#Geo-information : refers to data and knowledge related to the Earth’s surface and its attributes.

• It encompasses maps, geographic data, and geospatial technologies used for various applications like navigation,
urban planning, environmental monitoring, and disaster management.
• More than 80 % of all decisions made in administration and economy are based on Geoinformation

What is GIS?
#GIS stands for geographic information system. <u>It stores, analyzes, and visualizes geo-information from geographic
positions on earths surface</u>.

• It is a computer based tool that helps examine spatial relationship, patterns and trends in geography.
• Used formal models that make data processable for Computers.
• Models must be capable to represent the geometric, and attributive properties of the data.
• To know about „GIS“ (or „Geodata“) means to know the properties, the formal models, and the methods and
algorithms to process the data

#Geoinformatics – A scientific discipline that deals with the modelling, collection, administration, analysis and visualization of
spatial objects
#Geo-Information-System (GIS) – A computer-tool that enables users to capture and process* spatial data

• #GIS support the analysis of Geoinformation, aiming at generating new spatial information.
• Such new information can be used for decision support in Administration and Economy
• Geoinformation Systems are based on mathematical models that are formalized for usage with computers. They
serve to capture spatial data, analyse the data and visualize them in different ways (2D, 3D, static, dynamic)

Geoinformation described by 2 parameters:

1. spatial extent (geometry):

- location to see location of features, objects, or phenomena within a defined area.
- This is typically represented using coordinate systems, projections, and spatial data models
- Usually by x z or even 7 coordinates
- Includes points and polygons
2. Attribute data – this represents the characteristics or properties associated with those spatial locations
includes any information that belongs to point, line or polygon
attributes make geometric object (point, line or polygon) a geo object

Abstraction of spatial objects #Abstraction is a process that enables us to describe real world objects based on predefined
criteria (or properties) that build a digital model.
The term #Abstraction includes the process of modeling, but is also embracing the formal representation of (spatial) objects
Geographical information systems, as well as databases, require abstract models or real world objects to process them using
computers

Maps are abstractions: they do not present the „complete“ reality. They abstract from reality and show only those details that
were seen as being „relevant“ in a specific framework

• A map is an abstract model of the reality A 3D visualization of an urban Environment is also an abstraction of reality.
• It can be implemented on different „levels of detail“ (LoD 1- 4).
• Each LoD is an abstraction, however, preciseness and closeness to reality enhance on every level, but never reach
„reality“

GIS data layers

1. Base map
2. Imagery
3. Land cover
4. Demographics
5. Wetlands
6. Topography
7. Zoning
8. Parcels
Overlap of these layers revel overlap of these layers reveals complex relationships and allows for sophisticated analysis. For
instance, combining a base map with land cover data can identify areas with specific vegetation types, while overlaying
demographics with zoning regulations can highlight areas where population density interacts with land use restrictions

Application area of Geo information

- Meteorology
- Transportation & Logistics
- Health
- Agriculture & Forestry
- Traffic- and Fleet management
- Software Development
- Tourism
- Marketing
- Geosciences
- Archeology
- Administration
- Disaster management
- Societal security
- Finances, Insurances
- Telecommunication
- Urban and spatial planning

some examples of application areas of geo information data collected:

1. topographic data about public and private properties
2. for provision of goods and sustainability
3. spatial planning – enabling efficient land use, infrastructure development, and resource management.
4. management of natural and man made disasters, including flood risk assessment, wildfire prediction, and post-disaster
damage mapping
5. Leisure and tourism
6. for protection of culture and tourism

spatial data modeling

spatial data
location
coordinates
projections
Attributes
relationships
discrete and continuous

2.Spatial data presentation

#cartography symbology Cartography, the art and science of mapmaking, plays a crucial role in spatial data presentation
#pyramiding . Pyramiding involves creating a series of progressively smaller and more detailed representations of the data of
the same geographic area, building upon a foundational layerand
#LOD (Level of Detail) are techniques used to efficiently represent and display spatial data, particularly when dealing with
large datasets or complex geographic areas
What is spatial analysis
it refers to the process of examining spatial data to uncover patterns, relationships, and insights by studying data features like
location attributes and relationships.
it uses techniques like computation models, analytical techniques and Algorithmic approaches

#Geoinformation is related to both, the representation of static objects on the Earth’s surface, as well as the dynamic
representation of processes. Both can be done in 2D and 3D which makes Geographical Information Systems powerful tools
to capture, analyse and visualise such data.

Digital maps are important means to visualize spatial data; they are often the result of the work with a #GIS. – However, a
digital map alone is not a #GIS – A #GIS is a comprehensive computer tool that includes all steps of spatial data processing
(modeling, collection, administration, analysis, visualization) – A „GIS“ is therefore more than a computer tool that only
presents maps (Geodata viewer“)
in #Geoinformation Software tools are used to – model, – capture, – administer – Analyse und – visualize

Main functionalities of GIS concern the analysis of spatial conditions and processes at specific locations or in specific regions.
to do this they include

• A database component
• Functions for spatial analysis
• Functions for cartographic representation and dynamic visualization

#Geoinformation Describes real or abstract objects on the Earth’s surface, which is 3D Maps are 2D, however, the 3D surface
of the ellipsoidal surface must be transformed to a flat, 2D plain
This leads to projection problems Projection problems must be solved to define coordinate systems that enable us to locate
objects correctly

#Geoinformation / #Geoobjects and their representation – Locations on the Earth’s surface are described using coordinates
(latitude, longitude) – The planar map represents the Earth’s surface taking into account that distortions are generated – The
distortions concern angle-, longitudinal and area-related aspects

Geo 2D”: #Cartesic coordinate system

![[2 Geoinformation - Some basic considerations.webp]]

#EXKURS: A (very brief) introduction to projection theory

The #Bessel-Ellipsoid – The Bessel-Ellipsoid is a mathematical model of the Earth that uses a set of parameters to adapt to the
Earth‘s surface as well as possible.
Bessel adapts extraordinarily well concerning the Eurasian continent.

Compared with the global Ellpsoid-model the Bessel-Ellipsoid shows differences of the axes a (equatorial) and b (polar) that
are around 700m shorter:
Following the two axes, that represent the flattening of the ellipsoid
f=(a-b)/a
at the poles defined by Bessel, and by the World Geodetic System WGS84:

Spatial reference system, an example: the Gauß-Krüger-System, based on two different ellipsoides

![[2 Geoinformation - Some basic considerations 1.webp]]

Another example: European Terrestrial Reference System (ETRS 89) The European Union decided in 2005 to introduce a
common spatial reference system for all member states: ETRS89 In Germany (and many other countries), the Gauß-Krüger-
System was (and still has to be) replaced by ETRS 89. This system relies on the Universal Transverse Mercator Projection
(UTM) UTM, however, was used since a long time in many other countries (among others the US and the UK) The
transformation of all map based (spatial) information into a new spatial reference system is a big challenge for
administrations!

![[2 Geoinformation - Some basic considerations 2.webp]]

The „big goal“ of using the „GIS“-technology: Capturing, administrating the (big) data sets, and following Analyzing and
visualizing spatial data aimed at supporting decision making and to solve societal problems
Geodata characteristics, Raster- and Vectormodel and Data Integration, p.2]]

• Geoobjects are located using coordinates. This spatial localisation describes primarily the position „in
space“, but it describes furthermore the form of an object (e. g. a line, a polygon). „Absolute positioning“
• Geoobjects are interconnected. Spatial relationships are described via their topology. „Relative positioning“
• The meaning, or semantics, of geoobjects results from adding attributes to the spatial objects. Attributes
describe geoobjects in detail.
• Geoobjects can change during time. This is the dynamic characteristic of geo objects. This can concern
geometry, topology, and attributes.

![[3 Geodata characteristics, Raster- and Vectormodel and Data Integration.webp]]

[[3 Geodata characteristics, Raster- and Vectormodel and Data Integration.pdf#page=3&rect=133,150,684,567|3

Geodata characteristics, Raster- and Vectormodel and Data Integration, p.3]]

representation of geoobject varies at a scale

• city can be a point in one scale and a polygon i one scale

Mathematical models for representation of basis of spatial forms of analysis

• set theory forms a basis for spatial form analysis.

o Elements: modelled objects
o Sets: collection of objects (elements)
o relationships: “X is element of” Example:
▪ Intersection
▪ Union
▪ Difference

Modeling

• data model: Abstraction of real world data

• Data structures in GIS: Raster or vector models
• Geometry: absolute location, x y z coordinates
• Topology: relation between geoobjects
• Attributes: properties of geoobjects

Attributes are related to geometric objects and stored in a database

– Relational databases store data using tables:
– Geometry
– Topology
– Attributes
– Geometry and Attributes are stored in separate tables
– The integration of geometry and attributes tables is done using „key attributes“ (primary key, foreign key)

RASTER
– Rastergraphcs
– (Raster-)cell
– Cells have same size
– Location using columns, rows
Raster data example (Landsat satellite image )
![[3 Geodata characteristics, Raster- and Vectormodel and Data Integration 1.webp]]

[[3 Geodata characteristics, Raster- and Vectormodel and Data Integration.pdf#page=31&rect=73,80,771,561|3

Geodata characteristics, Raster- and Vectormodel and Data Integration, p.31]]

VECTOR
– Vektorgraphics
– Point, Line, Polygon
- Point (node)
- Line (edge)
- Polygon (area, surface)
– Location using coordinates
Vector model : representation of geometry using points (located using coordinates)

• Representation:
o point objects (XYZ) (one dimension)
o Liner objects (edges)(two dimensions)
o Borderlines of areas (polygons)(2 dimensions)
o Volumes (3 dimensions)
![[3 Geodata characteristics, Raster- and Vectormodel and Data Integration 2.webp]]

[[3 Geodata characteristics, Raster- and Vectormodel and Data Integration.pdf#page=33&rect=437,79,774,564|3

Geodata characteristics, Raster- and Vectormodel and Data Integration, p.33]]

Slide 4
Topology:

• In terms of geoobjects topology is relation between adjacent vectors

example: (neighborhoods)
• Useful for detecting and correction digitizing errors
• Necessary for carrying out some types of spatial analysis, such as network analysis.
• Topology does not necessarily refer to exact coordinates.
• Topological relationships describe aspects such as „overlap“, „touch“, „intersect“, „cover“, and others.
• It is not necessary to describe precise location and form of such objects, only a rough position is used to
derive such relations.
• this also means it is not possible to make measurements from topology alone
Examples of topological relations

- A is disjunct to B
- A lies in B (and opposite)- A covers B (and opposite)
- A touches B- A equals B

Geometry and topology:

Geometry: is concerned with properties of space and figures in space such as measurements (angles and distance)

Topology: concerned with properties of geometrical figures that are unchanged under continuous deformation
(example what is the shape of this thing?)
adjacency: when two nodes are connected by an edge
![[4 Topology of Geoinformation.webp]]

[[4 Topology of Geoinformation.pdf#page=9&rect=90,85,739,555|4 Topology of Geoinformation, p.9]]

incidence:

topology and topography are different:

Topology Topography

description of relative position between geoobjects without exact is exact representation of geoobject on a
position using coordinates in specific spatial reff system map exactly locatable.

Operations with geoinformation:

 Set Theory Geometry Topology

• equal • is member of • is empty • intersection • • distance • length • area • • boundary • interior • meets •
union • is disjoint of centroid overlaps

![[4 Topology of Geoinformation 1.webp]]

[[4 Topology of Geoinformation.pdf#page=20&rect=46,153,779,431|4 Topology of Geoinformation, p.20]]

Slide 5 : Spatial Analysis.

Historic examples of GIS for analysis:

• two spatial analysis were performed to search for a suitable site for nuclear waste deposition

1. Overlay
2. Reclassification

Criteria

• waste disposal should happen in an area that performs well concerning geologic and hydrologic conditions
(of course, this has to be specified in more detail)
• within an area with a population density < 490 persons/km²
• within 3 km radius a railway should exist
• road network should be considered (reachability)
• outside of nature conservation areas and national parks
• size (minimum) 4 km

#distance and #buffer

• #buffer is an artificial region around point or polygon or around lines.

• It is assumed to be related to the feature
• Generated to search for relationship between specific geoobjects and/or similar objects in same buffer zone.
Application examples:

1. Analyzing land use types within a 100m-zone left and right from a river
2. Siting of a new shop, e. g. building a 500m-zone around this site to get an overview, if other equal or similar
shops are existing close to the new planned business

#network_analysis : Basic method of analyzing graph based networks

• Way and pathfinding

• Shortest-path-algorithm (Dijkstra algorithm)
• Traveling-Salesman-problem
• Allocation problem
![[5 Spatial analysis I 5.webp]]

[[5 Spatial analysis I.pdf#page=13&rect=103,170,725,483|5 Spatial analysis I, p.13]]

Why do networks exist in GIS ?

The basis is a graph constituted out of nodes and edges.
Adding thematics to nodes and edges leads to a network that can be analysed from an application point of view:

• Road networks
• River networks
• Pipe networks
• Borderlines and boundaries (natural or artificial)
o Estates, properties
 o Administrational districts
o Land type or land use differentiation

Some basic terms of graph theory

#path :the path from a node A to a node B
#Shortest-Path-Problem: Searching for the geometrically shortest path from a node A to a node E. The red path is
the shortest from A to E.
Realworld applications:
- Navigation systems in cars
- Pathfinding for transport businesses
- Optimizing routes for waste disposal companies
Example A
![[5 Spatial analysis I 6.webp]]

[[5 Spatial analysis I.pdf#page=17&rect=232,98,634,524|5 Spatial analysis I, p.17]]

#Route : the path from a node A via other nodes to a node E

Example B:
Travelling-Salesman-Problem:

• Searching for the optimal itinerary of n customers under consideration of the shortest (or fastest) path, start
point and end point of the tour are equal
• In the example node A is start- and end point; the nodes B, C and D must be visited
• Real world applications:
o customer‘s services,
o Commercial travellers,
o Planning line connections,
o Planning routes for garbage trucks

![[5 Spatial analysis I 7.webp]]

[[5 Spatial analysis I.pdf#page=19&rect=212,102,636,519|5 Spatial analysis I, p.19]]

#Tour : closed route from A to A (via different other nodes)

Example C Location - Allocation:

• The search is for the optimal location of a new business; minimal transport costs should arise and there
should be no intersections with other areas that are used similarly
• In example C, node A is the optimal location for delivering goods to the nodes B, C, D, E und F (in this case
only under consideration of the total path length)
• Real world applications: – Search for optimal locations for businesses, schools, kindergartens, fire stations,
hospitals, super markets, restaurants, etc.

• GIS analysis is aimed at generating new spatial information, based on existing data (data layers from
different sources):

• The new spatial information is presented in cartographic format, or other means of visualisation
• Such new „maps“ are used to support decision making: stakeholders are informed about spatial conditions
and spatial patterns about a specific location (or area); in such a way they are enabled to

• assess the location (or area) concerning an envisaged goal

• to develop a location further due to the identification of deficits
• to recognize special features and/or spatial relationships between features
• to develop alternative solutions (scenarios) for a spatial problem, compare these solutions and finally decide
on a prioritized one
Slide 6 Spatial Analysis
Spatial interpolation

• Statistical and non-statistical methods for spatial interpolation can be distinguished

• Statistical methods have their origin in mathematical statistics (Probability theory); spatial statistics deal
with the analysis of relationships between variables that are spatially fixed
• Example: Interpolation of measurements
o Problem: measurements are carried out at a specific location (a „point“); but: users often want
information that is concerned with areas
o Methods of spatial interpolation: Inverse-Distance-weighted (IDW) and Kriging-interpolation
o Whereas IDW is a non-statistical, Kriging is a statistical method

Goal of spatial interpolation is to use point-wise measurements as a basis to interpolate this data aiming at
presenting the data area-wise

Tobler‘s First Law of Geography

Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things

Statistical interpolation: Regression

• Linear regression: there is a linear relationship between an independent (known) and a dependent
(unknown) variable
• The stronger this relationship is, the better is the possibility to express the unknown variable as a function of
the known variable
• This relationship can be described as follows:
![[6 Spatial analysis II.webp]]

[[6 Spatial analysis II.pdf#page=6&rect=271,159,640,319|6 Spatial analysis II, p.6]]

Linear regression: Determination of a and b

• Method of smallest squares:

o A line is laid through pairs of values that it guarantees the minimization of the quadratic deviance of
the observed values. In other terms: the „point cloud“ that is generated from the pairs of (observed)
values should be represented by the line as optimal as possible
o The regression coefficient is derived as follows:
![[6 Spatial analysis II 1.webp]]
[[6 Spatial analysis II.pdf#page=7&rect=113,99,801,339|6 Spatial analysis II, p.7]]

![[Pasted image ![[Pasted image ![[Pasted image

20250716123637.png]] 20250716123713.png]] 20250716123700.png]]

Negative correlation Positive correlation No correlation

The regression coefficient r (r > -1 and < +1) is a value that represents the strength of the correlation between the
variables

Statistic regression

• Using the formula mentioned before it is possible to determine the correlation between any variables
o Regression methods search for correlations between two variables aiming at determining unknown
values on the basis of known values (measurements); this is close to the term „spatial interpolation“
• The correlation coefficient r is a „value“ that represents the strengh of the dependence (relationship)
between the variables (known and unknown). Is r < 0, this means that there is only a weak correlation; is r
close to 1, the correlation is quite strong
• If no or only a weak correlation is determined, the probability that the two variables are not dependent from
each other, becomes larger or can be denied

Distance as a weight: the IDW method

 • The IDW method is aimed at the calculation of a a value at a site, where no measurements were taken. This
is done using other points where measurements have been taken place. The latter function as „supporting
points“ to estimate values for ponts without measurements.
• IDW uses the distance between known points (with measurements) and unknown points (without
measurements) as a weight.
• Mathematically this can be formulated as follows:
• z(u1), … ,z(un) are points where measurements have been carried out (supporting points with
measurements/observations). The estimation of a value at a point where no measurements/observations
were carried out (u0) is possible using the following formula
![[6 Spatial analysis II 2.webp]]

[[6 Spatial analysis II.pdf#page=12&rect=272,182,488,290|6 Spatial analysis II, p.12]]

IDW: Advantages

• Easy theory, however distance is an important geographic property, or variable

• Fast calculations, easy to perform for a computer
• Different distances lead to different estimations for values at unknown points (which is a wanted result!)
• Method realizes ideally Tobler‘s first law of Geography
• Due to its simpliness, the method is used widely (but not ever correctly)

IDW: Disadvantages

• The IDW method does only take care of the distance – no other criteria are considered in the basic version
• Directions are not represented; if there are directed relationships between variables, these are ignored (e. g.
measurements of hight along a mountain ridge)
• Due to this deficits of the basic methodology, variants were developed hiwch leads to more complex
calculations (examples are: Shepard‘s variant of IDW [Bull eyes], Streit [Hyposmetric modified IDW],
Kriging [combining the basic method with a statistical add-on that deals with the [important!] question: at
which distance a dependence between points can be denied? Or, in other terms: if the distance between a
measurement and another point is too large, the measured value should not be considered during
interpolation for the unknown point!])

![[6 Spatial analysis II 3.webp]]

[[6 Spatial analysis II.pdf#page=19&rect=171,211,734,446|6 Spatial analysis II, p.19]]

More or less „concentric circles“ around the (measured!) values do not necessarily represent the reality correctly.
A conclusion could be that IDW is easily usable to get a first impression of a calculated surface, but that one should
be careful when investigating phenomena in more detail

![[6 Spatial analysis II 4.webp]]

[[6 Spatial analysis II.pdf#page=20&rect=111,213,499,386|6 Spatial analysis II, p.20]]

Slide 7
What is #Interoperability ?
#Interoperability is the possibility of software products or – components to use standardized protocols or interfaces
within distributed applications

Open Geospatial Consortium The OGC develops specifications and standards, no software! However,
geosoftware is tested to be certified.
The „W3C“ for Geoinformation – Founded 1994 in the USA
Goal: open systems to access and process Geoinformation; interoperability between data and systems
Non-profit Organisation (> 450 Members (Companies [incl. Google, Microsoft, Oracle]), organisations,
universities, and others) – https://www.ogc.org/

Sharing Geoinformation using Web Services

• Web Services enable the exchange of Geoinformation via the Internet

 • A Web Service starts requests, which are answered via a server
• Meanwhile, such services are widely standardized: the W3C and the OGC develop such standards and
provide the specifications (costfree) via their homepages
• Widely used Web Services of the OGC:
o GetCapabilities
o GetMap
o GetFeatureInfo

![[Pasted image 20250716135503.png]]

XML as a basis for Web Services

eXtensibleMarkup Language (XML)

• Markup and structuring of data using „tags“

• XML is the foundation for protocols like SOAP and the WSDL (Web Service Description Language)

JSON: an alternative to XML?

For Web APIs and other purposes XML is replaced increasingly by simpler formats, such as JSON

Web-Based Mapping Technology Vision

WebServer und MapViewer working together:

• Search and Loading of maps (layers) from different servers

• Visualisation of different layers within one (web-)application
• Query and update of data
• Interfaces for analysis, output, etc.
• Support of vector and raster data
![[Pasted image 20250716142030.png]]

„Old“ Solution: Interoperability through „open“ data formats, requiring many interfaces
![[7 GIS and Interoperability.webp]]

[[7 GIS and Interoperability.pdf#page=13&rect=166,137,651,450|7 GIS and Interoperability, p.13]]

Interoperability through standards

![[7 GIS and Interoperability 1.webp]]

[[7 GIS and Interoperability.pdf#page=14&rect=85,153,757,493|7 GIS and Interoperability, p.14]]

OGC Solutions: Geo-WebServices

• WMS – Concept:
• Based exclusively on Internet technology (http, XML)
• „Geographic Markup Language“ (GML) as a basis

Web Map Service

A Web Map Services (WMS) is an Internet-based provision of map (layers) within a distributed geographical
information system or a spatial web application

Web Map Service

• OGC standard
• 3 methods:
o getCapabilities (Leistungsverzeichnis anfordern, Pflicht),
o getMap (Karte anfordern, Pflicht),
o getFeatureInfo (Sachinformation anfordern, Optional)

GeoJSON

• JSON and GeoJSON are text-based exchange formats aimed at using commonly data in different GI-
Systems (or services)
 • The formats are independent from programming languages (e. g. Python, C#, Java, JavaScript); they
provide libraries to read, modify and write JSON and GeoJSON .
• “Features” are, for example, Point, LineString, Polygon, MultiPoint, MultiLineString, or MultiPolygon,
including the attributes that belong to each feature

JSON and XML, compared

JSON and XML: similarities
- Both JSON and XML are “self describing” (human readable)
- Both JSON and XML are hierarchical
- Both JSON and XML can be parsed and used by lots of programming languages
- Both JSON and XML can be fetched with an XMLHttpRequest
JSON und XML: differences
- JSON doesn’t use end tag
- JSON is shorter
- JSON is quicker to read and write
- JSON can use arrays Geoinformation
”XML has to be parsed with an XML parser. JSON can be parsed by a standard JavaScript function.” Geo-Web
Services can be processed using both, XML or GeoJSON

Geopackage

A #geopackage (*.gpkg) is an open format for geospatial information, platform independent, implemented as a
SQLite database.
It contains vector features, tile matrix sets of imagery and raster maps at various scales, schema and metadata.
Everything is collected in a single file ready to be use, facilitating transfer and usability of the information.
![[7 GIS and Interoperability 2.webp]]

[[7 GIS and Interoperability.pdf#page=23&rect=175,126,632,350|7 GIS and Interoperability, p.23]]

Map Server
#MapServer is an OpenSource-Rendering-Engine für Geodaten written in C.

• The server „produces“ digital maps.

• Furthermore, to use the MapServer for complex applications in the GIS-sector:
• The Minnesota DNR Recreation Compass, for example, shows that it is possible to provide more than
10.000 Websites, Reports and Maps within one application