might not choose best plan
• Makes decisions based on existing
statistics
– Statistics may be old
– Might choose less-efficient decisions
• Optimizer hints: special instructions for the
optimizer embedded in the SQL command
text

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 SQL Performance Tuning
• Evaluated from client perspective
– Most current relational DBMSs perform automatic
query optimization at the server end
– Most SQL performance optimization techniques
are DBMS-specific
• Rarely portable
• Majority of performance problems are related
to poorly written SQL code
• Carefully written query usually outperforms a
poorly written query

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 Index Selectivity (cont’d.)
• General guidelines for indexes:
– Create indexes for each attribute in WHERE,
HAVING, ORDER BY, or GROUP BY clause
– Do not use in small tables or tables with low
sparsity
– Declare primary and foreign keys so optimizer
can use indexes in join operations
– Declare indexes in join columns other than
PK/FK

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 Conditional Expressions
• Normally expressed within WHERE or
HAVING clauses of SQL statement
• Restricts output of query to only rows
matching conditional criteria

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 Conditional Expressions (cont’d.)
• Common practices for efficient SQL:
– Use simple columns or literals in conditionals
– Numeric field comparisons are faster
– Equality comparisons are faster than inequality
– Transform conditional expressions to use literals
– Write equality conditions first
– AND: use condition most likely to be false first
– OR: use condition most likely to be true first
– Avoid NOT

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 Query Formulation
• Identify what columns and computations
are required
• Identify source tables
• Determine how to join tables
• Determine what selection criteria is
needed
• Determine in what order to display output

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 DBMS Performance Tuning
• Includes managing DBMS processes in
primary memory and structures in physical
storage
• DBMS performance tuning at server end
focuses on setting parameters used for the:
– Data cache
– SQL cache
– Sort cache
– Optimizer mode: cost-based or rule-based

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 DBMS Performance Tuning
(cont’d.)
• Some general recommendations for
creation of databases:
– Use RAID (Redundant Array of Independent
Disks) to provide balance between
performance and fault tolerance
– Minimize disk contention: use multiple,
independent storage volumes with
independent spindles to minimize hard disk
cycles

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 DBMS Performance Tuning
(cont’d.)
• Some general recommendations for
creation of databases:
– Put high-usage tables in their own table
spaces
– Assign separate data files in separate storage
volumes for indexes, system, and high-usage
tables

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 DBMS Performance Tuning
(cont’d.)
– Take advantage of table storage organizations
in database, for example use the index-
organized tables
– Partition tables based on usage
– Use denormalized tables where appropriate
– Store computed and aggregate attributes in
tables

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 Summary
• Database performance tuning
– Refers to activities to ensure query is processed
in minimum amount of time
• SQL performance tuning
– Refers to activities on client side to generate SQL
code
• Returns correct answer in least amount of time
• Uses minimum amount of resources at server end
• DBMS architecture is represented by
processes and structures used to manage a
database

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 Summary (cont’d.)
• Database statistics refers to
measurements gathered by the DBMS
– Describe snapshot of database objects’
characteristics
• DBMS processes queries in three phases:
parsing, execution, and fetching
• Indexes are crucial in process that speeds
up data access

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 Summary (cont’d.)
• During query optimization, DBMS chooses:
– Indexes to use, how to perform join operations,
table to use first, etc.
• Hints change optimizer mode for current SQL
statement
• SQL performance tuning deals with writing
queries that make good use of statistics
• Query formulation deals with translating
business questions into specific SQL code

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