Unit 2:

Modern Forming Methods

 High‐speed forming (HSF)
• High‐speed forming (HSF) processes are historically associated with
the space race of the 1950s and 1960s.

• A variety of novel alloys (e.g. nickel and titanium alloys) and very
complex aerospace components (e.g. integrally‐ribbed, thin‐walled
missile shells for the Apollo missions) could not be fabricated by
traditional forming techniques (e.g. stamping in a press).

• As a result of this aerospace push, a plethora of forming techniques

were created and pursued to the extent that numerous HSF machine
tools became commercially available.
 High‐speed forming (HSF) …..
• Despite the initial interests, these techniques failed to gain
widespread acceptance, and those that survived into the 1970s and

Deborah Serenade Stephen, 18MEE329T -

beyond remained confined to niche applications.

• The main reason for that was the lack of fundamental understanding of
(i)the science of each process and (ii) the material behavior at

Feb 2021
high strain rates.

• This led to inefficient tooling/machine design and limited process

parameter understanding, tied to expensive and time‐consuming
trial‐and‐error implementation.
High‐speed forming (HSF) …..

• Thus, manufacturing engineers were unable to exploit

these techniques fully, oftentimes resulting in only
marginal improvement over well‐established
conventional forming techniques for mass‐produced
components (e.g. automotive, appliance, etc.).

• However, with current day advances, HSF processes are

poised to become more widely used in production
applications
 High‐speed forming (HSF) ….
There are three main variations of HSF processes

• i) Electromagnetic forming and magnetic pulsed welding

Deborah Serenade Stephen, 18MEE329T -

(MPW): Electrical energy is stored in a capacitor bank and quickly
dissipated into a specially designed coil to create a magnetic field

Feb 2021
that repulses the workpiece away at a high deformation rate.

• ii) Electrohydraulic forming (EHF): Electrical energy is driven

across a wire or a spark gap in a fluid medium that generates a
shock wave which deforms the workpiece.

• iii) Explosive forming: A shock wave is produced in a fluid

medium through the use of a chemical reaction.
 EXPLOSIVE FORMING
“Shaping metal parts in dies by using an explosive
charge to generate forming pressure.”
OR
“The shaping or modifying of metals by means of
explosions.”
 VARIOUS TECHNIQUES

Explosive Forming Operations can be divided into

two groups, depending on the position of the
explosive charge relative to the work piece.
1. Stand Off Method
2. Contact Method
 STAND OFF METHOD
In this method metal plate is placed over a die,
with the intervening space evacuated by a vacuum
pump, then whole assembly is placed underwater
and explosive material is placed at an appropriate
height above the plate.
For complicated shapes, a segmented die can be
used.

intervene: become involved

 CONTACT METHOD

• In this method, the explosive charge is held in

direct contact with the work piece while the
detonation is initiated.
• The detonation produces interface pressures on
the surface of the metal up to several million psi.
 PROCESS
• The rapid change in explosive in to gas produce a shock
wave. The pressure of this shock wave is sufficient to
form metal sheet.
• The peak pressure , p , due to explosion,
generated in water, is given by expression

p = k(((w) 1/2)/R)a

✓ Where P is in psi.
✓ K is the constant depends on the type of explosive.
✓ W is the weight of Explosive in pounds.
✓ R is the distance of explosive from the work piece
and
✓ a is the constant.
 EXAMPLES
Rocket engine nozzle Space shuttle skin
 ADVANTAGES
o It can simulate a variety of other conventional metal
forming techniques such as stamp- or press-forming
and spin-forming in a single operation.
o Explosive hydro-forming can efficiently form large
parts – up to 4’ square or 10’ in diameter.
o It is particularly suitable for short production runs
of a large parts such as occurs in aerospace
applications.
o It maintains precise tolerances and eliminates
costly welds.
DIS ADVANTAGES
1. Low tooling costs, but high labor cost.
2. Suitable for low-quantity production.
3. Due to shock waves and spillage of water it is
not suitable to carry out indoor.
4. It should be done in open air.
 Electrohydraulic Forming and
Electromagnetic Forming
 In these forming processes large amount of energy is applied
for a very short interval of time.
 These processes are useful to deform materials like Titanium
and Tungsten alloys, under high strain rates
 The parts are formed at a rapid rate, and thus these
processes are also called High Velocity Forming (HVF)
Processes.
 There are several advantages of using these forming
processes, like die costs are low, easy maintenance of
tolerances, possibility of forming most metals, and material
does not show springback effect.
 The production cost of components by such processes is low.
 The limitation of these processes is the need for skilled
personnel.
ELECTROHYDRAULIC
FORMING
Process Principle :

 Electro-hydraulic forming tools and processes,

produce a shockwave by creating a high voltage
discharge in a liquid that is in contact with the sheet
metal blank to be formed.
 The shockwave in the liquid is propagated towards
the blank and causes the blank to be deformed into
an open die that has a forming surface.
 The shockwave forces the blank into engagement
with the forming surface to form the metal blank
into the desired shape.
Construction and Working:
 A typical configuration of EHF includes a discharge
chamber, electrodes, forming die, and a pulse generator
which consists of a high-voltage low-inductive bank of
capacitors C, a high-voltage/high- current discharge switch
D, and a charging/amplifying/rectifying circuit is illustrated
in Fig 1.
 The capacitor bank is capable of producing discharges of 5–
25 kV and can store energies up to 100 kJ.
 A sheet metal blank is placed on top of the discharge
chamber.
 A one-sided die is positioned above the blank.
 After the air is evacuated from both sides of the blank, the
chamber is filled with water, fully immersing the electrodes.
 After the voltage is applied to the electrodes, an electrical
breakdown occurs between the exposed tips of the
electrodes which leads to the formation of a stable plasma
channel.

 The channel expands quickly resulting in shock waves of

pressure which then continuously transform into flow of
liquid. The pressure pulse propagates through the water
and applies pressure to the surface of the blank forming
it into the die cavity.
 The deformation can be controlled by applying external
restraints in the form of die or by varying the amount of energy
released, Fig 2.
Process Parameters:
 Stand off distance : It must be optimum.

 Capacitor used : The energy of the pressure pulse depends on

the size of capacitor.
 Transfer medium : Usually water is used.

 Vacuum : The die cavity must be evacuated to prevent adiabatic

heating of the work due to a sudden compression of air.

 Materials formed : Materials having low ductility or having critical

impact velocity less than 30 m/s are generally not considered to be
good candidate for EHF. All materials that can be formed by
conventional forming processes can be formed by EHF also. These
materials are aluminum alloys, nickel alloys, stainless steels, titanium,
and Inconel 718.
Advantages and Disadvantages :
Advantages :
 EHF can form hollow shapes with much ease and at less cost compared to
other forming techniques.

 A single step process (rather than progressive stamping)

 Extremely fast
 Enables extremely deep forming (much more than is possible with
conventional stamping)
 Fine details and sharp lines can be easily formed

 Forming of male and female shapes (negative and positive)

 The process does not depend on the electrical properties of the work
material.
 Safer in handling than the explosive materials.
Disadvantages :
 Suitable only for smaller works.

 Need for vacuum makes the equipment more complicated.

 Proper SOD is necessary for effective process.

 Each discharge of the electrodes to create the high voltage discharge

in the fluid results in the formation of impurities in the water that
results in vaporization of the electrodes and may create surface
defects in the surface of the part formed in the process.

 The fluid in the vessel generally must be drained and replaced for
each tool cycle. The volume of fluid in the vessel for a larger part
tends to be fairly substantial and a considerable portion of the cycle
time of the tool is dedicated to draining and refilling the vessel.
 Applications:
 It include smaller radar dish, cone and other shapes in
thinner and small works,

 Reduction of capital investment for low volume aerospace

applications,

 In Automobile sector such as inside components of a

passenger car door,

 Miniature and fancy equipments having complicated

profile for electronic industry, etc.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FORMING
(Also Known as Magnetic Pulse Forming)
 Process Principle :
 This process is based on the principle stated by lorentz force law
that the electromagnetic field of an induced current always opposes
the electromagnetic field of the inducing current.

 In this method a large capacitor bank is discharged producing a current

charge through a coiled conductor.

 If the coil has been placed within a conductive cylinder, around a

cylinder or adjacent to a flat sheet of metal, then the discharge induces
a secondary current in the workpiece.

 This secondary current further causes it to be repelled from the coil

and conformed to a die or mating work piece.

 The process is very rapid and is used primarily to expand or contract

tubing or to permanently assemble component
Construction and Working:
 The setup of EMF consists of the pulsed power generator, the inductor including a
fieldshaper, if applicable, the workpiece and application- dependent further tool
components such as form-defining dies etc.

 The process is started by charging and subsequently discharging the capacitor

of the pulsed power generator.

 A sinusoidal current flows through the inductor. This current induces a

corresponding magnetic field.

 If there is an electrically conductive workpiece in direct proximity to inductor, a

second opposedly directed current is induced.

 The energy density stored in the magnetic field between workpiece and inductor
acts as magnetic pressure which can reach several hundreds of megapascal and
causes the acceleration and deformation of the workpiece.

 The direction of the movement is always targeted away from the inductor
 Depending on the geometry and the alignment of tool and workpiece,
three process variants can be distinguished. These are :
(i)electromagnetic compression of tubes and hollow profiles by means
of an inductor enclosing the workpiece,

(ii) electromagnetic expansion of tubes and hollow profiles by means

of an inductor positioned within the workpiece,
(iii) electromagnetic sheet forming, for which an inductor is
positioned in close proximity of a flat semi-finished part or a
preformed component.
 Process Parameters:
 Workpiece thickness – A higher thickness means that the
magnetic field diffuses slower through the workpiece wall.
 Electrical conductivity – The higher the electrical conductivity
of the workpiece, the better the shielding of the magnetic
field, the pressure difference in higher.
 Frequency – A higher frequency of the discharged current can
balance a low conductivity or a small wall thickness.
 Size of the capacitor bank
 The current intensity , which decides the strength of the
magnetic field and the force applied.
 Gap between workpiece and tool coil – The smaller the air
gap, higher is magnetic field and pressure.
 Winding of the tool coil – For each pulse generator and each
forming task exists an optimum of number of turns.
 Advantages

 Suitable for small tubes

 Operations like collapsing, bending and crimping can be easily
done.
 Electrical energy applied can be precisely controlled
and hence the process is accurately controlled.
 The process is safer compared to explosive forming.
 Wide range of applications.
 Disadvantages

 Applicable only for electrically conducting materials.

 Not suitable for large work pieces.
 Rigid clamping of primary coil is critical.
 Shorter life of the coil due to large forces acting on it.
 Applications :

 Electromagnetic forming process is capable of a wide

variety of forming and assembly operations.
 Crimping of coils, tubes, wires
 Bending of tubes into complex shapes
 Bulging of thin tubes.
 It has found extensive applications in the fabrication of
hollow, non – circular, or asymmetrical shapes from
tubular stock.
 Flat coils have been used on flat sheets to produce
stretch (internal) and shrink (external) flanges on ring
and disc – shaped work pieces.
 Electromagnetic forming has also been used to perform
shearing, piercing, and rivettting.
HSF - Advantages
1. HSF processes are highly repeatable with reduced
spring back and wrinkling. These processes can be
free‐forming (without a female die). The reduced
spring back is due to the more uniform distribution of
strains.
2. Improved formability: These can be contributed to
inertial stabilization of the deformation, a more
uniform strain distribution in the material, and large
compressive stresses when forming into a female die.
Kinetic energy, which can be ignored during
conventional forming, is significant during HSF
processes and is responsible for this improved
formability.
3. Dissimilar materials can be joined together. While
different metal alloys are of interest, even composites,
polymers, glasses, and ceramics can be joined to metals using
these techniques.
4. Various joints are achievable, from interference fits to
solid state welds. For metal welding, this prevents the
formation of intermetallic phases, heat‐affected zones,
and thermal distortion which are all detrimental to weld
quality.
5. Free‐forming without die contact assures no damage to, e.g.
a coating on the workpiece. Also, no lubricant is required
providing environmental and cost benefits, e.g. since a
processing step to remove the lubricant is not required.
6. If female tooling is used, only light tooling systems are
required as the inertia of the tooling is often sufficient
to constrain the deforming workpiece, and the forces
generated will dissipate quickly due to the short
timeframe of the process.
7. Components that are not achievable by traditional
processes are possible, e.g. coining over a significant
surface area due to the large pressures produced.
 HSF - Disadvantages
1. The modeling of the process is difficult due to the multiple
phenomena occurring, the impulse required to initiate the
process (whether electrical or chemical), the modified
material behavior at high strain rates, etc. Thus coupled,
physics‐based simulation techniques are required.
2. The classic method to predict failure in sheet and tube
metal‐forming operations, i.e. the forming limit diagram,
cannot be readily used for HSF processes as such criteria
were created without inertial effects which are dominant
at high strain rates.
3. The energy efficiency of HSF processes is low as some
energy is also converted to heat, sound, motion of other
entities, etc. not just deforming the workpiece.
Efficiencies typically reported are in the range of 2–
25% depending on the application
4. The cost of HSF processes can be difficult to assess due to
the lack of physical understanding with respect to how
long coils and electrical components will last and process
efficiency.
5. In the case of electromagnetic processes, the materials
used need to possess reasonably high electrical
conductivity, e.g. above 15 μΩ cm. However, another
workpiece can be used as a sacrificial driver material in
order to achieve deformation.
6. Safety concerns must be addressed when
implementing HSF processes due to the high
currents, sometimes in the presence of water,
explosives, and deformation rates used
 SEMISOLID METAL WORKING PROCESS
INTRODUCTION

❖ Semisolid metal processing is a relatively new technology

which offer distinct advantage over other near net shape
manufacturing process .
❖ This process is ideally suited for die casting .
❖ In this process cast parts are produced form a slurry kept
at a temperature between the solidus and the liquidus
isotherm
❖ This process produced complex parts with better quality
when compared to parts made by similar process.
❖ It also allows net shape forming reducing further machining
operation.
❖ The process combines the advantage of both liquid metal
casting and solid metal forging.
 In this process the raw material is melted and
allowed to cool and solidify, when the dendrite
formed during solidification are broken up.

 The morphology of the dendrite is altered using

machanical electromagnetic or other forces.
Subsequently , the specially prepared raw material
is remelted to its musy state, and , while the
temperature is kept between the liquid and solidus
isotherm, it is then processed to its final shape .

4
 Semi-solid metal casting – Advantages & Types
(1) Complex part geometries,
(2) Thin walls in parts
(3) Close tolerances,
(4) Zero or low porosity, resulting in high strength of the casting
• There are several forms of semi-solid metal casting. When
applied to aluminum, the terms thixocasting and rheocasting
are used. The dendrite arms are not particularly strong and
can be broken up by agitation or mechanical vibration in the
early stages of solidification (as in semisolid metal forming and
rheocasting).
• This process results in finer grain size, with equiaxed
nondendritic grains distributed more uniformly throughout the
casting. A side benefit is the thixotropic behavior of alloys
(that is, the viscosity decreases when the liquid metal is
agitated), leading to improved castability.
 DIFFERENT TYPES -
SEMISOLID METAL WORKING PROCESS

THIXOCASTING

RHEOCASTING
SEMI SOLID
METAL
PROCESS
THIXOMOLDING

SIMA

SIMA: Stress Induced Metal Activation 5

BENEFITS OF SEMI SOLID METAL PROCESSING
1. Potentially for better control of flow, final porosity
and microstructure of cast parts
2. Cast products with near-net shape complex
geometries
3. Reduced energy consumption due to lower
temperature processing of billets
4. Increased productivity due to shorter
solidification time , reduced shrinkage
5.. Improved die life , and casting property
6. Improved ductility and dimensional repeatability
compared to conventional cast products

6
 MECHANISM OF SSM CASTING -

❖ There are two general approaches to the semi solid

metal working process: Rheocasting, in which a slurry
is produced in a mixer and delivered directly into the die
,and thixoforming in which a billet is heated to the semi
solid state and formed in the die.
❖ In semi solid slurries the solid exists in the form of
spherical particles . slugs of semi solid alloy may
,therefore be injected into a die or shaped between
closed dies to produce components near to shape with
good surface finish ,free from porosity and possessing
fine uniform microstructures.

7
 The exact mechanism for SSM structure formation is still
unclear .
 One theory that explain the formation of semi solid metal
structure is grain multiplication of dendrite fragmentation .
 It has been proposed that the convection produced
during the solidification causes dendrite arms to “melt off
“or “break off “ which then act as “ secondary nuclei “
particles.
 A schematic of the dendrite multiplication process is
shown in figure below ,

8
❖ Then, the high density of the particles generated
allows non dendrite growth and result in non
dendritic , semisolid metal slurry.
❖ In this process it has been discovered that by
flowing gas bubbles through a porouss object
into the molten metal , held at a temperature
above the liquidus temperature , non-dendritic,
semi-solid metal slurry is obtained .
❖ The likely mechanism of this process is grain
multiplication .
❖ In this case convention is effectively archive by
the flow of fine gas bubbles in the melt.
❖ The convection helps to generate “secondary
nuclei “ particles , resulting in a non-dendritic
SSM structure . 9
 Thixocasting
➢ Thixo is a general term used to describe the near-net
shape forming process from a partially melted non
dendrite alloy within a metal die.
➢ Thixotropy- viscosity decreases with time due to
constant agitation or strain.
➢ If component shaping is performed in a close die it is
called thixocasting.
➢ If component shaping is performed in an open die it
is called thixoforming.
Rehocasting Process https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_w6eAhMQa9Y
 Stages/Steps
➢ Thixocasting consists of three separate stages:
1. The production of a pre-cast billet having special
globular microstructure.
2. The re-heating of these billets to the semi solid
casting temperature.
3. Casting of component by pressing these billets to
die cavity.
 Production of billet
➢ Non-dendritic billets of A356.2 aluminum alloy were
produced in the laboratory to manufacture SSM
components.
➢ Around 20 kg A356.2 aluminum alloy ingots were
loaded into a furnace and melted at 850 °C.
➢ Once the metal reached molten stage, the grain
refiner of Ti-B was added at 0.1% of the total metal
being melted, and the modifier of aluminum-
strontium of 0.06 % of the total metal being melted
was added to the molten metal and allowed to soak
for 10 min.
➢ Then, around 1.5 kg molten metal was transferred
into a crucible at about 750 °C, and when the
temperature reached 620 °C, the metal was poured
into the preheated metal mould kept inside the
electromagnetic stirrer.
➢ The electromagnetic stirrer was operated at 350A, 50
Hz. Once the metal temperature reached 610 °C in
metal mould, the water supply for the metal mould
was switched on and immediately allowed to pass
through the cooling channels to quench the metal in
the metal mould.
➢ The static mould billets were 230mm in length and
75 mm in diameter.
Metallic mould Electromagnetic stirrer
 process
➢ In Thixocasting, a solid billet with a globular grain
structure is prepared by stirring the melt first
while the billet is being cast, and then supplied to
the die caster.
➢ This billet is then reheated to the semi-solid
temperature (between the solidus and liquidus
temperatures of the alloy) by the die caster, using
an induction furnace.
➢ It is then placed in a shot sleeve and injected into
the die cast machine.
➢ Since the melt is partly solidified, proper thermal
control of the die is essential to ensure proper
filling of the die cavity.
Dendritic microstructure Non dendritic microstructure
➢ Casting of non-dendritic billets using electromagnetic
stirring depends on many parameters, such as the
stirring intensity, excitation frequency and cooling
rate.

➢ A minimum shear rate should be produced so that

dendrites can be detached from their roots.
➢ The position of the stirrer in the mould is also very
important.
➢ Subsequent to the production of non-dendritic
microstructure billets, the process of re-heating of
the billet to the desired semisolid temperature is also
a challenging task.
➢ Induction heating is generally used to reheat the
billets in semisolid state.
➢ Major objective is to minimize non-uniformity in
temperature distribution.
➢ All these parameters affect the overall solidification
process which will determine the final
microstructure.
 Advantages

➢ Energy efficiency: metal is not being held in the liquid state over long
periods of time.
➢ Production rates are similar to pressure die casting or better.
➢ Smooth filling of the die with no air entrapment and low shrinkage
porosity gives parts of high integrity (including thin-walled sections)
and allows application of the process to higher-strength heat-
treatable alloys.
➢ Lower processing temperatures reduce the thermal
shock on the die, promoting die life and allowing the
use of non-traditional die materials.
➢ Fine, uniform microstructures give enhanced
properties.
➢ Reduced solidification shrinkage gives dimensions
closer to near net shape and justifies the elimination
of machining steps.
➢ Surface quality is suitable for plating.
➢ Thixocasting has quite a low yield strength, high
fluidity, low forming load and low surface roughness.

➢ Especially in the thixocasting process, a complex

geometry product can be obtained by only one step
forming.

➢ This technology has been widely applied in

nonferrous metal forming and satisfactory results
were derived, but not with ferrous metal.
 Disadvantages
➢ The cost of raw material for thixoforming can be high
and the number of suppliers small.
➢ Process knowledge and experience has to be
continuously built up in order to facilitate application
of the process to new components.
➢ Personnel requires a higher level of training and skill
than with more traditional processes.
➢ Temperature control: the solid fraction and viscosity
in the semi-solid state are very dependent on
temperature.
 Applications
➢ Semi-solid processing is ideally suited for the
production of large volume die casting components,
including light weight, high strength components for
automobiles.
➢ For aluminum alloys typical parts include engine
suspension mounts, air manifold sensor harness,
engine blocks and oil pump filter housing.
➢ For magnesium alloys, semi-solid casting is typically
used to produce extremely thin walled castings, such
as computer and camera bodies. Because of this the
process can be applied to rapid prototyping needs
and mass production.
 Applications
➢ Automotive wheel.

➢ Antilock brake valve.

➢ Disc brake caliper.

➢ Engine piston.
Anti lock brake valve Disc brake caliper
Components
 Rheocasting
 The rheocasting is a process of creating a semi-solid
slurry followed by its pushing into a metal mold for
freezing.

 Unlike thixocasting, which re-heats a billet, rheocasting

develops the semi-solid slurry from the molten metal
produced in a typical die casting furnace/machine.

 This is a big advantage over thixocasting because it

results in less expensive feedstock, in the form of
typical die casting alloys, and allows for direct recycling
.
 Rheocasting involves preparation of SSM slurry
directly from the liquid alloy, followed by a forming
process such as High Pressure Die Casting (HPDC). 12
 With “Rheo” processes the alloy is cooled into a
semi-solid state and then is introduced into a die
without the presence of an intermediate
solidification step; semi-solid slurry with non-
dendritic solid particles is produced from a fully
liquid regular alloy.
13
 It is cooled to obtain the desired fraction solid and
then it is cast into a part.
 Component shaping directly from SSM slurries is
inherently attractive due to its characteristics, such
as overall efficiency in production and energy
management .
 A critical advantage of rheocasting is the ability to
cast the metal at a wide range of fraction solids.
 The majority of the process advantages of using
non-dendritic, semi- solid alloys are dependent on
the amount of solid at the time of casting.
 Reduction of shrinkage, a decreased amount of
latent heat, and the magnitude of viscosity are
dependent upon and increase of the production rate.14
 Microstructure of rheocast A356 alloy

 However, as the fraction solid increases, semi- solid

casting begins to deviate from conventional die casting
processes.
 For the higher fraction solid material, a more powerful
shot end is required on the die cast machine because of
the much higher viscosity of the alloy.
 Additionally, the stroke of the piston is usually longer to
accommodate the larger opening in the cold chamber.
Casting cycle time is therefore shorter with high fraction
solid casting, but more costly changes are required for the
die casting machine to handle the more viscous material. 15
•RHEOCASTING STEP WISE PROCESS :-

16
 SLURRY GENERATION FOR REHOCASTING :-

 As noted earlier ,there are a number different

rheocasting processes in commercial production
or under development around the world.
 These different rheocasting processes generally
differ in the manner in which the liquid is cooled
and the globular semi solid microstructure
generate the globular , semi solid microstructure
and most of the different rheocasting processes
use some variation of these practices .
 The techniques are:
Stirring ;- similar to thixocasting ,the liquid
aluminum is stirred as it is cooled into the
semi solid temperature range.
17
 Dendrite Fragmentation :- A variation to stirring
processes is the dendrite fragmentation technique
,where the melt is cooled below its liquidus temperature
and the semi solid alloy is treated in a turbuient manner
to break up the dendries , producing numerous small
solid fragments that can be coarsened into giobular
shaped aluminum particles
 Pressure waves ;- pressure waves generated in the
runner system have been shown to penerate semi solid
structures .
 Numerous solidification nuclei:- In this technique ,the
liquid is poured into a container from a temperature just
above its liquidus temperature. The rapid cooling
generated during pouring generates a large number of
solid nuclei , which prevent the formation of dendrites ,
instead producing a large number of globular solid
particles .Other grain refining techniques are used to
assist the generation of the large number of 18
 THE ADVANTAGES OF SEMISOLID CASTING

 Due to the lower pressures and temperatures

required to die cast semisolid metal the die
material does not need to be exotic. Often
graphite or softer stainless steels may be
used.
 Even nonferrous dies can be used for one time
shots.
 Because of this the process can be applied to rapid
prototyping needs and mass production.
 This also allows for the casting of high Stellite, if a
higher temperature die material is used.

19
 Other advantages include: easily automated,
consistent, production rates are equal to or
better than die casting rates, no air
entrapment, low shrinkage rates, and a
uniform microstructure.

20
 THE DISADVANTAGES OF SEMISOLID CASTING

 Because thixotropy (semisolid state) is a

middle state in physical or rheological
sense process conditions form a band so
narrow even environmental temperature
differences have to be considered.
 Thus production facilities need a high level
of technology and operators require similar
knowledge and training.
 Relatively higher feedstock material cost
 Precise control of operating condition is
required.
 Liquid segregation may occur as a result of
non-uniform heating.
21
 APPLICATIONS

• Potential Replacement of permanent mould parts to eliminate

machining and finishing

• Pressure tight parts such as master brake cylinders, fuel rails, air
conditioner compressor housing etc.

• High strength parts such as engine mounts, tie rods etc.

• Wear resistant parts made from hypereutectic alloys such as

compressor piston, brake drums, gear shift levers etc.

22
 Difference
Thixocasting Rheocasting
1. The prefix in Rheocasting comes
1. The prefix in Thixocasting is
from rheology, the science that
derived from the word
relates deformation and flow of
thixotropy, which refers to
materials.
the decrease in viscosity of
some fluid-like materials 2. In rheocasting, a semi-solid
when agitated. slurry is injected into the mold
cavity by a die casting
2. In thixocasting, the starting machine, very much like
work material is a pre-cast conventional die casting. The
billet that has a non- difference is that the starting
dendritic microstructure; metal in rheocasting is at a
this is heated into the semi- temperature between the
solid temperature range and solidus and liquidus rather
injected into a mold cavity than above the liquidus. And
using die casting equipment. the mushy mixture is agitated
to prevent dendrite formation.
Thixomolding

• The electronic and communication (E/C) applications in

Japan drove the early business in the 1990’s – as in lap-
top computers, cameras, projectors and cell phones.
• Following the recent intensive mode of globalization,
much of this Thixomolding of E/C parts has moved to
Taiwan, and now, China.
• In the US, machine and hand tool parts, auto parts and
sports equipment parts have supplemented the
Thixomolding business in E/C parts.
• It is a commercial semi-solid process for injection
molding Mg alloys
• It being analogous to plastic injection molding; but
with higher temperature and faster shot velocity.
 Thixomolding
• When applied to magnesium, the term is
thixomolding, which utilizes equipment similar to
an injection-molding machine.
• Magnesium alloy granules are fed into a barrel and
propelled forward by a rotating screw as they are
heated into the semi-solid temperature range.
• The required globular form of the solid phase is
accomplished by the mixing action of the rotating
screw.
• The slurry is then injected into the mold cavity
by a linear forward movement of the screw.
 Peen forming of sheet metals
• Peen forming is used to produce curvatures on thin
sheet metals by shot peening one surface of the sheet. As
a result, the surface of the sheet is subjected to
compressive stresses, which tend to expand the surface
layer.
• Because the material below the peened surface
remains rigid, the surface expansion causes the
sheet to develop a curvature.
• The process also induces compressive surface residual
stresses, which improve the fatigue strength of the
sheet.
• Peening is done with cast-iron or steel shot discharged
either from a rotating wheel or by an air blast from a
nozzle.
 Peen forming of sheet metals

• Peen forming is used by the

aircraft industry to
generate smooth and
complex curvatures on
aircraft wing skins.

• Cast-steel shot about 2.5 mm in diameter, traveling at speeds of 60

m/s (200 ft/s), have been used to form wing panels 25 m long.

• For heavy sections, shot diameters as large as 6 mm may be used.

• The peen-forming process also is used for straightening twisted or

bent parts, including out-of-round rings to make them round
• The peen forming
process not requires any
die and forming press.
• The part to be made by the
sheet metal placed on block or
it suspended from support
and it has blasting together
with shot, small steel balls.
• During the operation blanks
are clamped over simple
form blocks.
• The ball is forced by
compressed air or rotating
blade.
• The ball has high velocity
and directly impinges the
sheet metal to form of
block’s shape.
Peen forming - Advantages

• Tooling cost will be low

• Require no maintenance cost of tooling
• The compound curvatures are easily produced
• It is a die less forming, So that require minimum lead
time
• That process permit rework and design changes for
improve the fitness of sheet metal
• Formed product improve the fatigue strength
and stress corrosion resistance
Peen forming – Disadvantages &
Applications
Disadvantages
• Exhibited increase the resistance to flexural bending
fatigue
• The surface of metal compressed together, that
prevent stress corrosion cracking.
Application of peen forming
• Provide smoothing and complex curvature of aircraft
wings
• From of large tubular shapes
• military air craft
 SUPER PLASTIC FORMING INTRODUCTION
❑ Super plastic Forming is a metalworking process for forming
sheet metal. It works upon the theory of super plasticity, which
means that ” capability that some materials have to undergo
large uniform elongation prior to necking and fracture tension”.
❑ Super plastic forming (SPF) of sheet metal has been used to
produce very complex shapes and integrated structures that
are often lighter and stronger than the assemblies they have to
replace.
❑ Titanium alloys and alloys of zinc-aluminum; when heated ,
they can elongate to many times their original length.
 Some other materials which shows “superplasticity” are:
1. Titanium alloys
2. Aluminum alloys
3. Bismuth-tin alloys
4. Zinc-aluminum alloys
5. Stainless steel
6. Aluminum-lithium alloys
 CONSTRUCTION

https://youtu.be/Zi7Xqlp0M-0
 PROCESS
◆ The process typically conducted at high temperature and
under controlled strain rate, can give a ten-fold increase in
elongation compared to conventional room temperature
processes.
◆ Components are formed by applying gas pressure between
one or more sheets and a die surface, causing the sheets to
stretch and fill the die cavity.
◆ Specific alloys of titanium, stainless steel, and aluminum are
commercially available with the fine-grained microstructure
and strain rate sensitivity of flow stress that are necessary for
Super plastic deformation.
◆ SPF can produce parts that are impossible to form using
conventional techniques. During the SPF process, the material
is heated to the SPF temperature within a sealed die.
◆ Inert gas pressure is then applied, at a controlled rate forcing
the material to take the shape of the die pattern. Super
plastic alloys can be stretched at higher temperatures by
several times of their initial length without breaking.
EXAMPLES
✓ Construction of fuel Tanks
✓ Muddy Guards of Motorcars
ADVANTAGES
• The finished product has excellent precision and a fine
surface finish.
• Products can also be made larger to eliminate
assemblies or reduce weight, which is critical in
aerospace applications.
• Lower strength required and less tooling costs.
 LIMITATIONS
• The biggest disadvantage is its slow forming rate.
• Materials must not be superplastic at Lower
temperatures.
• It is usually used on lower volume products.
COMPARISON

• EXPLOSIVE FORMING
• SUPERPLASTIC FORMING
• In Explosive forming an
explosive charge is used • In super plastic forming punch or press
is used to form metal sheet forming.
instead of a punch or press.
• It can be only used for limited die
• It can be use for large size of
design.
metal sheets.
• High production cost.
• No preheating required
• It can be used for definite shape, size
• before the explosive forming and sheet thickness .
• Less production cost.
• Any product size, shape and
sheet thickness is possible.
 Powder Metallurgy
◆ An important point that comes out :
◆ The entire material need not be melted to fuse it.
◆ The working temperature is well below the melting
point of the major constituent, making it a very
suitable method to work with refractory materials,
such as: W, Mo, Ta, Nb, oxides, carbides, etc.
◆ It began with Platinum technology about 4 centuries
ago… in those days, Platinum, [mp = 1774°C], was
"refractory", and could not be melted.
 Powder Metallurgy
Metal processing technology in which parts are produced
from metallic powders.
Usually during PM production, the powder is compressed
(pressed) into the desired shape and then heated
(sintered) to bond the particles into a hard, rigid mass.
−Pressing is accomplished in a press-type machine using
punch-and-die tooling designed specifically for the part to
be manufactured
−Sintering is performed at a temperature below the
melting point of the metal
99
Why Powder Metallurgy is
Important?
◆ PM parts can be mass produced to net shape or near
net shape, eliminating or reducing the need for
subsequent machining.
◆ PM process wastes very little material - about 97% of
the starting powders are converted to product.
◆ PM parts can be made with a specified level of
porosity, to produce porous metal parts.
◆ Examples: filters, oil-impregnated bearings,
gears….
100
 Why Powder Metallurgy is
Important?
◆ Certain metals that are difficult to fabricate by other
methods can be shaped by powder metallurgy.
◆ Example: Tungsten filaments for incandescent lamp bulbs
are made by PM
◆ Certain alloy combinations and cermets made by PM
cannot be produced in other ways.
◆ PM compares favorably to most casting processes in
dimensional control.
◆ PM production methods can be automated for economical
production.
101
When to use PM
• Competitive with processes such as
casting, forging, and machining.
• Used when melting point is too high (W,
Mo).
• reaction occurs at melting (Zr).
• too hard to machine.
• very large quantity.
• Near 70% of the P/M part production is
for automotive applications.
• Good dimensional accuracy.
• Controllable porosity.
• Size range from tiny balls for ball-point
pens to parts weighing 100 lb. Most are
around 5 lb.
102
 P/M Applications
 Electrical Contact materials
 Heavy-duty Friction materials
 Self-Lubricating Porous bearings
 P/M filters
 Carbide, Alumina, Diamond cutting tools
 Structural parts
 P/M magnets
 Cermets
 and more, such as high tech applications
103
 Hi-Tech Applications of P/M
Anti-friction products THESE COMPONENTS ARE
Friction products USED IN AIR & SPACE
CRAFTS, HEAVY
Filters MACHINERY, COMPUTERS,
Electrical Contacts AUTOMOBILES, etc…

Sliding Electrical Contacts

Very Hard Magnets
Very Soft Magnets
Refractory Material Products
Hard and Wear Resistant Tools
Ferrous & Non-ferrous Structural parts etc . . .
 Powder Metallurgy Merits
 The main constituent need not be melted
 The product is porous – [note: the porosity can be
controlled]
 Controlled porosity for self lubrication or filtration
uses
 Constituents that do not mix can be used to make
composites, each constituent retaining its individual
property
 Powder Metallurgy Merits
 Near Nett Shape is possible, thereby reducing the post-
production costs, therefore:

 Precision parts can be produced

 The production can be fully automated, therefore,
 Mass production is possible
 Production rate is high
 Over-head costs are low
 Break even point is not too large
 Material loss is small
 Control can be exercised at every stage
 Advantages of P/M
◆ Virtually unlimited choice of alloys, composites, and
associated properties
◆ – Refractory materials are popular by this process
◆ Can be very economical at large run sizes (100,000
parts)
◆ Long term reliability through close control of
dimensions and physical properties
◆ Wide latitude of shape and design
◆ Very good material utilization
 Limitations and Disadvantages
 High tooling and equipment costs.
 Metallic powders are expensive.
 Problems in storing and handling metal powders.
– Degradation over time, fire hazards with certain metals

 Limitations on part geometry because metal powders

do not readily flow laterally in the die during pressing.
 Variations in density throughout part may be a
problem, especially for complex geometries.
20
Powder Metallurgy Disadvantages
 Porous !! Not always desired.
 Large components cannot be produced on a large
scale.
 Some shapes are difficult to be produced by the
conventional p/m route.

Whatever, the merits are so many that P/M, as a

forming technique, is gaining popularity
Powder Metallurgy Products
1. Porous or permeable products such as bearings, filters, and
pressure or flow regulators
2. Products of complex shapes that would require considerable
machining when made by other processes
3. Products made from materials that are difficult to machine or
materials with high melting points
4. Products where the combined properties of two or more
metals are desired
5. Products where the P/M process produces clearly superior
properties
6. Products where the P/M process offers economic advantage
 PM Parts

A collection of powder metallurgy parts.

 Connecting Rods:
Forged on left; P/M on right

Powdered Metal Transmission Gear

 Warm compaction method with 1650-ton press
 Teeth are molded net shape: No machining
 UTS = 155,000 psi
 30% cost savings over the original forged part
P/M as a Forming Technique
Powder Metallurgy Process
◆ Powder production
◆ Blending or mixing
◆ Powder compaction
◆ Sintering
◆ Finishing Operations

11
4
Usual PM production sequence
Blending and mixing (Rotating drums,
blade and screw mixers)
Pressing - powders are compressed into
desired shape to produce green compact
Accomplished in press using punch-and-die
tooling designed for the part

Sintering – green compacts are heated to

bond the particles into a hard, rigid mass.
Performed at temperatures below the
melting point of the metal
11
5
Powder Metallurgy Processing
Powder fabrication
Size and shape characterization
POWDER
Microstructure (eg. dendrite size)
Chemical homogeneity, and ppt. size

Compaction
Sintering
PROCESSING
Forging/Hot pressing

Density, Porosity
Ductility, Strength
PROPERTIES Conductivity

Other functional properties 52

Powder Metallurgy Process

Powder
metallurgy
(P/M) consists
of several steps.
Powder Metallurgy Process
 Production of Metallic Powders
◆ In general, producers of metallic powders are not the same
companies as those that make PM parts
◆ Any metal can be made into powder form
◆ Three principal methods by which metallic powders are
commercially produced
1. Atomization (by gas, water, also centrifugal one)
2. Chemical
3. Electrolytic
◆ In addition, mechanical methods are occasionally used to
reduce powder sizes
Atomization

• Produces a liquid-metal stream by injecting molten metal

through a small orifice
• The stream is broken up by jets of inert gas or air
 Gas Atomization Method
High velocity gas stream flows through expansion nozzle,
siphoning molten metal from below and spraying it into
container.

Figure: (a) gas atomization method

 Gas Atomization Method
Produces a liquid-metal stream by injecting molten
metal through a small orifice.
 Stream is broken by jets of inert gas, air, or water.

 The size of the particle formed depends on the

temperature of the metal, metal flow rate through
the orifice, nozzle size and jet characteristics.
• The size and shape of the
particles from atomization
depend on the
temperature, flow rate, size
of nozzle, and the jet
characteristics
• When water is used it
creates a slurry metal
powder and leaves a liquid
at the bottom of the
atomization chamber
• The water cools the metal
faster for a higher
production rates
Centrifugal Atomization

• The process in which the molten-metal drops onto a rapidly

rotating disk or cup
• The centrifugal forces break up the molten-metal stream to
generate particles
• Another method is that a consumable electrode is rotating
rapidly in a helium filled chamber

https://youtu.be/ww6OFUei5po
Reduction of Metal Oxides

• A process that uses gases

as a reducing agent
• Hydrogen and carbon monoxide
• Also known as the removal
of oxygen
• Very fine metallic oxides
are reduced to the metallic
state
• Spongy and porous
powders are produced
OXIDE REDUCTION PROCESS FOR
METAL POWDER FABRICATION
 OXIDE REDUCTION
• Reduce metal oxides with H2/CO
• Powders are spongy and porous and they have
uniformly sized spherical or angular shapes
CARBONYL PROCESS
 CARBONYL PROCESS
• React high purity Fe or Ni with CO to form gaseous
carbonyls
• Carbonyl decomposes to Fe and Ni
• Small, dense, uniformly spherical powders of high
purity.
Electrolytic Process for Powder
Production
 ELECTROLYSIS PROCESS
• Metal powder deposits at the cathode from aqueous
solution.
• Powders are among the purest available.
MECHANICAL MILLING
Comminution

◆ Crushing
◆ Milling in a ball mill
◆ Powder produced
Brittle: Angular
Ductile: flaky and not particularly suitable for P/M
operations
Mechanical Alloying
◆ Powders of two or more metals are mixed in a ball mill
◆ Under the impact of hard balls, powders fracture and join
together by diffusion
Mechanical Comminution to Obtain Fine Particles

Figure: Methods of mechanical comminution to obtain fine particles:

(a) roll crushing, (b) ball mill, and (c) hammer milling.
 Mechanical Alloying

Figure Mechanical alloying of nickel particles with dispersed smaller

particles. As nickel particles are flattened between the two balls, the
second smaller phase impresses into the nickel surface and eventually is
dispersed throughout the particle due to successive flattening, fracture,
and welding events.
Particle Shapes in Metal Powders

Figure: Particle shapes in metal powders, and the processes by which they
are produced. Iron powders are produced by many of these processes.
 Sintering
Heat treatment to bond the metallic particles, thereby
increasing strength and hardness.

Usually carried out at between 70% and 90% of the

metal's melting point (absolute scale)
– Generally agreed among researchers that the primary
driving force for sintering is reduction of surface energy

– Part shrinkage occurs during sintering due to pore size

reduction
 Sintering

 Parts are heated to ~80% of melting temperature.

 Transforms compacted mechanical bonds to much
stronger metal bonds.
 Many parts are done at this stage. Some will require
additional processing.
 Sintering Sequence
 Parts are heated to 0.7~0.9 Tm.
 Transforms compacted mechanical bonds to much
stronger metallic bonds.

Figure: Sintering on a microscopic scale: (1) particle bonding is initiated

at contact points; (2) contact points grow into "necks"; (3) the pores
between particles are reduced in size; and (4) grain boundaries develop
between particles in place of the necked regions.
 Sintering
In the sintering operation, the pressed-powder compacts are
heated in a controlled atmosphere to right below the
melting point.
Three stages of sintering
Burn-off (purge)- combusts any air and removes lubricants or
binders that would interfere with good bonding
High-temperature- desired solid-state diffusion and bonding occurs
Cooling period- lowers the temperature of the products in a
controlled atmosphere.

All three stages must be conducted in oxygen-free conditions

of a vacuum or protective atmosphere.
 Sintering – Three Stages
• Green compact obtained after compaction is brittle and low in strength
•
• Green compacts are heated in a controlled-atmosphere furnace to
allow packed metal powders to bond together

Carried out in three stages:

• First stage: Temperature is slowly increased so that all
volatile materials in the green compact that would
interfere with good bonding is removed
– Rapid heating in this stage may entrap gases and produce
high internal pressure which may fracture the compact.
Sintering: High temperature stage

Promotes solid-state bonding by diffusion. Diffusion is time-

temperature sensitive. Needs sufficient time.
Promotes vapor-phase transport. As material is heated very
close to MP, metal atoms will be released in the vapor phase
from the particles. Vapor phase resolidifies at the interface.
100
 Sintering: 3rd
stage
Third stage:
Sintered product is cooled in a controlled atmosphere.
– Prevents oxidation and thermal shock

Gases commonly used for sintering:

H2, N2 , inert gases or vacuum

101
 Sintering Cycle and Furnace

Figure: (a) Typical heat treatment cycle in sintering; and (b) schematic
cross section of a continuous sintering furnace.
102
Sintering Time, Temperature, and
Indicated Properties
Sintering Time and Temperature for
Metals
 Sintering
V sintered =  g re e n
Volume shrinkage =
V gre e n  sintered

1/ 3
 
 
Linear shrinkage =  green

  sintered 
 Finishing
• The porosity of a fully sintered part is still significant (4-
15%).
• Density is often kept intentionally low to preserve
interconnected porosity for bearings, filters, acoustic
barriers, and battery electrodes.
• However, to improve properties, finishing processes are
needed:
– Cold restriking, resintering, and heat treatment.
– Impregnation of heated oil.
– Infiltration with metal (e.g., Cu for ferrous parts).
– Machining to tighter tolerance.
 Secondary Operations
 Most powder metallurgy products are ready to use
after the sintering process.
 Some products may use secondary operation to
provide enhanced precision, improved properties, or
special characteristics.
 Distortion may occur during non uniform cool-down
so the product may be repressed, coined, or sized to
improve dimensional precision.
 Secondary Operations
• If massive metal deformation takes place in the second
pressing, the operation is known as P/M forging
– Increases density and adds precision
• Infiltration and impregnation- oil or other liquid is forced
into the porous network to offer lubrication over an
extended product lifetime
• Metal infiltration fills in pores with other alloying elements
that can improve properties
• P/M products can also be subjected to the conventional
finishing operations: heat treatment, machining, and
surface treatments
 Densification and Sizing
Secondary operations are performed to increase density,
improve accuracy, or accomplish additional shaping of
the sintered part.
•Repressing - pressing sintered part in a closed die to increase
density and improve properties

Sizing - pressing a sintered part to improve

dimensional accuracy
•Coining - pressworking operation on a sintered part to press
details into its surface
•Machining - creates geometric features that cannot be achieved
by pressing, such as threads, side holes, and other details
 Impregnation and Infiltration
 Porosity is a unique and inherent characteristic of
PM technology
 It can be exploited to create special products by
filling the available pore space with oils, polymers,
or metals

Two categories:
1. Impregnation
2. Infiltration

156
 Impregnation
The term used when oil or other fluid is permitted
into the pores of a sintered PM part

Common products are oil-impregnated

bearings, gears, and similar
components

Alternative application is when parts are impregnated with

polymer resins that seep into the pore spaces in liquid form
and then solidify to create a pressure tight part
 Infiltration
Operation in which the pores of the PM part are filled
with a molten metal.
The melting point of the filler metal must be below that of
the PM part.
TM(filler) < TM(Part)
Involves heating the filler metal in contact with the
sintered component so capillary action draws the filler
into the pores.
– Resulting structure is relatively nonporous, and the
infiltrated part has a more uniform density, as well as
improved toughness and strength.
Design Guidelines for PM Parts -I
• Economics usually require large quantities to justify
cost of equipment and special tooling
− Minimum quantities of 10,000 units are suggested
• PM is unique in its capability to fabricate parts with a
controlled level of porosity
− Porosities up to 50% are possible

• PM can be used to make parts out of unusual metals

and alloys - materials that would be difficult if not
impossible to produce by other means
Design Guidelines for PM Parts -II
The part geometry must permit ejection from die after
pressing
−This generally means that part must have vertical or near-
vertical sides, although steps are allowed
−Design features such as undercuts and holes on the part sides
must be avoided
−Vertical undercuts and holes are permissible because they do
not interfere with ejection
−Vertical holes can be of cross-sectional shapes other than
round without significant difficulty
Design Guidelines for PM Parts - III
• Screw threads cannot be fabricated by PM; if required,
they must be machined into the part.
• Chamfers and corner radii are possible by PM
pressing, but problems arise in punch rigidity when
angles are too acute.
• Wall thickness should be a minimum of 1.5 mm
(0.060in) between holes or a hole and outside wall.
• Minimum recommended hole diameter is 1.5 mm
(0.060in).
 Design Aspects

(a) Length to thickness ratio limited to 2-4;

(b) Steps limited to avoid density variation;
(c) Radii provided to extend die life, sleeves greater than 1 mm,
through hole greater than 5 mm;
(d) Feather-edged punches with flat face;
 Design Aspects

(e) Internal cavity requires a draft;

(f) Sharp corner should be avoided;
(g) Large wall thickness difference should be avoided;
(h) Wall thickness should be larger than 1 mm.
 Design Considerations for P/M
• The shape of the compact must be kept as simple and
uniform as possible.
• Provision must be made for ejection of the green compact
without damaging the compact.
• P/M parts should be made with the widest acceptable
tolerances to maximize tool life.
• Part walls should not be less than 1.5 mm thick; thinner
walls can be achieved on small parts; walls with length-to-
thickness ratios above 8:1 are difficult to press.
 Design Considerations for P/M
 Steps in parts can be produced if they are simple and their size
doesn’t exceed 15% of the overall part length.

 Letters can be pressed if oriented perpendicular to the pressing

direction. Raised letters are more susceptible to damage in the green
stage and prevent stacking.

 Flanges or overhangs can be produced by a step in the die. A true

radius cannot be pressed; instead use a chamfer.

 Dimensional tolerances are on the order of ±0.05 to 0.1 mm

Tolerances improve significantly with additional operations
such as sizing, machining and grinding
 Die Design for Powder-Metal
Compaction

Figure: Die geometry and design features for powder-metal compaction.

146
 Poor and Good Designs of P/M Parts

Figure: Examples of P/M parts showing poor and good designs.

Note that sharp radii and reentry corners should be avoided and that threads and
transverse holes have to be produced separately by additional machining operatio14n7s.
 Design Features for Use with
Unsupported Flanges or Grooves

Figure: (a) Design features for use with unsupported flanges.

(b) Design features for use with grooves.
148
 Die Design for P/M
• Thin walls and projections create fragile tooling.
• Holes in pressing direction can be round, square, D-
shaped, keyed, splined or any straight-through shape.
• Draft is generally not required.
• Generous radii and fillets are desirable to extend tool life.
• Chamfers, rather the radii, are necessary on part edges to
prevent burring.
• Flats are necessary on chamfers to eliminate feather-edges
on tools, which break easily.

149
 Design of Powder Metallurgy Parts
Basic rules for the design of P/M parts
– Shape of the part must permit ejection from die
– Powder should not be required to flow into small
cavities
– The shape of the part should permit the construction of
strong tooling
– The thickness of the part should be within the range for
which P/M parts can be adequately compacted
– The part should be designed with as few changes in
section thickness as possible
150
 Basic Rules for P/M Parts
• Parts can be designed to take advantage of the fact that
certain forms and properties can be produced by P/M that
are impossible, impractical, or uneconomical by any
other method
• The design should be consistent with available equipment
• Consideration should be made for product tolerances
• Design should consider and compensate for dimensional
changes that will occur after pressing

151
 Figure: Examples of poor and good design features for powder metallurgy
products. Recommendations are based on ease of pressing, design of tooling,
uniformity of properties, and ultimate performance. 152
 Financial Considerations
Die design
must withstand 700 MPa, requiring
specialty designs.
Can be very automated
 1500 parts per hour not uncommon
for average size part
 60,000 parts per hour achievable for
small, low complexity parts in a
rolling press.
Typical size part for automation is 1” cube
– Larger parts may require special machines (larger surface
area, same pressure equals larger forces involved)
Ceramic Forming
Ceramic Applications
Typical Ceramic Products: 2. laminated glass,
1. electrical insulators, 3. bulletproof glass,
2. rotors for gas turbines, 4. bulbs,
3. lightweight components 5. lenses,
for high-speed machines, 6. bottles,
4. ball and roller bearings, 7. glass fibers,
5. seals, 8. rods, and
6. furnace components, 9. tubing.
7. ovenware, and
8. tiles.
Typical Glass Products :
1. glazing,
Ceramic Forming
Ceramics – Processing Steps
The three basic shaping processes for ceramics are
casting, plastic forming, and pressing.
Ceramics – Slip Casting
• The most common casting process is slip casting (also called
drain casting).
• A slip is a suspension of colloidal (small particles that do not
settle) ceramic particles in an immiscible liquid (insoluble in
each other), which is generally water.
• The slip is poured into a porous mold, typically made of
plaster of paris. Molds also may consist of several
components. The slip must have sufficient fluidity and low
enough viscosity to flow easily into the mold, much like the
importance of fluidity of molten metals in casting operations.
• Pouring the slip must be done properly, as air entrapment
can be a significant problem during casting.
Ceramic Forming
• After the mold has absorbed some of the water from the
outer layers of the suspension, it is inverted and the
remaining suspension is poured out.
• The product is a hollow object, as in the slush casting of
metals. The top of the part is then trimmed, the mold is
opened, and the part is removed.
• Large and complex parts (such as plumbing ware, art
objects, and dinnerware) can be made by slip casting.
• Although mold and equipment costs are low, dimensional
control is poor and the production rate is low. In some
applications, components of the product (such as handles
for cups and pitchers) are made separately and then
joined, using the slip as an adhesive. Molds also may
consist of multiple components.
Ceramic Forming
• For solid-ceramic parts, the slip is supplied continuously
into the mold to replenish the absorbed water; otherwise,
the part will shrink.
• At this stage, the part is described as either a soft solid or
semirigid.
• The higher the concentration of solids in the slip, the less
water has to be removed.
• The part removed from the mold is referred to as a green
part and is associated with the light-green tint in
decorative ceramic slip casts at this stage.
• While the ceramic parts are still green, they may be
machined to produce certain features or to give
dimensional accuracy to the parts.
Ceramic Forming
• While the ceramic parts are still green, they may be
machined to produce certain features or to give
dimensional accuracy to the parts.
• For example, the flashing in a slip casting may be removed
gently with a fine wire brush, or holes can be drilled in the
mold.
• Detailed work (such as the tapping of threads) generally is
not done on green compacts because warpage (due to
firing) makes such machining not viable.
Doctor-blade Process
Thin sheets of ceramics [less than 1.5 mm thick] can be
made by a casting technique called the doctor-blade
process. The slip is cast over a moving plastic belt while its
thickness is controlled by a blade. Ceramic sheets also may
be produced by other methods, including
(a) Rolling the slip between pairs of rolls and
(b) Casting the slip over a paper tape, which subsequently
burns off during firing.
Doctor-blade Process
Forming of Glass
Forming and Shaping of Glass
Glass is processed by melting and then shaping it, either in
molds, with tools, or by blowing.
Glass shapes produced include flat sheets and plates, rods,
tubing, glass fibers, and discrete products such as bottles,
light bulbs, and headlights.
Glass products may be as thick as those for large telescope
mirrors and as thin as those for holiday tree ornaments.
The strength of glass can be improved by thermal and
chemical treatments (which induce compressive surface
residual stresses) or by laminating it with a thin sheet of
tough plastic.
Forming and Shaping of Glass
Glass products generally can be categorized as follows:
1. Flat sheets or plates ranging in thickness from about 0.8 to 10 mm, such
as window glass, glass doors, and tabletops.
2. Rods and tubing used for chemicals, neon lights, and decorative artifacts.
3. Discrete products such as bottles, vases, headlights, and television tubes.
4. Glass fibers to reinforce composite materials and for use in fiber optics.
All glass forming and shaping processes begin with molten glass, typically in
the range from 1000° to 1200°C. The glass has the appearance of a red-hot,
viscous syrup and is supplied from a melting furnace or tank.
3 methods
Flat-sheet and Plate Glass
1. In the float method, molten
glass from the furnace is fed
into a long bath in which the
glass—under a controlled
atmosphere and at a
temperature of 1150°C —floats
over a bath of molten tin. The
glass then moves at a
temperature of about 650°C
over rollers into another
chamber (lehr), where it
solidifies. Float glass has smooth
(fire-polished) surfaces, so
further grinding or polishing is
not necessary. The width can be
as much as 4 m (13 ft). Both thin
and plate glass are made by this
process.
 Flat-sheet and Plate Glass
2. The drawing process for making flat sheets or plates involves
passing the molten glass through a pair of rolls in an
arrangement similar to an old-fashioned clothes wringer. The
solidifying glass is squeezed between these two rolls (forming it
into a sheet) and then moved forward over a set of smaller
rolls.
Flat-sheet and Plate Glass
3. In the rolling process, the molten glass is squeezed
between powered rollers, thereby forming a sheet. The
surfaces of the glass may be embossed with a pattern by
using textured roller surfaces. In this way, the glass surface
becomes a replica of the roll surface. Thus, glass sheet
produced by drawing or rolling has a rough surface
appearance.
Tubing and Rods
Molten glass is wrapped around a
rotating (cylindrical or cone-
shaped) hollow mandrel and is
drawn out by a set of rolls. Air is
blown through the mandrel to
prevent the glass tube from
collapsing. These machines may
be horizontal, vertical, or slanted
downward. This is the method
used in making the glass tubes for
fluorescent bulbs, with machines
(such as the Corning Ribbon
Machine) capable of producing
bulbs at rates of 2000 per minute.
Glass rods are made in a similar
manner, but air is not blown
through the mandrel. The drawn
product becomes a solid glass rod.
Tubing and Rods
An alternative process for
making tubes involves
extrusion of a strip of
glass, which is then
wrapped obliquely around
a rotating mandrel. The
molten glass blends across
adjacent layers, and the
resultant tube is drawn off
the mandrel in a
continuous process.
Discrete Glass Products
Blowing. Hollow and thin-walled glass items (such as bottles, vases, and flasks) are
made by blowing—a process that is similar to the blow molding of thermoplastics.
Blown air expands a hollow gob of heated glass against the inner walls of the mold.
The mold usually is coated with a parting agent (such as oil or emulsion) to prevent
the glass from sticking to the mold.
Blowing may be followed by a second blowing operation for finalizing product shape,
called the blow and blow process.
The surface finish of products made by the blowing process is acceptable for most
applications, such as bottles and jars.
It is difficult to control the wall thickness of the product, but this process is
economical for high-rate production.
Incandescent light bulbs are made in highly automated blowing machines at a rate of
greater than 2000 bulbs per minute.
Discrete Glass
Products
Discrete Glass Products
Pressing. In the pressing process, a gob of molten glass is
placed into a mold and pressed into a confined cavity with a
plunger. Thus, the process is similar to closed die forging.
The mold may be made in one piece or it may be a split
mold.
After being pressed, the solidifying glass acquires the shape
of the mold-plunger cavity. Because of the confined
environment, the product has a higher dimensional accuracy
than can be obtained with blowing.
Pressing in one-piece molds cannot be used for (a) shapes of
products from which the plunger cannot be retracted or (b)
thin-walled items. For example, split molds are used for
bottles, while, for thin-walled items, pressing can be
combined with blowing.
In the latter process, known as press and blow, the pressed
part is subjected to air pressure (hence the term blow),
which further expands the glass into the mold.
Discrete
Glass
Products
Discrete Glass Products

• Centrifugal Casting. Also known

in the glass industry as spinning
this process is similar to that
used for metals. The centrifugal
force pushes the molten glass
against the mold wall, where it
solidifies. Typical products
made are large lenses for
research telescopes and some
architectural shapes.
thermoforming of
thermoplastics but no pressure
or vacuum is involved. Typical
applications are dishes, sunglass
lenses, mirrors for telescopes,
and lighting panels.
Discrete Glass Products
• Sagging. Shallow dish-shaped or lightly embossed glass parts
can be made by the sagging process. A sheet of glass is
placed over a mold and heated. The glass sags by its own
weight and takes the shape of the mold. The process is
similar to the thermoforming of thermoplastics no pressure
or vacuum is involved. Typical applications are dishes,
sunglass lenses, mirrors for telescopes, and lighting panels.