Keysight Technologies

Vector Signal Analysis Basics

Application Note
02 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Chapter 1 This application note serves as a primer on the vector signal analyzer (VSA). This chapter
discusses VSA measurement concepts and theory of operation; Chapter 2 discusses VSA
Vector Signal Analyzer vector-modulation analysis and, specifically, digital-modulation analysis.

Analog, swept-tuned spectrum analyzers use superheterodyne technology to cover wide

frequency ranges; from audio, through microwave, to millimeter frequencies. Fast Fourier
transform (FFT) analyzers use digital signal processing (DSP) to provide high-resolution
spectrum and network analysis, but are limited to low frequencies due to the limits of
analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) and signal processing technologies. Today’s wide-
bandwidth, vector-modulated (also called complex or digitally modulated), time-varying
signals benefit greatly from the capabilities of FFT analysis and other DSP techniques.
VSAs combine superheterodyne technology with high speed ADCs and other DSP
technologies to offer fast, high-resolution spectrum measurements, demodulation, and
advanced time-domain analysis. A VSA is especially useful for characterizing complex
signals such as burst, transient, or modulated signals used in communications, video,
broadcast, sonar, and ultrasound imaging applications.

Figure 1-1 shows a simplified block diagram of a VSA analyzer. The VSA implements a
very different measurement approach than traditional swept analyzers; the analog IF
section is replaced by a digital IF section incorporating FFT technology and digital signal
processing. The traditional swept-tuned spectrum analyzer is an analog system; the VSA
is fundamentally a digital system that uses digital data and mathematical algorithms to
perform data analysis. For example, most traditional hardware functions, such as mixing,
filtering, and demodulation, are accomplished digitally, as are many measurement
operations. The FFT algorithm is used for spectrum analysis, and the demodulator
algorithms are used for vector analysis applications.

Analog data Digitized data stream

t t
FFT
f
RF ADC LO Time Frequency domain
input 90 degs
Q
IF Anti-alias Demod-
ulator I
input filter Quadrature
detector,
Local digital filtering Modulation domain
oscilator
Digital IF
I
and
DSP techniques t Q
0 code 15
Time domain Code domain

Figure 1-1. The vector signal analyzer digitizes the analog input signal and uses DSP technology to process and
provide data outputs; the FFT algorithm produces frequency domain results, the demodulator algorithms produce
modulation and code domain results
03 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Signal Analyzer A significant characteristic of the VSA is that it is designed to measure and manipulate
complex data. In fact, it is called a vector signal analyzer because it has the ability to
(continued) vector detect an input signal (measure the magnitude and phase of the input signal).
You will learn about vector modulation and detection in Chapter 2. It is basically a
measurement receiver with system architecture that is analogous to, but not identical
to, a digital communications receiver. Though similar to an FFT analyzer, VSAs cover RF
and microwave ranges, plus additional modulation-domain analysis capability. These
advancements are made possible through digital technologies such as analog-to-digital
conversion and DSP that include digital intermediate frequency (IF) techniques and fast
Fourier transform (FFT) analysis.

Because the signals that people must analyze are growing more complex, the latest
generations of spectrum analyzers have moved to a digital architecture and often include
many of the vector signal analysis capabilities previously found only in VSAs. Some
analyzers digitize the signal at the instrument input, after some amplification, or after
one or more downconverter stages. In any of these cases, phase as well as magnitude
is preserved in order to perform true vector measurements. Capabilities are then
determined by the digital signal processing capability inherent in the spectrum analyzer
firmware or available as add-on software running either internally (measurement
personalities) or externally (vector signal analysis software) on a computer connected to
the analyzer.

VSA measurement advantages

Vector analysis measures dynamic signals and produces complex

data results
The VSA offers some distinct advantages over analog swept-tuned analysis. One of the
major advantages of the VSA is its ability to better measure dynamic signals. Dynamic
signals generally fall into one of two categories: time-varying or complex modulated.
Time-varying are signals whose measured properties change during a measurement
sweep (such as burst, gated, pulsed, or transient). Complex-modulated signals cannot be
solely described in terms of simple AM, FM, or PM modulation, and include most of those
used in digital communications, such as quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).

Swept analysis Vector analysis

Time domain Fourier analysis Frequency domain

Carrier
A Time sampled data A Simulated parallel-filter processing
Frequency
resolution
0
bandwidth t
IF filter
Display shows full
f1 f2 spectral display f
f
Sweep span
Start frequency Stop frequency Time record Frequency spectrum

Figure 1-2. Swept-tuned analysis displays the instantaneous time response of a narrowband IF filter to the input
signal. Vector analysis uses FFT analysis to transform a set of time domain samples into frequency domain spectra.
04 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Signal Analyzer A traditional swept-spectrum analyzer1, in effect, sweeps a narrowband filter across a
range of frequencies, sequentially measuring one frequency at a time. Unfortunately,
(continued) sweeping the input works well for stable or repetitive signals, but will not accurately
represent signals that change during the sweep. Also, this technique only provides scalar
(magnitude only) information, though some other signal characteristics can be derived by
further analysis of spectrum measurements.

The VSA measurement process simulates a parallel bank of filters and overcomes swept
limitations by taking a “snapshot,” or time-record, of the signal; then processing all
frequencies simultaneously. For example, if the input is a transient signal, the entire
signal event is captured (meaning all aspects of the signal at that moment in time are
digitized and captured); then used by the FFT to compute the “instantaneous” complex
spectra versus frequency. This process can be performed in real-time, that is, without
missing any part of the input signal. For these reasons, the VSA is sometimes referred to
as a “dynamic signal analyzer” or a “real-time signal analyzer”. The VSA’s ability to track
a fast-changing signal isn’t unlimited, however; it depends on the VSA’s computational
capability.

The VSA decreases measurement time

Parallel processing yields another potential advantage for high-resolution (narrow
resolution bandwidth) measurements; faster measurement time. If you’ve used a swept-
tuned spectrum analyzer before, you already know that narrow resolution bandwidth
(RBW) measurements of small frequency spans can be very time-consuming. Swept-
tuned analyzers sweep frequencies from point to point slowly enough to allow the analog
resolution bandwidth filters to settle. By contrast, the VSA measures across the entire
frequency span at one time. However, there is analogous VSA settling time due to the
digital filters and DSP. This means the VSA sweep speed is limited by data collection
and digital processing time rather than analog filters. But this time is usually negligible
when compared to the settling time of analog filters. For certain narrow bandwidth
measurements, the VSA can complete a measurement up to 1000 times faster than
conventional swept-tuned analyzers.

In a swept-tuned spectrum analyzer, the physical bandwidth of the sweeping filter limits
the frequency resolution. The VSA doesn’t have this limitation. Some VSAs can resolve
signals that are spaced less than 100 μHz apart. Typically, VSA resolution is limited by
source and analyzer frequency stability, as well as by the amount of time you are willing
to devote to the measurement. Increasing the resolution also increases the time it takes
to measure the signal (the length of the required time-record).

Time-capture is a great tool for signal analysis and troubleshooting

Another feature that is extremely useful is the time-capture capability. This allows you
to record actual signals in their entirety without gaps, and replay them later for any type
of data analysis. The full set of measurement features can be applied to the captured
signal. For example, you could capture a transmitted digital communications signal and
then perform both spectrum and vector-modulation analysis to measure signal quality
or identify signal impairments.

1. For more information on spectrum analyzers, see Keysight Application Note 150, Spectrum Analysis
Basics, literature number 5952-0292.
05 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Signal Analyzer DSP provides multi-domain measurements in one instrument

(continued) The use of digital signal processing (DSP) also yields additional benefits; it provides
time, frequency, modulation, and code domain measurement analysis in one
instrument. Having these capabilities increases the analyzer’s value to you and
improves the quality of your measurements. FFT analysis allows easy and accurate
views of both time and frequency domain data. The DSP provides vector modulation
analysis, including both analog and digital modulation analysis. The analog
demodulator produces AM, FM and PM demodulation results, similar to that of a
modulation analyzer, allowing you to view amplitude, frequency, and phase profiles
versus time. The digital demodulator performs a broad range of measurements on
many digital communications standards (such as W-CDMA, GSM, cdma2000, and
more) and produces many useful measurement displays and signal-quality data.

Although the VSA clearly provides important benefits, the conventional analog swept-
tuned analyzers can provide higher frequency coverage and increased dynamic range
capability.

VSA measurement concepts and theory of operation

As mentioned earlier, the VSA is fundamentally a digital system that uses DSP to
perform spectrum analysis with FFTs, and uses demodulator algorithms to perform
vector-modulation analysis. You may recall from Fourier analysis, that the FFT is a
mathematical algorithm that operates on time-sampled data and provides time-to-
frequency domain transformations. The analog signal must be digitized in the time-
domain, then the FFT algorithm executes to compute the spectra. Conceptually, the
VSA implementation is simple and straightforward: digitize the input signal, then
compute the measurement results. See Figure 1-3. However, in practice, there are
many factors that must be accounted for in order for the measurement to be
meaningful and accurate. (For more information about FFT analysis, refer to the
References section at the end of this application note.)

1 kHz sine wave Digitzed 1kHz sine wave 1 kHz spectrum

. .. ..
.. ... ... . .. . ... .
ADC . . . . .. t FFT
t .. . .
. 1 kHz
f

Sampler and Time record Fast Fourier transform Frequency spectrum

A/D converter (FFT) processing

Figure 1-3. 1 kHz FFT analysis example: digitize time-domain signal and use FFT analysis to convert it to the
frequency domain
06 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Signal Analyzer If you are familiar with FFT analysis, you already know the FFT algorithm makes several
assumptions about the signal it is processing. The algorithm doesn’t check to verify the
(continued) validity of these assumptions for a given input, and it will produce invalid results, unless
you or the instrument validates the assumptions. Fortunately, as you will learn in the
following discussion, the Keysight Technologies, Inc. VSA implementation was designed
with FFT-based analysis in mind. It has many integrated features to eliminate potential
error sources, plus enhancements that provide swept-tuned usability in an FFT-based
analyzer.

Figure 1-4 illustrates a general system block diagram of a VSA analyzer. Different
manufacturers might use slightly different designs and, through DSP, many of the
functions could occur at different places. Figure 1-4 shows a generalized diagram of
the technique that Keysight uses in its VSAs. The VSA spectrum analysis measurement
process includes these fundamental stages:

1. Signal conditioning with frequency translation

2. Analog-to-digital conversion
3. Quadrature detection
4. Digital filtering and resampling
5. Data windowing
6. FFT analysis (for vector modulation, blocks 5 and 6 are replaced
with the demodulator block)

The first stage of the measurement process is called signal conditioning. This stage
includes several important functions that condition and optimize the signal for the
analog-to-digital conversion and FFT analysis. The first function is AC and DC coupling.
This option is necessary if you need to remove unwanted DC biases in the measurement
setup. Next, the signal is either amplified or attenuated for optimal signal level into the
mixer. The mixer stage provides frequency translation, or RF-to-IF downconversion, and
mixes the signal down to the final IF. This operation is the same as the superheterodyne
function of the swept-tuned analyzer and extends FFT analysis capabilities through
microwave. In practice, it may take several downconversion stages to reach the final IF
frequency. Some analyzers provide external IF input capability; by providing your own
IF, you can extend the upper frequency range of the analyzer to match a receiver you
provide.

1 2 3 4 5 6
(arbitary spans)

Mixer Window FFT

Sampled time

Freq-domain
Resampling

I
corrections

Attenuation IF Digital "Spectrum analysis"

RF
Time data

AC/DC coupling IF ADC LO

input gain amplifiers 90 degs
data

Anti-alias
Q
Demodulator
Modulation-domain
Local filter Quadrature Digital
Code-domain

oscilator
detector decimating Sample
filters "Vector modulation
Signal conditioning memory analysis"
Hardware DSP
implementation techniques
Display
Time-domain
Note: Actual VSA implementation
may be different.

Figure 1-4. Vector signal analyzer simplified block diagram

07 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Signal Analyzer The final stage of the signal conditioning process is extremely important to a sampled
system and FFT analysis; signal alias protection. The anti-alias filter performs this
(continued) function. An analyzer that does not have adequate protection from aliasing may show
frequency components that are not part of the original signal. The sampling theorem
states that if the signal is sampled at a rate greater than 2 times the highest significant
frequency component present in the signal, the sampled signal can be reconstructed
exactly. The minimum acceptable sample rate is called the Nyquist rate. Thus,

fs > 2 (fmax)

where fs = sample rate

fmax = highest frequency component

If the sampling theorem is violated, “aliasing” error products can result. Therefore, to
prevent alias products for a given maximum frequency, there must not be significant
signal energy above 1/2 the sample rate. Figure 1-5 shows a set of sample points,
which fit two different waveforms. The higher-frequency waveform violates the sampling
theorem. Unless an anti-alias filter is used, the two frequencies will be indistinguishable
when processed digitally.

To prevent aliasing, two conditions must be satisfied:

1. The input signal to the digitizer/sampler must be band limited. In other words, there
must exist a maximum frequency (fmax) above which no frequency components are
present.
2. The input signal must be sampled at a rate that satisfies the sampling
theorem.

The solution to the aliasing problem seems simple enough. First you select the
maximum frequency (fmax) that the analyzer will measure, then make sure the sampling
frequency (fs) is twice that frequency. This step satisfies condition number 2 and makes
sure that the analyzer can accurately measure the frequencies of interest. Next you
insert a low-pass filter (an anti-aliasing filter) to remove all fr quencies above fmax, thus
ensuring that the measurement will exclude all frequencies except those you are
interested in. This step satisfies condition number 1 and makes sure the signal is band
limited.

Actual Unwanted frequency components are

signal Reconstructed "alias" signal folded onto the spectrum below cutoff.
X(f) recovered alias
spectrum follows
dashed line.

ADC sample 0 ff fs f
points fs ( f s /2)
(a) Aliasing in the time-domain (b) Aliasing in the frequency-domain

Figure 1-5. Aliasing products occur when the signal is undersampled. Undesirable frequencies appear under
the alias of another (baseband) frequency
08 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Signal Analyzer There are two factors that complicate this simple anti-aliasing solution. The first, and
easiest to address, is that the anti-alias filter has a finite roll off rate. As shown in figure
(continued) 1-6, there is a transition band in practical filters between the passband and stopband.
Frequencies within the transition band could produce alias frequencies. To avoid these
alias products, the filter cutoff must be below the theoretical upper frequency limit of fs
divided by 2. An easy solution to this problem is to oversample (sample above the
Nyquist rate). Make the sampling frequency slightly above 2 times fmax so that it is
twice the frequency at which the stopband actually starts, not twice the frequency you
are trying to measure. Many VSA implementations use a guard band to protect against
displaying aliased frequency components. The FFT computes the spectral components
out to 50% of fs (equivalently fs/2). A guard band, between approximately 40% to 50%
of fs (or fs/2.56 to fs/2), is not displayed because it may be corrupted by alias
components. However, when the analyzer computes the inverse FFT, the signals in the
guard band are used to provide the most accurate time-domain results. The high-roll-
off-rate filter, combined with the guard band, suppresses potential aliasing
components, attenuating them well below the noise floor of the analyzer.

The second complicating factor in alias protection (limited frequency resolution) is

much harder to solve. First, an anti-alias filter that is designed for wide frequency spans
(high sample rates) is not practical for measuring small resolution bandwidths for two
reasons; it will require a substantial sample size (memory allocation) and a prohibitively
large number of FFT computations (long measurement times). For example, at a 10
MHz sample rate, a 10 Hz resolution bandwidth measurement would require more than
a 1 million point FFT, which translates into large memory usage and a long
measurement time. This is unacceptable because the ability to measure small
resolution bandwidths is one of the main advantages of the VSA.

One way of increasing the frequency resolution is by reducing fs, but this is at the
expense of reducing the upper-frequency limit of the FFT and ultimately the analyzer
bandwidth. However, this is still a good approach because it allows you to have control
over the resolution and frequency range of the analyzer. As the sample rate is lowered,
the cut-off frequency of the anti-alias filter must also be lowered, otherwise aliasing will
occur. One possible solution would be to provide an anti-aliasing filter for every span,
or a filter with selectable cutoff frequencies. Implementing this scheme with analog
filters would be difficult and cost prohibitive, but it is possible to add additional anti-
alias filters digitally through DSP.

Guard band
Wideband Band limited
ADC
input signal Passband Transition Stopband analog signal
f
( fs / 2.56 ) ( fs / 2 )
Anti-alias filter

Figure 1-6. The anti-alias filter attenuates signals above fs/2. A guard band between 40% to 50%
of fs is not displayed
09 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Signal Analyzer Digital decimating filters and resampling algorithms provide the solution to the limited
frequency resolution problem, and it is the solution used in Keysight VSAs. Digital
(continued) decimating filters and resampling perform the operations necessary to allow variable
spans and resolution bandwidths. The digital decimating filters simultaneously decrease
the sample rate and limit the bandwidth of the signal (providing alias protection). The
sample rate into the digital filter is fs; the sample rate out of the filter is fs/n, where “n”
is the decimation factor and an integer value. Similarly, the bandwidth at the input filter
is “BW,” and the bandwidth at the output of the filter is “BW/n”. Many implementations
perform binary decimation (divide-by-2 sample rate reduction), which means that the
sample rate is changed by integer powers of 2, in 1/(2n) steps (1/2, 1/4, 1/8...etc).
Frequency spans that result from “divide by 2n” are called cardinal spans.Measurements
performed at cardinal spans are typically faster than measurements performed at
arbitrary spans due to reduced DSP operations.

The decimating filters allow the sample rate and span to be changed by powers of two.
To obtain an arbitrary span, the sample rate must be made infinitely adjustable. This is
done by means of a resampling or interpolation filter, which follows the decimation
filters. For more details regarding resampling and interpolation algorithms, refer to the
References section at the end of this application note.

Even though the digital and resampling filters provide alias protection while reducing
the sample rate, the analog anti-alias filter is still required, since the digital and
resampling filters are, themselves, a sampled system which must be protected from
aliasing. The analog anti-alias filter protects the analyzer at its widest frequency span
with operation at fs. The digital filters follow the analog filter and provide anti-alias
protection for the narrower, user-specified spans.

The next complication that limits the ability to analyze small resolution bandwidths is
caused by a fundamental property of the FFT algorithm itself; the FFT is inherently a
baseband transform. This means that the frequency range of the FFT starts from 0 Hz
(or DC) and extends to some maximum frequency, fs divided by 2. This can be a
significant limitation in measurement situations where a small frequency band needs to
be analyzed. For example, if an analyzer has a sample rate of 10 MHz, the frequency
range would be 0 Hz to 5 MHz (fs/2). If the number of time samples (N) were 1024, the
frequency resolution would be 9.8 kHz (fs/N). This means that frequencies closer than
9.8 kHz could not be resolved.

As just mentioned, you can control the frequency span by varying the sample rate, but
the resolution is still limited because the start frequency of the span is DC. The
frequency resolution can be arbitrarily improved, but at the expense of a reduced
maximum frequency. The solution to these limitations is a process called band
selectable analysis, also known as zoom operation or zoom mode. Zoom operation
allows you to reduce the frequency span while maintaining a constant center frequency.
This is very useful because it allows you to analyze and view small frequency
components away from 0 Hz. Zooming allows you to focus the measurement anywhere
within the analyzers frequency range (Figure 1-7).
10 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Signal Analyzer Zoom operation is a process of digital quadrature mixing, digital filtering, and decimat-
ing/resampling. The frequency span of interest is mixed with a complex sinusoid at the
(continued) zoom span center frequency ( fz), which causes that frequency span to be mixed down
to baseband. The signals are filtered and decimated/resampled for the specified span,
all out-of-band frequencies removed. This is the band-converted signal at IF (or base-
band) and is sometimes referred to as “zoom time” or “IF time”. That is, it is the
time-domain representation of a signal as it would appear in the IF section of a receiver.
Zoom measurements are discussed further in the “Time-domain display” section near
the end of this chapter.

Sample memory
The output of the digital decimating filters represents a bandlimited, digital version of
the analog input signal in time-domain. This digital data stream is captured in sample
memory (Figure 1-4). The sample memory is a circular FIFO (first in, first out) buffer that
collects individual data samples into blocks of data called time records, to be used by
the DSP for further data processing. The amount of time required to fill the time record
is analogous to the initial settling time in a parallel-filter analyzer. The time data col-
lected in sample memory is the fundamental data used to produce all measurement
results, whether in the frequency domain, time domain, or modulation domain.

Time domain data corrections

To provide more accurate data results, many VSAs implement time data correction
capability through an equalization filter. In vector analysis, the accuracy of the time
data is very important. Not only is it the basis for all of the demodulation measure-
ments, but it is also used directly for measurements such as instantaneous power as a
function of time. Correcting the time data is the last step in creating a nearly ideal ban-
dlimiting signal path. While the digital filters and resampling algorithms provide for
arbitrary bandwidths (sample rates and spans), the time-domain corrections determine
the final passband characteristic of the signal path. Time-domain corrections would
be unnecessary if the analog and digital signal paths could be made ideal. Time-
domain corrections function as an equalization filter to compensate for passband
imperfections. These imperfections come from many sources. The IF filters in the RF
section, the analog anti-aliasing filter, the decimating filters, and the resampling filters
all contribute to passband ripple and phase nonlinearities within the selected span.

Broadband time-domain signal Digital LO frequency spectrum at fz

Time-domain (a)
baseband t (d)
0 Hz fz

Frequency translated version of the zoom span

Frequency-domain
response (b) (e)
0 Hz fz fmax –fstart 0 Hz fstop

Band selectable Zoom span Spectrum display

analysis
(c)
(zoom-mode)
(f)
fstart fz fstop
fstart fz fstop
(Zoom span center frequency)
Analyzer display

Figure 1-7. Band-selectable analysis (or zoom mode):

(a) measured broadband signal,
(b) spectrum of the measured signal, (c) selected zoom span and center frequency,
(d) digital LO spectrum (@ zoom center frequency), (e) frequency span mixed down to baseband,
(f) display spectrum annotation is adjusted to show the correct span and center frequency
11 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Signal Analyzer The design of the equalization filter begins by extracting information about the analog
signal path from the self-calibration data based on the instrument’s configuration. This is
(continued) the data used to produce the frequency-domain correction output display. Once the
analog correction vector has been computed, it is modified to include the effects of the
decimating and resampling filters. The final frequency response computations cannot
be performed until after you have selected the span, because that determines the
number of decimating filter stages and resampling ratio. The composite correction
vector serves as the basis for the design of the digital equalization filter that is applied
to the time data.

Data windowing - leakage and resolution bandwidth

The FFT assumes that the signal it is processing is periodic from time record to time
record. However most signals are not periodic in the time record and a discontinuity
between time records will occur. Therefore, this FFT assumption is not valid for most
measurements, so it must be assumed that a discontinuity exists. If the signal is not
periodic in the time record, the FFT will not estimate the frequency components
accurately. The resultant effect is called leakage and has the affect of spreading the
energy from a single frequency over a broad range of frequencies. Analog swept-tuned
spectrum analyzers will produce similar amplitude and spreading errors when the
sweep speed is too fast for the bandwidth of the filter.

Data windowing is the usual solution to the leakage problem. The FFT is not the cause
of the error; the FFT is generating an “exact” spectrum for the signal in the time record.
It is the non-periodic signal characteristics between time records that cause the error.
Data windowing uses a window function to modify the time-domain data by forcing it
to become periodic in the time record. In effect, it forces the waveform to zero at both
ends of the time record. This is accomplished by multiplying the time record by a
weighted window function. Windowing distorts the data in the time domain to improve
accuracy in the frequency domain. See Figure 1-8.

Original
signal

Sampled Window Modified

time record function waveform

X =

Discontinuities in
the time-record True
spectrum
Reduced leakage
Spectrum spectrum
Log with leakage Log
dB dB

f f

Figure 1-8. Window functions reduce the leakage errors in the frequency domain by modifying the time domain
waveform
12 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Signal Analyzer Analyzers automatically select the appropriate window filter based on assumptions of
the user’s priorities, derived from the selected measurement type. However, if you want
(continued) to manually change the window type, VSAs usually have several built-in window types
that you can select from. Each window function, and the associated RBW filter shape,
offers particular advantages and disadvantages. A particular window type may trade off
improved amplitude accuracy and reduced “leakage” at the cost of reduced frequency
resolution. Because each window type produces different measurement results (just
how different depends on the characteristics of the input signal and how you trigger on
it), you should carefully select a window type appropriate for the measurement you are
trying to make. Table 1-1 summarizes four common window types and their uses.

Window type Common uses

Uniform (rectangular, boxcar) Transient and self-windowing data
Hanning General purpose
Gaussian top High dynamic range
Flat top High amplitude accuracy

Table 1-1. Common window types and uses

The window filter contributes to the resolution bandwidth

In traditional swept-tuned analyzers, the final IF filter determines the resolution
bandwidth. In the FFT analyzers, the window type determines the resolution bandwidth
filter shape. And the window type, along with the time-record length, determines the
width of the resolution bandwidth filter. Therefore, for a given window type, a change in
resolution bandwidth will directly affect the time-record length. Conversely, any change
to time-record length will cause a change in resolution bandwidth as shown in the
following formula:

RBW = normalized ENBW / T

where ENBW = equivalent noise bandwidth

RBW = resolution bandwidth
T = time-record length

Equivalent noise bandwidth (ENBW) is a figure of merit that compares the window filter
to an ideal, rectangular filter. It is the equivalent bandwidth of a rectangular filter that
passes the same amount (power) of white noise as the window. Table 1-2 lists the
normalized ENBW values for several window types. To compute the ENBW, divide the
normalized ENBW by the time-record length. For example, a Hanning window with a
0.5 second time-record length would have an ENBW of 3 Hz (1.5 Hz-s/0.5 s).

Window type Common uses

Flat Top 3.819 Hz-s
Gaussian top 2.215 Hz-s
Hanning 1.500 Hz-s
Uniform 1.000 Hz-s

Table 1-2. Normalized ENBW values

13 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Signal Analyzer Fast Fourier transform (FFT) analysis

(continued) The signal is now ready for the FFT algorithm, but the way the FFT operates on the
time-sampled data is not an intuitive process. The FFT is a record-oriented algorithm
and operates on sampled data in a special way. Rather than acting on each data
sample as the ADC converts it, the FFT waits until a number of samples (N) have been
obtained (called a time record), then transforms the complete block. See Figure 1-9. In
other words, a time record N samples long, is the input to the FFT, and the frequency
spectrum N samples long, is the output.

Time Time records

record 1 2 ...n

Time record Spectrum display

Sampling
. Δ t . .. Δf
ADC .. ... . . . .. .. Window FFT
.. . ...
0 Samples N 0 Lines (N/2)
fs
0 T N/fs 0 Frequency range (fs/2)

fs = Sampling frequency N = Number of sample points n = Number of lines (or bins)

(sampling rate) (*powers of 2) = (N/2) + 1
t = 1/fs = Sample time T = Time record length f = Frequency step
= N x t = 1/ f = 1/T = fs/N

Figure 1-9. Basic FFT relationships

The speed of the FFT comes from the symmetry or repeated sample values that fall out
of restricting N to powers of 2. A typical record length for FFT analysis is 1024 (210)
sample points. The frequency spectrum produced by the FFT is symmetrical about the
sample frequency fs/2 (this value is called the folding frequency, ff ). Thus, the first half
of the output record contains redundant information, so only the second half is
retained, sample points 0 thru N/2. This implies that the effective length of the output
record is (N/2) + 1. You must add 1 to N/2 because the FFT includes the zero line,
producing outputs from 0 Hz thru N/2 Hz inclusive. These are complex data points that
contain both magnitude and phase information.

In theory, the output of the FFT algorithm is (N/2) +1 frequency points, extending from
0 Hz to ff. In practice however, a guard band is used for alias protection, so not all of
these points are normally displayed. As mentioned earlier, a guard band (between
approximately 40% to 50% of fs) is not displayed because it may be corrupted by alias
components. For example, for a record length of 2048 samples, which produces 1025
unique complex frequency points, only 801 may actually be displayed.
14 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Signal Analyzer These frequency domain points are called lines, or bins, and are usually numbered from
0 to N/2. These bins are equivalent to the individual filter/detector outputs in a bank-
(continued) of-filters analyzer. Bin 0 contains the DC level present in the input signal and is referred
to as the DC bin. The bins are equally spaced in frequency, with the frequency step (Δf )
being the reciprocal of the measurement time-record length (T). Thus, Δf = 1/T. The
length of the time record (T) can be determined from the sample rate ( fs) and the num-
ber of sample points (N) in the time record as follows: T = N/ fs. The frequency
( fn) associated with each bin is given by:

fn = n fs/N

where n is the bin number

The frequency of the last bin contains the highest frequency, fs/2. Therefore, the fre-
quency range of an FFT is 0 Hz to fs/2. Note that the highest FFT range is not fmax,
which is the upper-frequency limit of the analyzer, and may not be the same as the
highest bin frequency.

Real-time bandwidth
Because the FFT analyzer cannot compute a valid frequency-domain result until at least
one time record is acquired, the time-record length determines how long an initial mea-
surement will take. For example, a 400-line measurement using a 1 kHz span requires a
400 ms time record; a 3200-line measurement requires a 3.2 s time record. This amount
of data acquisition time is independent of the processing speed of the analyzer.

After the time record has been captured, processing speed does become an issue. The
amount of time it takes to compute the FFT, format, and display the data results, deter-
mines the processing speed and display update rate. Processing speed can be import-
ant for two reasons. First, higher processing speeds can translate to decreased overall
measurement time. Second, the ability of an analyzer to measure dynamic signals is a
function of the processing speed. The performance indicator is the real-time bandwidth
(RTBW), which is the maximum frequency span that can be continuously processed
without missing any event in the input signal.

(a) Real time

Digitized Time Time Time Time

signal record 1 record 2 record 3 record 4

FFT 1 FFT 2 FFT 3

These sections of the input signal
are not processed
(b) Not real-time

Digitized Time Time Time Time

signal record 1 record 2 record 3 record 4

FFT 1 FFT 2 FFT 3

Input
signal
Time

Figure 1-10. (a) Processing is “real-time” when the FFT processing time is ≤ the time-record length; no
data is lost. (b) Input data is missed if the FFT processing time is greater than the time-record length
15 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Signal Analyzer In the analyzer, RTBW is the frequency span at which the FFT processing time equals
the time-record length. There is no gap between the end of one time record and the
(continued) start of the next. See Figure 1-10. For any frequency spans less than RTBW, no input
data is lost. However, if you increase the span past the real-time bandwidth, the record
length becomes shorter than the FFT processing time. When this occurs, the time
records are no longer contiguous, and some data will be missed.

Time-domain display
The VSA lets you view and analyze time-domain data. The displayed time-domain data
may look similar to an oscilloscope display, but you need to be aware that the data
you’re viewing may be quite different. The time-domain display shows the time-data
just before FFT processing. See Figure 1-4. Many VSAs provide two measurement
modes, baseband and zoom. Depending on the measurement mode, the time-domain
data you are viewing will be very different.

Baseband mode provides time data similar to what you would view on a digital
oscilloscope. Like the traditional digital signal oscilloscope (DSO), a VSA provides real-
valued time data referenced to 0 time and 0 Hz (DC). However, the trace may appear
distorted on the VSA, especially at high frequencies. This is because a VSA samples at
a rate chosen to optimize FFT analysis, which, at the highest frequencies may only be 2
or 3 samples per period; great for the FFT, but not so good for viewing. In contrast, the
DSO is optimized for time-domain analysis and usually oversamples the input. In
addition, a DSO may provide additional signal reconstruction processing that enable
the DSO to display a better time-domain representation of the actual input signal. Also,
at maximum span, some signals (particularly square waves and transients) may appear
to have excess distortion or ringing because of the abrupt frequency cut-off of the anti-
alias filter. In this sense, DSOs are optimized for sample rate and time-domain viewing,
not power accuracy and dynamic range.

In zoom (or band selectable) mode, which is typically the default mode for a VSA, you
are viewing the time waveform after it has been mixed and quadrature detected.
Specifically, the time data you are viewing is the product of analog down conversion, IF
filtering, digital quadrature mixing, and digital filtering/resampling, based on the
specified center frequency and span. The result is a band-limited complex waveform
that contains real and imaginary components and, in most cases, it looks different from
what you would see on an oscilloscope display. This may be valuable information,
depending on the intended use. For example, this could be interpreted as “IF time,” the
time-domain signal that would be measured with an oscilloscope probing the signal in
the IF section of a receiver.

The digital LO and quadrature detector perform the zoom measurement function. In
zoomed measurements, the selected frequency span is mixed down to baseband at the
specified center frequency (fcenter). To accomplish this, first the digital LO frequency is
assigned the fcenter value. Then the input signal is quadrature detected; it is multiplied
or mixed with the sine and cosine (quadrature) of the center frequency of the
measurement span. The result is a complex (real and imaginary) time-domain waveform
that is now referenced to fcenter, while the phase is still relative to the zero time trigger.
Remember, the products of the mixing process are the sum and difference frequencies
(signal – fcenter and signal + fcenter). So the data is further processed by the low-pass
filters to select only the difference.
16 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Signal Analyzer frequencies. If the carrier frequency ( fcarrier) is equal to fcenter, the modulation results
are the positive and negative frequency sidebands centered about 0 Hz. However, the
(continued) spectrum displays of the analyzer are annotated to show the correct center frequency and
sideband frequency values.

Figure 1-11 shows a 13.5 MHz sinewave measured in both baseband and zoom mode.
The span for both measurements is 36 MHz and both start at 0 Hz. The number of
frequency points is set to 401. The left-hand time trace shows a sinewave at its true
period of approximately 74 ns (1/13.5 MHz). The right-hand time trace shows a
sinewave with a period of 222.2 ns (1/4.5 MHz). The 4.5 MHz sinewave is the
difference between the 18 MHz VSA center frequency and the 13.5 MHz input signal.

Figure 1-11. Baseband and zoom time data

Summary
This chapter presented a primer on the theory of operation and measurement concepts
using a vector signal analyzer (VSA). We went though the system block diagram and
described each function as it related to the FFT measurement process. You learned that
the implementation used by the VSA is quite different from the conventional analog,
swept-tuned analyzer. The VSA is primarily a digital system incorporating an all-digital
IF, DSP, and FFT analysis. You learned that the VSA is a test and measurement
solution providing time-domain, frequency-domain, modulation-domain and code-
domain signal analysis capabilities.

This chapter described the spectrum analysis capabilities of the VSA, implemented
thorough FFT analysis. The fundamentals of FFT measurement theory and analysis were
presented. The vector analysis measurement concepts and demodulator block, which
include digital and analog modulation analysis, are described in Chapter 2.
17 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Chapter 2 Introduction
Vector Modulation Chapter 1 was a primer on vector signal analyzers (VSA) and discussed VSA
measurement concepts and theory of operation. It also described the frequency-
Analysis domain, spectrum analysis measurement capability of the VSA, implemented through
fast Fourier transform (FFT) analysis. This chapter describes the vector-modulation
analysis and digital-modulation analysis measurement capability of the VSA. Some
swept-tuned spectrum analyzers can also provide digital-modulation analysis by
incorporating additional digital radio personality software. However, VSAs typically
provide more measurement flexibility in terms of modulation formats and demodulator
configuration, and provide a larger set of data results and display traces. The basic
digital-modulation analysis concepts described in this chapter can also apply to swept-
tuned analyzers that have the additional digital-modulation analysis software.

The real power of the VSA is its ability to measure and analyze vector-modulated and
digitally modulated signals. Vector-modulation analysis means the analyzer can
measure complex signals, signals that have a real and imaginary component. Since
digital communications systems use complex signals (I-Q waveforms), vector-
modulation analysis is required to measure digitally-modulated signals. But vector-
modulation analysis is not enough to measure today’s complicated digitally-modulated
signals. You also need digital-modulation analysis. Digital-modulation analysis is
needed to demodulate the RF modulated carrier signal into its complex components
(the I-Q waveforms) so you can apply vector-modulation analysis. Vector modulation
analysis provides the numerical and visual tools to help quickly identify and quantify
impairments to the I-Q waveforms. Digital-modulation analysis is also needed to detect
and recover the digital data bits.

Digital demodulation also provides modulation quality measurements. The technique

used in Keysight VSAs (described later in this chapter) can expose very subtle signal
variations, which translates into signal quality information not available from traditional
modulation quality measurement methods. Various display formats and capabilities are
used to view the baseband signal characteristics and analyze modulation quality. The
VSA offers traditional display formats such as I-Q vector, constellation, eye, and trellis
diagrams. The symbol/error summary table shows the actual recovered bits and
valuable error data, such as error vector magnitude (EVM), magnitude error, phase
error, frequency error, rho, and I-Q offset error. Other display formats, such as
magnitude/phase error versus time, magnitude/phase error versus frequency, or
equalization allow you to make frequency response and group delay measurements or
see code-domain results. This is only a representative list of available display formats
and capabilities. Those available in a VSA are dependent upon analyzer capability and
the type of digital-modulation format being measured.
18 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation The VSA, with digital modulation provides measurement support for multiple digital
communication standards, such as GSM, EDGE, W-CDMA, and cdma2000.
Analysis (continued) Measurements are possible on continuous or burst carriers (such as TDMA), and you
can make measurements at baseband, IF, and RF locations throughout a digital
communications system block diagram. There is no need for external filtering, coherent
carrier signals, or symbol clock timing signals. The general-purpose design of the
digital demodulator in the VSA also allows you to measure non-standard formats,
allowing you to change user-definable digital parameters for customized test and
analysis purposes.

Another important measurement tool that vector-modulation analysis provides is

analog-modulation analysis. For example, the Keysight 89600 VSA provides analog-
modulation analysis and produces AM, FM, and PM demodulation results, similar to
what a modulation analyzer would produce, allowing you to view amplitude, frequency,
and phase profiles versus time. These additional analog-demodulation capabilities can be
used to troubleshoot particular problems in a digital communications transmitter. For
example, phase demodulation is often used to troubleshoot instability at a particular LO
frequency.

The remainder of this chapter contains additional concepts to help you better
understand vector-modulation analysis, digital-modulation analysis, and analog-
modulation analysis.

Vector modulation and digital modulation overview

Let’s begin our discussion by reviewing vector modulation and digital modulation.
Digital modulation is a term used in radio, satellite, and terrestrial communications to
refer to modulation in which digital states are represented by the relative phase and/or
amplitude of the carrier. Although we talk about digital modulation, you should
remember that the modulation is not digital, but truly analog. Modulation is the
amplitude, frequency, or phase modification of the carrier in direct proportion to the
amplitude of the modulating (baseband) signal. See Figure 2-1. In digital modulation, it
is the baseband modulating signal, not the modulation process, that is in digital form.

1 0 1 0 Digital data
Digital baseband
modulating signal
Amplitude
t

Frequency
t

Phase
t

Amplitude & phase

t

Figure 2-1. In digital modulation, the information is contained in the relative phase, frequency, or ampli-
tude of the carrier
19 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation Depending on the particular application, digital modulation may modify amplitude,
frequency, and phase simultaneously and separately. This type of modulation could be
Analysis (continued) accomplished using conventional analog modulation schemes like amplitude
modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), or phase modulation (PM). However, in
practical systems, vector modulation(also called complex or I-Q modulation) is used
instead. Vector modulation is a very powerful scheme because it can be used to
generate any arbitrary carrier phase and magnitude. In this scheme, the baseband
digital information is separated into two independent components: the I (In-phase) and
Q (Quadrature) components. These I and Q components are then combined to form the
baseband modulating signal. The most important characteristic of I and Q components
is that they are independent components (orthogonal). You’ll learn more about I and Q
components and why digital systems use them in the following discussion.

Q (volts) (Q uadrature or
1 imaginary part)
(I1,Q1)
A discrete point on the I-Q diagram
represents a digital state or symbol location
M

Q - value θ Phase
ag
ni
tu
de

0 deg (carrier phase reference)

–1 1
I - value I (volts)
(In-phase or
real part)

–1

Figure 2-2. Digital modulation I-Q diagram

An easy way to understand and view digital modulation is with the I-Q or vector
diagram shown in Figure 2-2. In most digital communication systems, the frequency of
the carrier is fixed so only phase and magnitude need to be considered. The
unmodulated carrier is the phase and frequency reference, and the modulated signal is
interpreted relative to the carrier. The phase and magnitude can be represented in polar
or vector coordinates as a discrete point in the I-Q plane. See Figure 2-2. I represents
the in-phase (phase reference) component and Q represents the quadrature (90° out of
phase) component. You can also represent this discrete point by vector addition of a
specific magnitude of in-phase carrier with a specific magnitude of quadrature carrier.
This is the principle of I-Q modulation.
20 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation By forcing the carrier to one of several predetermined positions in the I-Q plane, you
can then transmit encoded information. Each position or state (or transitions between
Analysis (continued) the states in some systems) represents a certain bit pattern that can be decoded at the
receiver. The mapping of the states or symbols at each symbol timing instant (when the
receiver interprets the signal) on the I-Q plane is referred to as a constellation diagram.
See Figure 2-3. A symbol represents a grouping of the digital data bits; they are
symbolic of the digital words they represent. The number of bits contained in each
symbol, or bits-per-symbol (bpsym), is determined by the modulation format. For
example, binary phase shift keying (BPSK) uses 1 bpsym, quadrature phase shift keying
(QPSK) uses 2 bpsym, and 8-state phase shift keying (8PSK) uses 3 bpsym.
Theoretically, each state location on the constellation diagram should show as a single
point, but a practical system suffers from various impairments and noise that cause
a spreading of the states (a dispersal of dots around each state). Figure 2-3 shows the
constellation or state diagram for a 16 QAM (16-state quadrature amplitude modulation)
format; note that there are 16 possible state locations. This format takes four bits of serial
data and encodes them as single amplitude/phase states, or symbols. In order to
generate this modulation format, the I and Q carriers each need to take four different
levels of amplitude, depending on the code being transmitted.

Constellation or state diagram Symbol mapping to IQ voltages

Q (volts) serial bit stream
state: 0100
0011 0010 0001 0000 01 00 00 01 11 01 00 10
1 symbol: 1
1V
I=1V
0111 0110 0101 0100 Q = 0.5 V I 0 t
–1V
0 1V
–1 1 I (volts)
1011 1010 1001 1000 Q 0 t
–1V
1111 1110 1101 1100
-1 symbol timing
instants t
16 QAM 1 2 3 4
symbols

Figure 2-3. Each position, or state, in the constellation diagram represents a specific bit pattern (symbol)
and symbol time

In digital modulation, the signal moves among a limited number of symbols or states.
The rate at which the carrier moves between points in the constellation is called the
symbol rate. The more constellation states that are used, the lower the required symbol
rate for a given bit rate. The symbol rate is important because it tells you the bandwidth
required to transmit the signal. The lower the symbol rate, the less bandwidth required
for transmission. For example, the 16QAM format, mentioned earlier, uses 4 bits per
symbol. If the radio transmission rate is 16 Mbps, then the symbol rate = 16 (Mbps)
divided by 4 bits, or 4 MHz. This provides a symbol rate that is one-fourth the bit rate
and a more spectrally efficient transmission bandwidth (4 MHz versus 16 MHz). For
more detailed information about digital modulation, see the References section at the
end of this application note.
21 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation I-Q modulator

Analysis (continued) The device used in digital communications to generate vector modulation is the I-Q
modulator. The I-Q modulator puts the encoded digital I and Q baseband information
onto the carrier. See Figure 2-4. The I-Q modulator generates signals in terms of I and
Q components; fundamentally it is a hardware (or software) implementation of a
rectangular to polar coordinate conversion.

Rectangular Polar
coordinates coordinates

I baseband (In-phase component)

Local oscillator Composite

(carrier frequency)
Σ output signal
(I-Q modulated carrier)
90 deg. Summing
phase shift circuits

Q baseband (Q uadrature component)

Figure 2-4. I-Q modulator

The I-Q modulator receives the I and Q baseband signals as inputs and mixes them
with the same local oscillator (LO). Thus, I and Q are both upconverted to the RF carrier
frequency. The I information amplitude modulates the carrier producing the in-phase
component. The Q information amplitude modulates a 90-degree (orthogonal) phase
shifted version of the carrier producing the quadrature component. These two
orthogonal modulated carrier signals are summed together producing the composite
I-Q modulated carrier signal. The main advantage of I-Q modulation is the symmetric
ease of combining independent signal components into a single, composite signal, and
later splitting the composite signal into its independent component parts.

Signals that are separated by 90 degrees are known as being orthogonal to each other,
or in quadrature. The quadrature relationship between I and Q signals means that these
two signals are truly independent. They are two independent components of the same
signal. While changes of the Q input certainly alter the composite output signal, they
do not change the I component at all. Similarly, changes of the I input have no effect
on the Q signal.
22 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation I-Q demodulator

Analysis (continued) As you can see in Figure 2-5, the I-Q demodulator is a mirror image of the I-Q
modulator shown in Figure 2-4. The I-Q demodulator recovers the original I and Q
baseband signals from a composite I-Q modulated input signal.

Polar Rectangular
coordinates coordinates

I baseband
(In-phase component)

Composite
Power
Local oscillator
input signal (phase locked to the
(I-Q modulated carrier) splitter
carrier frequency)
90 deg.
phase shift

Q baseband
(Q uadrature component)
Figure 2-5. I-Q demodulator (or quadrature detector)

The first step in the demodulation process is to phase-lock the receiver LO to the
transmitter carrier frequency. It is necessary that the receiver LO be phase-locked to
the transmitter carrier (or mixer LO) to correctly recover the I and Q baseband
components. Then, the I-Q modulated carrier is mixed with both an unshifted LO, and a
90 degree phase-shifted version of the LO, producing the original I and Q baseband
signals or components.

The I-Q demodulation process is fundamentally a polar to rectangular conversion.

Normally, information cannot be plotted in a polar format and reinterpreted as
rectangular values without doing a polar-to-rectangular conversion. See Figure 2-2.1
However, this conversion is exactly what is done by the in-phase and quadrature mixing
processes performed by the I-Q demodulator.

Why use I and Q?

Digital modulation uses I and Q components because it provides a simple, efficient, and
robust modulation method for generating, transmitting, and recovering digital data.
Modulated signals in the I-Q domain provide many advantages:

1. The I-Q implementation provides a method to create complex signals (both phase
and amplitude change). Instead of using phase modulation, which is nonlinear and
difficult to do well, the I-Q modulator simply modulates the amplitude of the
carrier and its quadrature in a linear manner. Mixers with wide modulation
bandwidths and good linearity are readily available. To produce a complex
modulated signal, you only need to generate the baseband I and Q components of
the signal. One key advantage of I-Q modulators is that the same modulator can
be used to generate a variety of modulations from digital formats to RF pulses, or
even radar chirps, for example.
2. Demodulating the signal is also straightforward. Using an I-Q demodulator,
it is simple, at least in principle, to recover the baseband signals.
3. Looking at a signal in the I-Q plane often gives good insights about the signal.
Effects like cross talk, data skew, compression, and AM-to-PM distortion, which are
hard to visualize otherwise, are easy to see.
23 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation Digital RF communication system concepts

Analysis (continued) Figure 2-6 shows a generic, simplified block diagram of the basic architecture of a
digital RF communications system that uses I-Q modulation. By understanding the
fundamental concepts of this system, the operation of the VSA with vector modulation
analysis may also be understood. In Figure 2-6, the system blocks enclosed by the
dashed box show sections of the communications transmitter and receiver that can be
measured and analyzed by the VSA with vector modulation analysis.

IQ
Baseband modulator
IF
I filters I filter Upconverter Amplifier
Processing/ Symbol
Transmitter ADC compression/ DAC
encoder
error correction Q Q
Voice Speech
input coding IF LO RF LO

IQ
Down IF demodulator Baseband Reconstrution
AGC convert filter
filter I filters I Adaption/
Receiver Decode process/ ADC
bits decompress
Power Q Q Voice
control RF LO IF LO output

May not represent actual

radio system block diagram

Figure 2-6. Digital RF communication system simplified block diagram

Digital communication transmitter concepts

The communications transmitter begins with speech coding (assuming voice
transmission) which is the process of quantizing the analog signal and converting it into
digital data (digitization). Then, data compression is applied to minimize the data rate
and increase spectral efficiency. Channel coding and interleaving are common
techniques used to improve signal integrity by minimizing the effects of noise and
interference. Extra bits are often sent for error correction, or as training sequences, for
identification or equalization. These techniques can also make synchronization (finding
the symbol clock) easier for the receiver. The symbol encoder translates the serial bit
stream into the appropriate I and Q baseband signals, each corresponding to the
symbol mapping on the I-Q plane for the specific system. The symbol clock represents
the frequency and exact timing of the transmission of the individual symbols. At the
symbol clock transitions, the transmitted carrier is at the correct I-Q (or magnitude/
phase) value to represent a specific symbol (a specific point on the constellation). The
time interval between individual symbols is the symbol clock period, the reciprocal is
the symbol clock frequency. The symbol clock phase is correct when the symbol clock
is aligned with the optimum instant to detect the symbols.
24 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation Once the I and Q baseband signals have been generated, they are filtered (band limit-
ed) to improve spectral efficiency. An unfiltered output of the digital radio modulator
Analysis (continued) occupies a very wide bandwidth (theoretically, infinite). This is because the modulator is
being driven by baseband I-Q square waveswith fast transitions; fast transitions in the
time domain equate to wide frequency spectra in the frequency domain. This is an
unacceptable condition because it decreases the available spectrum to other users and
causes signal interference to nearby users, called adjacent-channel-power interference.
Baseband filtering solves the problem by limiting the spectrum and restricting interfer-
ence with other channels. In effect, the filtering slows the fast transitions between
states, thereby limiting the frequency spectrum. Filtering is not without tradeoffs, how-
ever; filtering also causes degradation to the signal and data transmission.

The signal degradation is due to reduction of spectral content and the overshoot and
finite ringing caused by the filters time (impulse) response. By reducing the spectral
content, information is lost and it may make reconstructing the signal difficult, or even
impossible, at the receiver. The ringing response of the filter may last so long so that it
affects symbols that follow, causing intersymbol interference (ISI). ISI is defined as the
extraneous energy from prior and subsequent symbols that interferes with the current
symbol such that the receiver misinterprets the symbol. Thus, selecting the best filter
becomes a design compromise between spectral efficiency and minimizing ISI. There is
a common, special class of filters used in digital communication design called Nyquist
filters. Nyquist filters are an optimal filter choice because they maximize data rates,
minimize ISI, and limit channel bandwidth requirements. You will learn more about fil-
ters later in this chapter. To improve the overall performance of the system, filtering is
often shared, or split, between the transmitter and the receiver. In that case, the filters
must be as closely matched as possible and correctly implemented, in both transmitter
and receiver, to minimize ISI. Figure 2-6 only shows one baseband filter, but in reality,
there are two; one each for the I and Q channel.

The filtered I and Q baseband signals are inputs to the I-Q modulator. The LO in the
modulator may operate at an intermediate frequency (IF) or directly at the final radio
frequency (RF). The output of the modulator is the composite of the two orthogonal I
and Q signals at the IF (or RF). After modulation, the signal is upconverted to RF, if
needed. Any undesirable frequencies are filtered out and the signal is applied to the
output amplifier and transmitted.
25 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation Digital communications receiver concepts

Analysis (continued) The receiver is essentially an inverse implementation of the transmitter, but it is
more complex to design. The receiver first downconverts the incoming RF signal
to IF, then demodulates it. The ability to demodulate the signal and recover the
original data is often difficult. The transmitted signal is often corrupted by such
factors as atmospheric noise, competing signal interference, multipath, or fading.

The demodulation process involves these general stages: carrier frequency

recovery (carrier lock), symbol clock recovery (symbol lock), signal decomposition
to I and Q components (I-Q demodulation), I and Q symbol detection, bit
decoding and de-interleaving (decode bits), decompressing (expansion to original
bit stream), and finally, digital to analog conversion (if required).

The main difference between the transmitter and receiver is the need for carrier
and symbol clock recovery. Both the symbol clock frequency and phase (or timing)
must be correct in the receiver to demodulate the bits successfully and recover
the transmitted information. For example, the symbol clock could be set to the
correct frequency, but at the wrong phase. That is, if the symbol clock is aligned
to the transitions between symbols, rather than the symbols themselves,
demodulation will be unsuccessful.

A difficult task in receiver design is to create carrier and symbol clock recovery
algorithms. Some clock recovery techniques include measuring the modulation
amplitude variations, or in systems with pulsed carriers, the power turn-on event
can be used. This task can also be made easier when channel coding in the
transmitter provides training sequences or synchronization bits.
26 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation VSA digital modulation analysis concepts and theory of operation
Analysis (continued) The VSA can be viewed as a measuring receiver. It is really an I-Q receiver employing
techniques similar to most digital radio receivers for decoding digital modulations.
However, the difference is that the VSA is designed for high accuracy parametric
measurement and display of modulation characteristics. Moreover, the VSA is a
measurement tool that can measure and analyze almost every aspect of a digital
communications transmitter and receiver system.

Spectrum analysis
I
Analog Digital Freq-domain
IF FFT
IF

IQ baseband
RF Digital Re-sampled, Time-domain
ADC

time data
input LO corrected,
90 ϒ

Display
Anti-alias Q time data Demodulator
Code-domain
LO
filter
•Digital demod

Quadrature detector,
•Analog demod Modulation-
domain
Sample Vector modulation
digital filter memory
Note: Actual VSA implementation analysis
may be different.

Figure 2-7. The VSA demodulator performs vector signal analysis, including digital and analog modulation
analysis

Figure 2-7 shows a Keysight 89600 VSA simplified system block diagram. You may
notice that many of the VSA system blocks are analogous to the digital communication
receiver shown in Figure 2-6. The RF input signal is downconverted, through several
stages of superheterodyne mixing, to an IF that can be accurately digitized by the ADC.
This digitized IF is then vector (quadrature) detected and digitally filtered;
downconverted one last time to an I and Q baseband form (I-Q time data) and stored in
RAM. From here, DSP algorithms demodulate the signal; recover the carrier and symbol
clock and apply reconstructive filtering and decoding (recover the original bits). With
this DSP software implementation, almost any modulation format can be demodulated.

The VSA implementation is different from a radio receiver. The VSA deals with the
sampled signals on a block basis; the radio receiver processes data serially, in real time.
When you supply the VSA with radio receiver parameters, the VSA synthesizes the
receiver via processing in the DSP. It provides all the functions of a receiver, down to
making analog waveforms. Because the signal has been virtually digitized, it can be
post-processed and viewed in any of the time, frequency, or modulation domains.
27 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation VSA digital demodulator

Analysis (continued) The heart of the digital demodulation process in the VSA is the digital demodulator.
Figure 2-8 shows a simplified block diagram of the digital demodulator implementation
used in the Keysight 89600 VSA. The digital demodulator is a general purpose
demodulator that only requires a minimum of prior information about the input signal to
perform demodulation, and can be used on a wide variety of modulation formats. The
demodulator provides carrier lock, symbol clock recovery, and bit recovery (decodes the
actual encoded 1s and 0s), and produces the I-Q measured waveforms. The
demodulator also produces ideal I-Q waveforms that are synthesized from the actual
recovered bits (called I-Q reference waveforms). The I-Q measured and I-Q reference
waveforms are subtracted to produce I-Q error waveforms. The I-Q error waveforms are
analyzed to generate the modulation quality data results, which can be viewed in various
data formats and display outputs.

Freq error
(shown in symbol table) Result length
Search Pulse
length detection Baseband
filtering

I-Q BW Carrier and Meas

symbol lock Compensation IQ meas time
time data filter filter

Center freq Amp I/Q α /BT

Span droop offset

Reference Ref
Clock adjust generator IQ ref time
filter
Symbol
Symbol rate timing
recovery
Symbol Symbol bits
Pts per sym detector (shown in symbol table)

IQ meas time IQ mag error

Sync word Error
Sync calc IQ phase error
detector
Error vector time/spectrum
Sync position
EVM
Mag error
Oval items require user input
for demodulator configuration. IQ meas time – Phase error Shown in
Σ I/Q offset symbol table
Rounded rectangular items are +
IQ ref time
user adjustable inputs. Amp droop
SNR (QAM only)

Figure 2-8. Digital demodulator block diagram

The demodulation process begins by configuring the demodulator. The demodulator

must be configured to the specific digital modulation format to properly demodulate
and analyze the signal. Most analyzers provide a set of standard presets, such as GSM,
W-CDMA, cdma2000, or 802.11a/b/g, that automatically configure the demodulator for
you. In those cases, you enter the center frequency, select a standard preset, and the
analyzer can demodulate the signal. Some VSAs, like the Keysight 89600 VSA, give you
additional capabilities through a general purpose, user-definable demodulator. This
allows you to customize the demodulator configuration for non-standard formats or
troubleshooting purposes. The demodulator block diagram shown in figure 2-8 shows
the internal demodulator processes (enclosed in rectangular boxes) and the
configuration parameters that you can set (enclosed by ovals or rounded rectangular
boxes).
28 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation The items enclosed by an oval identify configuration parameters that are required to
define the demodulator for a measurement. The rounded rectangular boxes identify
Analysis (continued) user-adjustable input parameters. At a minimum, the demodulator requires the
modulation format (QPSK, FSK, and so forth), the symbol rate, the baseband filter type,
and filter alpha/BT. This set of parameters is generally sufficient for the demodulator to
lock to the signal and recover the symbols.

The demodulator uses the configuration inputs and, through DSP, operates on the I-Q
time data received in block format from the sample memory of the analyzer. The VSA
can also receive I-Q time data from external hardware (such as a Keysight PSA or ESA
Series spectrum analyzer or Infiniium 54800 Series oscilloscope) or from a recorded file.
The demodulator uses the supplied center frequency and symbol rate to lock to the
carrier and recover the symbol clock from the modulated carrier. Note that the
demodulator reference clock does not need to be locked with the source clock. The
demodulator automatically provides carrier and symbol lock, you do not need to supply
an external source clock input. The signal then goes through a compensation process
that applies gain and phase correction. The compensation data (such as amplitude
droop and I-Q offset error data) is stored and can be viewed in the error summary table.
Digital baseband filtering is then applied to recover the baseband I-Q waveforms (I-Q
Meas Time data). The recovered I-Q waveforms are applied to a symbol detector that
attempts to determine what symbols were transmitted, based upon the specified
modulation format. From this block of symbols, the serial data bits (1s and 0s) are
decoded and recovered.

The reference generator uses the detected symbols in conjunction with the modulation
format, the symbol rate, and the specified filtering, to synthesize an ideal set of I-Q
reference baseband waveforms (I-Q Ref Time data). Finally, the measured I/Q
waveforms and reference I-Q waveforms are compared to produce a host of error
characteristics (deviation from perfect) such as phase error, magnitude error, and
error vector magnitude (EVM).

I-Q measurement and I-Q reference signal

The quality of an I-Q modulated signal can be analyzed by comparing the measured
signal to an ideal reference signal. See Figure 2-9. The demodulator produces two
waveforms: an I-Q measured waveform and an I-Q reference waveform. The I-Q
measured waveform is the demodulated baseband I-Q data for the measured input
signal, also called IQ Meas Time. The I-Q reference waveform is the baseband I-Q data
that would result after demodulating the input signal if the input signal were ideal
(contained no errors), also called IQ Ref Time.

The I-Q reference waveform is mathematically derived from the I-Q measured waveform
recovered data bits, providing that the original data sequence can be recovered. The
I-Q reference waveform generation begins by recovering the actual symbol bits from
the demodulated I-Q measured waveform, and then reconstructing a sequence of ideal
I and Q states. These states are then treated as ideal impulses and are baseband
filtered according to the reference channel filtering, producing an ideal I-Q reference
waveform.

The quality of the input signal can then be analyzed by comparing the I-Q measured
waveform to the I-Q reference waveform. Subtracting the reference waveform from the
measured waveform provides the error vector waveform, or I-Q error waveform. This
technique can expose very subtle signal variations, which translates into signal quality
information not available from traditional modulation quality measurement methods.
29 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation Digital demodulator baseband filtering

Analysis (continued) As mentioned earlier, baseband filtering is used in digital demodulation to limit
bandwidth and reduce intersymbol interference. Also, just like the communication
receiver, the digital demodulator baseband filtering must be configured to match
the system under test to accurately demodulate the signal. This requires that both
the filter type (such as Nyquist or Gaussian) and filter bandwidth coefficients (such
as alpha or BT) match, as well.

As shown in Figure 2-9, both the measured and reference I-Q waveforms have
their own signal processing path and baseband filtering. The I-Q measured
waveform must use baseband filtering that matches the receiver filtering of the
system under test. This filter is called the measurement filter or Meas Filter. The
I-Q reference waveform must use baseband filtering that matches the total system
channel filtering, transmitter and receiver, of the system under test. This filter is
called the reference filter or Ref Filter. The reference filter simulates the total
channel filtering because it is used to synthesize the ideal I-Q signals that would
be received by a “perfect” linear channel response. The demodulator must apply
the total system channel filtering to accurately synthesize the reference I-Q
waveform.

Selecting the correct filtering

In digital communications systems, baseband filtering may occur either at the
transmitter or the receiver; or the filtering may be distributed between the
transmitter and the receiver where half of the filtering is done in the transmitter
and half is done in the receiver. This is an important concept that affects the filter
type needed by the demodulator for the measured and reference I-Q waveforms.
The Meas Filter of the analyzer represents baseband filtering in the system
receiver and the Ref Filter represents baseband filtering in the entire system (total
receiver and transmitter channel filtering).

Baseband filter

Transmitter I - Q data Root raised DAC Modulator

cosine filter

Measurement filter I-Q measured

waveform
VSA Root raised Detected
Demodulator
cosine filter bits
digital demodulator
I - Q error
Demodulated data from measured input signal S waveform
+

Ideal/reference × I-Q reference

signal cos cos
generated Raised cosine filter waveform

Reference generator Reference filter

Reference signal generation

Figure 2-9. Selectable matching filters are used to represent filtering in transmitter and receiver. Detected bits
are used, in conjunction with knowledge of modulation type and filtering, to determine ideal signal
30 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation Selecting the correct demodulator baseband filtering may not be as straightforward
and intuitive as you might think, especially for a distributed system. For example, con-
Analysis (continued) sider a North American digital cellular (NADC) standard which uses distributed filtering;
a root raised cosine filter is implemented in both the transmitter and receiver. See
Figure 2-9. For the VSA demodulator, you would use a root raised cosine filter for the
I-Q measured waveform (matching the receiver filtering in a system that includes a sim-
ilar filter at the transmitter). For the I-Q reference waveform, you would use a raised
cosine filter (matching the total system channel filtering). This is because the product of
a sqrt (raised cosine) times a sqrt (raised cosine) is equal to a raised cosine filter.

Table 2-1 shows some commonly used filter types and examples of analyzer measure-
ment and reference filter selections based on the transmitter filter type.

If the transmitter filter is The measure filter should be: The reference filter should be:
Root raised cosine Root raised cosine Raised cosine
Raised cosine None Raised cosine
Gaussian None Gaussian
Any type User defined User defined

Table 2-1. Commonly used transmitter filter types and analyzer filters used

Filter alpha and BT bandwidth time product

Another filter parameter that must accurately represent the system under
test is the filter bandwidth coefficient, specified as the filter alpha or BT. Each filter type
will have a filter bandwidth coefficient associated with it; Nyquist filters use alpha and
Gaussian filters use BT. The demodulator uses the same alpha or BT value for both the
measurement filter and the reference filter.
31 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation There are many available filter types used in digital communications, depending on the
intended application. Traditionally, the Nyquist (raised cosine) filter has been used
Analysis (continued) because it minimizes ISI. Notice, in Figure 2-10, that the Nyquist filter impulse response
has its peak amplitude at the symbol instant (t = 0) and is zero at all other surrounding
symbol instants. That is, it crosses zero at integer multiples of the symbol period (1
divided by fs). This means that Nyquist filtered symbols do not interfere with
surrounding symbols (zero inter-symbol interference). Nyquist filters minimize ISI,
however, there are applications when ISI is not the most important criteria. Two other
commonly used filter types are the Gaussian and Chebyshev filters. The Gaussian filter
does not have the best ISI characteristics, but it does have advantages in the balance
of carrier power, occupied bandwidth, and symbol clock recovery. Gaussian filters are
typically used in GSM (global system for mobile communications) wireless telephony
systems. The Chebyshev filter has very sharp roll-off characteristics and is vital for
reducing power leakage into adjacent channels. Chebyshev filters are often used in
wireless telephony systems that use CDMA (code division multiple access) modulation
schemes, like cdmaOne and cdma2000. There are many other filter types used in digital
communications that are beyond the scope of this discussion (see the References
section at the end of this application note for more information).

Nyquist or raised cosine filter characteristics

Frequency response Time impulse response

α=0 H(t) Zero value at integer multiples
H(f) α = 0.5 of the symbol period (1/Fs).
α=1
f t
BW 0
–2 –1 1 2 (Symbol periods)
BW = Symbol rate • (1 + α) fs fs fs fs
α = Alpha
fs = Symbol rate t
Symbol instants (at fs)

Figure 2-10. Nyquist filters minimize inter-symbol interference (ISI)

Alpha
Alpha describes the sharpness of the Nyquist (raised cosine) filter. See Figure 2-10.
Alpha is also called the roll-off or excess bandwidth factor. A higher value for alpha
increases the bandwidth that is used in excess of the theoretical minimum. Modulation
theory states that the minimum bandwidth needed to transmit a signal is equal to one
half the symbol rate. However, to realize this system bandwidth would require a perfect
brick-wall (rectangular shaped) filter, where alpha equals 0 and the occupied
bandwidth equals the symbol rate. But a brick-wall filter is not realizable, so in practice,
communication systems typically use a filter alpha of 0.3. An alpha value of 0.3 means
that it will use 30 % more occupied BW than the theoretical minimum. This value does
provide a good compromise between spectral efficiency and minimum ISI. The occupied
bandwidth for a given alpha is approximately equal to the sample rate times
(1 + alpha).
32 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation BT, bandwidth time product

Analysis (continued) Filter BT, bandwidth time product, is the corresponding filter coefficient used for
Gaussian filters and describes the sharpness of the filter. Gaussian filters typically use
BT values between 0.3 to 0.5.

Measurement concepts
Now that you have learned some digital modulation basics and VSA system theory, the
next step is to learn about digital modulation analysis measurement results and trace
displays. The following examples show the measurement results for a QPSK, quadrature
phase shift keyed, modulated signal with a 50 ksym/s symbol rate and a root raised
cosine baseband filter with alpha equal to 0.35. Quadrature means that the carrier
signal shifts between phase states that are separated by 90 degrees. The signal shifts in
increments of 90 degrees from 45 to 135, –45, or –135 degrees. QPSK has four
available states. Each state is assigned a binary value from 0 to 3, which requires 2 bits
per state, translating into 2 bits per symbol. Only two I and two Q values are needed to
produce the four states, satisfying the 2 bits per state requirement.

Vector (or IQ) diagrams

The vector diagram, more commonly called an IQ diagram in digital modulation, shows
the recovered complex, I-Q baseband signal at all moments in time. It shows the states
and transitions between them as the signal moves from symbol to symbol in time. A
vector drawn from the origin to a point on the vector diagram corresponds to the
instantaneous voltage at that instant in time.

Figure 2-11a shows an example IQ diagram for the QPSK modulated signal mentioned
earlier. The IQ diagram shows the 4 ideal state locations (indicated by the crosshairs)
positioned at 45, 135, –45, and –135 degrees, the detected symbols, and the
transitions between the symbols. The IQ diagram gives you the peak-to-average
voltage ratios and can be used to determine amplifier compression among other things.

Vector diagram Constellation diagram

or IQ diagram
90ϒ • Symbols 90ϒ
Q • State locations
Q
01 00 • Decision points 01
–1 v
00
Symbols outside the
circle exceed error limits

180 ϒ 0 ϒ(phase ref) 180ϒ 0ϒ(phase ref)

I –1 v –1 v
I
–1 v
Symbol trajectory 11 10 11 10
between states
270 ϒ 270ϒ
(a) QPSK (b) QPSK

Figure 2-11. QPSK vector and constellation diagrams

33 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation Interpreting vector diagrams

Analysis (continued) When viewing signals in the I-Q plane, keep in mind that you are looking
at the signal amplitude and phase relative to the carrier. The unmodulated carrier is the
phase reference (0 degrees). In Figure 2-11, each of the detected symbols modulate the
carrier at differing amplitudes and phases relative to the unmodulated carrier, but at
the same frequency as the carrier. If the detected symbols were at different frequencies
than the unmodulated carrier, they would appear to move as they continuously gain or
lose phase relative to the unmodulated carrier. Also, digital modulation is a
3-dimensional measurement, modulation in terms of its I (in-phase) and Q (quadrature)
components versus time. The IQ diagram is only a 2-dimensional display, so the time
parameter, which cannot be seen, is perpendicular to the I-Q plane (or CRT screen).

Constellation Diagram
Figure 2-11b shows the constellation diagram for the same QPSK signal. The
constellation diagram shows the carrier magnitude and phase synchronous with the
symbol clock. The measurement points are commonly referred to as detection decision
points and represent the detected symbols. It is similar to the I-Q diagram, without
showing the transition traces between states.

Ideally all symbols should appear as a single point centered at the ideal state location
(indicated by the crosshairs). The ideal state is where symbols occur if your signal is
without error. However, signal impairments and other modulation errors cause
deviations and the symbols will disperse and surround the ideal state location. The VSA
allows you to put definable error limit circles around the ideal states. Showing the
actual detected symbols versus the ideal states gives you a visual indication of the
quality of your signal. Constellation diagrams help identify such signal impairments as
amplitude imbalance, quadrature error, or phase noise.

Error vector magnitude (EVM)

The most widely used modulation quality metric in digital communications systems is
error vector magnitude (EVM). The error vector is the vector difference at a given time
between the ideal reference signal and the measured signal. See Figure 2-12. The error
vector is a complex quantity that contains a magnitude and phase component. It is
important not to confuse the magnitude of the error vector with the magnitude error, or
the phase of the error vector with the phase error.

I-Q tude
i Error
Q gn r
ma erro vector

EVM [n] = I err[n]2 + Q err[n]2

Q err red EVM
where [n] = measurement at e asu
the symbol time I-Qm Phase Ø
error Error vector
I err = I ref - I meas phase
rence
Q err = Q ref - Q meas I-Q refe
I
I err
Figure 2-12. Error vector magnitude (EVM); difference between actual measured signal and ideal reference signal
34 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation EVM is defined as the root mean square (rms) of the error vector over time at the
instants of the symbol clock transitions. By convention, EVM is usually normalized to
Analysis (continued) either the amplitude of the outermost symbol or the square root of the average symbol
power. The EVM measurement and the various related data results are sensitive to any
signal impairment that affects the magnitude and phase trajectory of a signal for any
digital modulation format. This makes it an ideal measurement tool for troubleshooting
communications system problems at baseband, IF, or RF sections of the radio.

Figure 2-13 shows examples of the error vector time, error vector spectrum, I-Q
magnitude error, and I-Q phase error modulation quality measurements that were
defined in Figure 2-12. The error vector time data (display a) shows the error vector
magnitude data in the time domain. This trace is the computed error vector magnitude
between corresponding symbol points in the I-Q measured and I-Q reference signals.
The error vector spectrum data (display b) shows the spectrum of the error vector time
data. In other words, the analyzer derives the error vector time data, and then windows
and FFTs this data to produce the error vector spectrum trace. This format can reveal
the spectral content of the unwanted signals that drive the modulated carrier away
from its ideal path. If those error components are deterministic, they will show up in the
error vector spectrum trace as spectra. Measuring these spectra can give added insight
into the nature and origin of these error signals. The I-Q magnitude error (display c)
and I-Q phase error (display d) traces show the error between the I-Q measured and
the I-Q reference signals. I-Q magnitude error displays the magnitude error and I-Q
phase error displays the phase error.

Figure 2-13. Display a, error vector time, shows the error vector magnitude at the symbol points. Display b,
error vector spectrum, shows the frequency spectrum of the error vector time data. Display c, IQ mag error, is
the magnitude difference between the measured and reference IQ waveforms. Display d, IQ phase error, is the
phase difference between the measured and reference IQ waveforms.
35 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation Symbol table/error summary

Analysis (continued) The symbol table/error summary measurement results may be the most powerful of the
digital demodulation tools. Here, demodulated bits can be seen along with error
statistics for all of the demodulated symbols. For example, reviewing the rms EVM
value can quickly help you assess modulation accuracy. Other valuable errors are also
reported. Figure 2-14 shows the symbol table/error summary data for the QPSK signal
used previously. The marker readout shows the values for the highlighted bits in the
symbol table, which represent symbol number 3 and has a value of 2 (a binary value of
“10”). Note that this agrees with the two bits per symbol required by QPSK modulation.
The errors table shows the available statistical and error data for a QPSK modulated
signal.

Figure 2-14. The symbol table/error summary data provides the demodulated bits
and error statistics for all the demodulated symbols

We have now covered some of the fundamental modulation measurements, but there
are many more qualitative displays and quantitative measurements available. You can
find more information about them in the References section at the end of this application
note.
36 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation Analog Modulation Analysis

Analysis (continued) Another important measurement tool that vector modulation analysis may provide is
analog modulation analysis. Analog modulation analysis produces AM, FM, and PM
demodulation results, similar to what a modulation analyzer would output, allowing you
to view amplitude, frequency, and phase profiles versus time. These analog modulation
analysis capabilities enhance the digital modulation analysis capabilities, already avail-
able in a VSA, to provide a complete measurement solution to analyze digital commu-
nications systems. For example, you may use analog modulation to analyze intentional
modulations like FSK (frequency shift keying), to analyze unintentional modulations like
phase noise or AM-to-PM conversion, or to analyze single-shot signal parameters like
frequency or phase settling, or pulse shaping.

Demodulating a signal may seem complicated, but the fundamental characteristics of

vector modulation and the I-Q modulation process make demodulation straightforward.
Recall that the vector or IQ diagram (Figures 2-2 and 2-11) shows the instantaneous
magnitude and phase of the modulated carrier relative to the unmodulated carrier, and
that it was very useful to show digital modulation characteristics. However, it also pro-
vides an easy way to view analog modulation signal characteristics, such as AM, PM,
and FM modulations, as shown in Figure 2-15. An unmodulated continuous wave (CW)
signal would simply show as a single stationary point with constant magnitude and
phase. An AM signal has its trajectory along a fixed line through the origin and only the
magnitude of the signal changes. An FM signal is shown as a circle centered at the ori-
gin as its trajectory, with the instantaneous frequency deviation given by the rate of
change of its phase. PM looks similar to FM, although, the relative change in phase is
the controlling parameter. In vector modulation, in which both the amplitude and
phase can change simultaneously, the vector trajectory changes in both magnitude and
phase.

Δ phase
Δ mag
itude
magn nt
a
Const

Constant
phase Phase
0 deg 0 deg
(reference) (reference)

AM - magnitude change PM - phase change

Δ mag & Δ phase Δ frequency

0 deg
(reference)
0 deg
(reference)

AM and PM - magnitude and phase change FM - frequency change

Figure 2-15. Analog modulation characteristics in the I-Q plane on the I-Q diagram
37 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation Traditionally, to view the carrier modulation waveforms (modulation envelope), you
would remove the carrier by “detecting” and displaying the resultant waveform on an
Analysis (continued) oscilloscope in amplitude-versus-time display. However, instead of thinking in terms of
detecting the modulation on the carrier, in vector modulation, it is helpful to think of
viewing the modulation as what is left after the carrier has been “shifted” or
“downconverted” to 0 Hz. An intuitive review of frequency shifting will show how
amplitude and phase changes imparted on the carrier are “detected” using basic
trigonometric identities

Cos [ 2π fct] The modulated carrier is described by:

Incident
I(t) AM FM & PM
real part
FLO = fc V(t) = A(t) Cos [ 2π fct + Ø(t)]
Modulated carrier fc Local oscillator
where A(t) = Magnitude
A(t) Cos [ 2π fct + Ø(t)] 90 Ø(t) = Phase
Quadrature
Q(t)
Imaginary part Detected AM = A(t) = I2(t ) + Q2 (t)
–Sin [ 2π fct]
Detected PM = Ø(t) = tan–1 [Q(t)/I(t)]
Quadrature detector Detected FM = Derivative of PM = dØ/dt
(I-Q demodulator)

Figure 2-16. Modulation is measured by shifting the carrier frequency, fc, down to 0 Hz. When the
digital LO frequency is equal to the modulated carrier frequency, the output of the quadrature detector,
I(t) and Q(t) time-domain waveforms, is the modulation on the carrier

As shown in Figure 2-16, the complex-modulated carrier signal, described by V(t) = A(t)
Cos[2πfct + Ø(t)] and frequency, fc, are inputted to the quadrature mixer (or quadrature
detector) for frequency translation. To recover the baseband modulating signal, the
carrier is first downconverted to baseband (0 Hz) by setting the LO frequency equal to
fc. Then the baseband signals are low-pass filtered so only the difference frequencies
remain. This process produces real I(t) and imaginary Q(t) time-domain waveforms that
are the magnitude and phase difference between the modulated carrier signal and the
unmodulated LO signal, referenced to the carrier. This is the carrier modulation in the
form of I(t) and Q(t) components (rectangular coordinates), not in terms of magnitude,
A(t), and phase, Ø(t). You may recall that the I-Q demodulator performs a polar to
rectangular conversion. However, applying some math and simple trigonometric
identities to the I(t) and Q(t) components allows us to extract the instantaneous
amplitude, A(t), or phase, Ø(t), changes impressed on the carrier. This is the AM and
PM modulation.
38 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

Vector Modulation The amplitude modulation, AM, is the variation of the carrier magnitude, A(t), versus
time and is extracted from I(t) and Q(t) by taking the square root of the sum of the
Analysis (continued) squares of I(t) and Q(t).

AM = A(t) = sqrt[I2(t) + Q2(t)]

Phase modulation, PM, is the phase variation, Ø(t), versus time and is equal to the arct-
angent of [Q(t) / I(t)]. Frequency modulation, FM, is the derivative of the phase shift
verses time, dØ/dt. That is, FM is the derivative of PM:

PM = Ø(t) = arctan[Q(t)/I(t)]

FM = derivative of the PM = (dØ/dt)

Starting with I(t) and Q(t) and applying basic trigonometric identities, we have done a
first order demodulation of the carrier and are able to look at AM, PM, and FM modula-
tion. In practice, analyzers use sophisticated demodulation algorithms that incorporate
frequency and phase error correction routines so that intentional and unintentional
modulation can be accurately separated from the carrier. Analog demodulation com-
pletely isolates the PM and FM from the AM. Likewise, AM is completely isolated
from the PM and FM.

Summary
This chapter presented the basics of vector or digital modulation techniques and digital
modulation analysis as implemented in a vector signal analyzer. We described digital
(vector or I-Q) modulation and common digital modulation formats. The VSA architec-
ture is similar to a digital communication system so we described the radio receiver and
transmitter block diagrams noting the process of generating, transmitting, receiving
and recovering the original digital information. We then looked at the VSA digital
demodulator block and described each function and the related demodulation parame-
ters necessary to properly demodulate your signal and make measurements. The VSA,
with vector modulation analysis, provides powerful and specialized measurement capa-
bility that allows you to characterize and troubleshoot throughout the entire block dia-
gram of a digital system (system using I and Q signals). The information you learned in
this chapter will help you make informed decisions regarding measurement instrumen-
tation requirements and the tools necessary to analyze your communication system.
Vector modulation analysis is also available on swept-tuned spectrum analyzers that
support additional radio personality software.

The scope of this application note is limited to the fundamental concepts. If you would
like more in-depth information, you can review the suggested reference materials in the
References section at the end of this application note.
39 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

References 1. Robert A Witte. Spectrum and Network Measurements. Atlanta, GA: Noble
Publishing Corporation, 2001
2. Keysight Technologies, The Fundamentals of Signal Analysis, Application Note 243,
literature number 5952-8898E, Palo Alto, CA, July 1978.
3. Keysight Technologies, Using Vector Modulation Analysis in the Integration,
Troubleshooting and Design of Digital RF Communications Systems, Application
Note 89400-8, literature number 5091-8687E, Palo Alto, CA, July 1994.
4. Keysight Technologies, Digital Modulation in Communications Systems - An
Introduction, Application Note 1298, literature number 5965-7160E, Palo Alto, CA,
July 1997.
5. Keysight Technologies, Testing and Troubleshooting Digital RF Communications
Transmitter Designs, Application Note 1313, literature number 5968-3578E, Palo
Alto, CA, July 1999.
6. Keysight Technologies, Testing and Troubleshooting Digital RF Communications
Receiver Designs, Application Note 1314, literature number 5968-3579E, Palo Alto,
CA, July 2002.
40 | Keysight | Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Application Note

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your instruments are operating to specification, so you can rely on Switzerland 0800 805353
accurate measurements. Opt. 1 (DE)
Opt. 2 (FR)
Keysight Channel Partners Opt. 3 (IT)
www.keysight.com/find/channelpartners United Kingdom 0800 0260637
Get the best of both worlds: Keysight’s measurement expertise and
product breadth, combined with channel partner convenience. For other unlisted countries:
www.keysight.com/find/contactus
(BP-9-7-17)
This documnet was formerly Application Note 150-15.

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This information is subject to change without notice.

© Keysight Technologies, 2017
Published in USA, December 1, 2017
5989-1121EN
www.keysight.com