The historical background of microprocessors and computing reveals a fascinating evolution
from mechanical devices to sophisticated modern processors. Here are essential terms and
key concepts that are prerequisites to understanding this field:
Essential Prerequisite Terms and Key Concepts
Term Definition Example
Abacus An ancient counting tool Used by Babylonians
that uses beads on rods to around 500 B.C. for basic
perform arithmetic arithmetic
calculations.
Analytical Engine A mechanical Could store 1000 20-digit
general-purpose computer decimal numbers and
designed by Charles variable programs, with
Babbage, intended to input via punched cards.
generate navigation tables.
Punched Card (Hollerith A card used for storing The 12-bit code used on
Code) data, initially developed by these cards is known as
Herman Hollerith for the Hollerith code.
1890 census.
Vacuum Tube An early electronic Early electronic computing
component used in systems like Colossus and
first-generation computers ENIAC used vacuum tubes.
to control electronic
signals.
ENIAC The first general-purpose, Weighed over 30 tons and
programmable electronic performed about 100,000
computer system, operations per second
developed in 1946.
Transistor A semiconductor device Its invention led to the
that amplifies or switches integrated circuit and
electronic signals and eventually the
electrical power, developed microprocessor.
in 1948.
Integrated Circuit (IC) A set of electronic circuits The IC was crucial for the
on one small flat piece of development of digital
semiconductor material, integrated circuits and the
invented in 1958. first microprocessor.
Microprocessor A programmable controller The Intel 4004, released in
on a chip, representing the 1971, was the world's first
central processing unit microprocessor.
(CPU) on a single
integrated circuit.
Machine Language The lowest-level John von Neumann
programming language, developed a system that
consisting of binary code accepted and stored these
directly executable by a instructions in memory.
computer's CPU.
Assembly Language A low-level programming Commonly used for tasks
language that uses requiring efficient machine
mnemonics instead of control functions, such as
binary code to simplify video games
program entry
High-Level Programming Languages designed to be Examples include
Language more human-readable and FLOW-MATIC, FORTRAN,
abstract, simplifying the COBOL, BASIC, C/C++,
programming process PASCAL, and ADA
CISC (Complex Microprocessors with a The Intel 8086 and 8088
Instruction Set large and complex set of microprocessors are
Computer) instructions examples of CISC
architecture
RISC (Reduced Microprocessors based on The IBM 801 was an early
Instruction Set design principles that processor based on RISC
Computer) involve a simpler, more design principles.
efficient set of instructions.
Graphical User Interface A visual way for users to Often described as "what
(GUI) interact with electronic you see is what you get"
devices through graphical (WYSIWYG) displays.
icons and visual indicators.
Superscalar Technology A processor design that The Pentium
allows multiple instructions microprocessor utilizes
to be executed dual integer processors
simultaneously in a single through superscalar
clock cycle. technology.
Jump Prediction A technique used in This technology speeds up
Technology processors to predict the the execution of programs
outcome of a conditional that involve loops, as seen
jump, improving program in the Pentium.
execution speed.
Key Takeaways
The history of microprocessors and computers is a story of continuous innovation, driven by
the need for faster, smaller, and more efficient computing.
● Early Innovations (Pre-Electrical Age): Computing began with mechanical devices like
the abacus and Pascal's calculator, leading to Charles Babbage's conceptual
Analytical Engine, which introduced ideas like stored programs and punched card
input.
● The Electrical Age and First Computers: The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the
advent of electrical components. Herman Hollerith's punched card machines
revolutionized data processing for tasks like the census. The first electronic calculating
machines, like Konrad Zuse's Z3 and Alan Turing's Colossus (using vacuum tubes),
emerged during World War II for specialized purposes. The ENIAC, developed in 1946,
marked the beginning of general-purpose electronic, programmable computers,
despite its massive size and programming challenges due to manual rewiring and vacuum
tube maintenance.
● The Semiconductor Revolution: The invention of the transistor in 1948 and the
integrated circuit (IC) in 1958 were pivotal, leading to smaller, more reliable, and faster
electronic components. This paved the way for the development of the first
microprocessor.
● The Microprocessor Era: Intel released the world's first microprocessor, the 4-bit
Intel 4004, in 1971, which was a programmable controller on a chip. This was followed by
the 8-bit Intel 8008 and later the 8080, which was faster and had larger memory
addressing capabilities. The introduction of the Intel 8088 in the IBM Personal Computer
in 1981 was a significant milestone in popularizing personal computing.
● Evolution of Microprocessor Architectures: Processors evolved from 8-bit to 16-bit
(e.g., 8086, 80286) and then to 32-bit (e.g., 80386, 80486)and eventually 64-bit
architectures, with increasing clock speeds, transistor counts, and memory addressing
capabilities. Key advancements included the introduction of cache memory, superscalar
technology for parallel execution, and jump prediction technology for improved
performance.
● Programming Language Advancements: Alongside hardware developments,
programming languages evolved from machine language to assembly language and
various high-level languages like FORTRAN, COBOL, and C/C++, making programming
more accessible and efficient.
● Modern Microprocessors: The Pentium series marked a new era with dual integer
processors and advanced features. Later iterations like the Pentium Pro, Pentium II,
Pentium III, Xeon, and Pentium 4 continued to push boundaries in speed, cache size,
and specialized applications, with the future pointing towards RISC architectures and
enhanced parallel processing.
