Unit IV.

Genetics and Livestock Improvement

INTRODUCTION

Genetics plays a crucial role in enhancing agricultural commodities, whether

plant or animal origin. Understanding and applying genetic principles allows
individuals to enhance the quality and productivity of crops and animals. The
application of basic genetic principles in agriculture predates our
comprehensive understanding of these principles.

This module serves as a platform for you to explore into and comprehend the
fundamental aspects of genetics. By gaining insights into these principles, you
will be better equipped to explore the exciting developments and applications
in genetics, paving the way for the creation of new species essential for feeding
the growing population.

As you progress through this module, anticipate an unfolding of knowledge that

will fuel your curiosity and stimulate your inquisitiveness. Embrace the journey
of understanding genetics in the context of livestock improvement, bringing
along your mischievous thinking and scientific knowledge as invaluable guides.
These elements will play a pivotal role as we navigate through the fascinating
realm of genetics.

Unit Learning Outcomes

1. Explain the importance of genetics in improving livestock’s and
in breeding animals.

Topic 1: Genes and their Role in Animal Productivity

Time Allotment:

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
a. Define Genetics;
b. Know the important contributors in the field of Genetics;
c. Know genes and their functions;
d. Know the role of genotype and environment on the
phenotypic and gene action.

Activating Prior Learning

Directions: Answer the following questions drawing upon your existing
knowledge about this topic.
1. Why are some tulips red, while others are yellow?
2. Suppose you discovered that a mating between a black rabbit and a
brown rabbit produced all black offspring. Propose a hypothesis to
explain the color of the offspring.

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Presentation of Content

Genetics
- Genetics is devoted to the study and manipulation of hereditary and
variation in living organisms (Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy).
- The branch of biology that deals with the principles of hereditary
and variation in all living things.
- Is the study of heredity (Genomics and World Health: Report of the
Advisory Committee on He alth research, Geneva WHO, 2002).

Important Contributors to the field of Genetics:

1. Gregor Mendel (1866)
- The father of genetics
- An Austrian monk who conducted breeding experiments on
garden peas (Pisum sativum L.).
- Formulated and published his hypothesis about the mechanics of
inheritance of characteristics in plants
- Discovered that hereditary characteristics were determined by
elementary factors called genes.
2. Hugo de Vries (in the Netherlands), Carl Correns (in Germany) and
Erick Von Tshermar (In Austria)
- Independently rediscovered the works of Mendel in 1901.
3. William Bateson (1906)
- An English biologist who studies the inheritance of certain
characteristics of the chicken, showed that the Mendelian laws
also applied to animals.
4. Johannsen (1909)
- A Danish biologist, coined the term “gene” to refer to the
particulate factor that Mendel hypothesized as the basic unit of
inheritance.
5. James Watson and Francis Crick (1956)
- Two young scientists of Cambridge, University of England
hypothesized the chemical nature and function of the gene which
is now universally accepted.
Genes and their Function
- Genes are the functional units of hereditary as they are made of a segment
of substance called deoxynucleic acid (DNA). Genes provide instructions
for a living being to make molecules called protein.

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- DNA is the hereditary material in

humans and almost all other organisms
like animals.
- Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus
(nuclear DNA), but a small amount of
DNA can also be found in the
mitochondria (mitochondrial DNA or
mtDNA).
- The information in the DNA is stored as
code consists of four chemical bases A
(adenine), T (thymine), C (cytosine) Figure 1.1 Credit: US National Library of Medicine
and G (guanine).
- DNA bases pair up with each other, AT CG to form units called base pairs.
- Each base is attached to a sugar and phosphate molecule. A base, sugar
and phosphate are called nucleotide.
- Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called
double helix (Figure 1.1)
- DNA is passed from adult organisms to their offspring during
reproduction.
- Long strands of DNA with lots of genes make up chromosomes.
- Chromosomes are threadlike structures found in the nuclei of the cell.
- Genes vary in complexity. In humans, they range in size from a few
hundred DNA bases to more than 2 million bases.
- Different living organism have different numbers and shapes of
chromosomes.
o Humans – 23 pairs of chromosome or total of 46
o Donkey – 31 pairs
o Hedgehog – 44 pairs
o Fruit fly – 4 pairs
Function of Genes
Gene decide almost everything about a living being. Example: Globin gene –
function is to produce hemoglobin. One or more genes can affect a specific trait.
Genes may interact with an individuals’ environment and change what the gene
makes.

Gene affect hundreds of internal and external factors, such as whether a person
or animal will get a particular color of skin or eye, or what diseases might
develop.

Proteins are the most important materials in human and animal body which not
only important as the building blocks of muscles, connecting tissues and skin
but also important in the production of enzymes – biological polymers that
catalyze biological reactions.

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Enzymes plays a vital role in conducting various chemical processes and

reactions within the body. Protein synthesis is responsible for all the activities
carried on by the body and these are mainly controlled by the genes.

The G x E Interaction
The mechanics by which the gene is able to synthesize protein in the cell
underlies the relationship among the genotype (G) and the environment (E) in
the formation of the phenotype (P) of the organism.

Genotype – refers to the specific combination of genes that are associated with
some particular characteristics of the individual. Example, in breeding, the
accumulation of and proper combination among the genes that are favorable to
the expression of superior performance is desired.

Environment – the totality of non-genetic factors affecting the individual.

Example, well balanced and nutritious feed, good housing and other favorable
environmental factors is the aim of a good husbandry practices.

Phenotype – the observable manifestation of a given character of an individual.

The phenotype may change but the genotype remains.

 Expressed mathematically as P = G + E (G x E)
 Where G x E is the interaction between the genotype of the
individual and the environment under which it is raised.
 The effect of G x E interaction becomes significant when certain genotypes
perform well under certain environments than other genotypes. For
example, the Zebu grow and reproduce better in warm tropical environment
that the European breed of cattle and vice versa.

How Genotype Affects Phenotype?

Genotype is usually used to refer specific alleles. Alleles are alternative forms
of the same gene that occupy the same location on a chromosome. At any given
locus, there are 2 alleles (1 on each chromosome in the pair). Alleles will be
obtained in parents, 1 from the mother and 1 from the father. The 2 alleles might
be the same or they might be different. Different alleles of a gene generally
serve the same function (For example, they code for a protein that affects eye
color) but may produce different phenotypes (for example blue eyes or brown
eyes) depending on which set of 2 alleles is present.

How Environmental Factors Affect Phenotype?

Genes carry the instructions for the growth and development of the body.
However, phenotype is influenced during embryonic development and
throughout the life by environmental factors. Environmental factors are varied
and enormous and it includes diet, climate, illness and stress.

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In conclusion, genotype or genetic make-up plays a critical role in the

development. However, environmental factors influence phenotypes
throughout lives, and it is this on-going interplay between genetics and
environment that makes all living being unique.

Gene Action
Gene action refers to the way in which certain genes exert their effects on the
body. They could be dominant, or recessive, or they could be sex-linked or be
involved in chromosomal aberrations. A combination of such gene actions
results in the observable phenotype of an organism.

Structural genes – directly responsible for the synthesis of certain biochemical

products during cell metabolism.

Regular genes – control or regulate the function of other genes. May function
in terms of quantity, quality or timing of the activity of certain structural genes.

There are three broad types of gene actions:

1. Additive Gene Action: The action of a gene is said to be additive when
one allele of a gene is substituted by another allele and it produces the
same effect, a positive effect or a negative effect. This can happen only
if the alleles or not dominant (or recessive). In the table below, addition
or removal of A adds or subtracts 2 units of action, respectively, and is
not affected by the presence of gene B. The same is true for gene B too.
Table 1.1 Additive Gene Action Model
AA Aa aa Mean
BB 10 8 6 8
Bb 8 6 4 6
bb 6 4 2 4
Mean 8 6 4
This illustration shows that Aa = AA + aa/2 = 8, implying absence of
dominance. This is true at Bb and bb levels also. Replacement of a by A
produces a plus effect of 2 units disregarding presence of B gene and
genetic phase at B locus showing no interaction between A and B.
Further, totals of any 2 diagonal values are equal showing no interaction.
2. Dominance gene action: When a dominant gene (A) is substituted by a
recessive gene (a) and there is no effect, either positive or negative, then
it is called a dominance gene action. In the table below, there is no effect
when the recessive gene in Aa is replaced by a dominant gene. In this
model, AA exerts the same effect as Aa.
Table 1.2 Dominance Gene Action Model
AA Aa aa Mean
BB 9 9 7 8.3
Bb 9 9 7 8.3
Bb 7 7 5 6.3
Mean 8.3 8.3 6.3
This model shows that Aa = AA disregarding whether at other locus
there is BB or Bb or bb. Likewise, Bb = BB. Thus, there is complete

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dominance for both the genes and interaction is absent. No interaction

between A and B genes is further reflected by the fact that total of any 2
diagonal values is the same.

3. Epistatic gene action: In this type of gene action, the presence or absence
of an allele in one locus affect the expression of another allele in a
different locus. Epistasis can either exert additive effect or dominance.
In other words, epistatic action of one gene can completely mask the
effect of an another gene, or it can also function in completely
unmasking the effect of a gene that remains dormant by default.
Table 1.3 Additive x additive epistatic gene action model
AA Aa aa Mean
BB 9 6 3 6
Bb 6 4 2 4
Bb 3 2 1 2
Mean 6 4 2
In this given model, Aa = mean of AA and aa and similarly, Bb = (Bb
+ bb)/2 showing no dominance. Further, substituting a by A has equal
effect from aa to Aa and from Aa to AA (3 units with BB, 2 units with
Bb and 1 unit with bb). Same is true for B gene. This shows additive
gene action.

However, the amount of shift at A locus is not independent of genetic

phase at B locus and vice-versa implying interaction, which is also
reflected by the fact, that the diagonal totals are not matched. This model
shows epistasis of additive x additive (A x A) type. Likewise, epistasis
could be additive x dominance (A x D) or dominance x dominance (D x
D) type.

Application

I. Directions: Given the lists of five livestock animals and five poultry
species. Beside it, write down the chromosome number in diploid
and in pairs.
Livestock and Diploid Sets of
Poultry Animal Chromosome
1. Goat
2. Sheep
3. Carabao
4. Cattle
5. Chicken
6. Pekin Duck
7. Muscovy Duck
8. Quail
9. Dove
10. Camel

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II. Based on the chromosome number of the specific livestock and

poultry animals. What made them different from each other? Explain
your answer briefly.

III. If you wish to improve or create new species of animals, what pair
of animal would you use? Explain why and their level of
compatibilities.

Feedback
Directions: Answer the following briefly.
1. How is genotype and environment affect the phenotype of an organism?
2. William Bateson showed that the Mendelian laws also applied to animals,
what is the application of Genetics to Agriculture?

References
1. The Evolving Definition of the Term “Gene” by: Petter Portin and Adam
Wikins, Genetics, April 1, 2017, vol. 2015 no. 41353-1364
2. GreenEMPIREPh – Licensure Examination for Agriculturist
3. https://byjus.com/biology/genes/
4. http://www.Biologydiscussion.com/vegetable-breeding/3-main-types-
of-gene-action-vegetable-breeding/68321
5. http://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/types-of-gene-
action-14
6. http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/207-genotype-and-
phenotype
7. http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/120574#function

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Topic 2: The Mechanics of Inheritance

Time Allotment: 2 hours

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
a. Explain the gametogenesis and fertilization;
b. Explain probability and the Mendelian Inheritance; and
c. Explain the Non-Mendelian inheritance

Presentation of Content

Inheritance refers to a process by which genetic information is passed on from

the parent to offspring.

Animal Reproduction
The aptitude of animals to reproduce efficiently is an essential component in
animal agriculture. Animals reproduce in two fundamental methods – sexual
and asexual reproduction. however, most animals use sexual form of
reproduction to produces new offspring. Animal reproduction allows the
transfer of genetic materials from generation to generation and this involves two
important processes, the gametogenesis and the fertilization.

Gametogenesis
- is the process whereby a haploid cell (n) is formed from a diploid cell
(2n) through meiosis and cell differentiation.
- Gametogenesis in male is known as spermatogenesis – the production
of spermatozoa or sperm cells.
- Gametogenesis in female is known as oogenesis – the formation of ova.

Spermatogenesis
Male individuals (man or animals) starts to produce sperms when they reach
puberty – the period in which organisms reach sexual maturity and become
capable of reproduction. The production or synthesis of sperm happens in the
testes (seminiferous tubules) of the male individuals. Directly under the capsule
of the tubule are diploid, undifferentiated cells.

Spermatogonia are the initial pool of diploid cell that divide through mitosis to
provide two identical cells. One of these cells will be used to replenish the pool
of spermatogonia – these cells are A1 spermatogonia. This renewal of

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spermatogonia means that males are

fertile throughout their adult life. The
other cell – type B spermatogonium – will
finally form mature sperm.

Type B spermatogonia replicate by

mitosis several times to form identical
diploid cells linked by cytoplasm bridges,
these cells are now known as primary
spermatocytes. Main spermatocytes then
undertake meiosis. Meiosis I produces
two haploid cells known as secondary
spermatocytes. Meiosis II produces four
haploid cells known as Spermatids

The cytoplasmic bridges break down and

the spermatids are released into the lumen Figure 2.2 Oogenesis https://
of the seminiferous tubule – a process textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com/boundless-
biology/figure-43-03-05.jpe#fixme
called spermiation. The spermatids
undergo spermiogenesis (remodelling and differentiation into mature
spermatozoa) as they travel along the seminiferous tubules until they reach the
epididymis.

From the seminiferous tubule they travel to the rete testis, which acts to
“concentrate” the sperm by removing excess fluid, before moving to the
epididymis where the sperm is stored and undergoes the final stages of
maturation.

Spermatogenesis takes approximately 70 days, therefore in order for sperm

production to be continuous and not intermittent, multiple spermatogenic
processes are occurring simultaneously within the same seminiferous tubule,
with new groups of spermatogonia arising every 16 days (spermatogenic cycle).
Each of these populations of spermatogenic cells will be at different stages of
spermatogenesis.

Note that once sperm leave the male body and enter the female reproductive
tract, the conditions there cause the sperm to undergo capacitation, which is the
removal of cholesterol and glycoproteins from the head of the sperm cell to
allow it to bind to the zona pellucida of the egg cell.

Oogenesis
Oogenesis happens in the outermost layers of the ovaries. Like the production
of sperm, oogenesis begins with a germ cell, called oogonium, but this cell goes
through mitosis to increase in number and finally results in up to millions of
cells in the embryo.

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The cell opening meiosis is called the

primary oocyte. This cell begins the first
meiotic division, but be halted in its
progress in the first prophase stage. At
the time of birth, all future eggs are in the
stage of prophase (prophase stage). At
adolescence, anterior pituitary gland
secretes hormones that causes the
development of a number of follicles in
the ovary and results in the primary
oocyte finishing the first meiotic
division. The cell divides unevenly, with
most of the cellular material and
organelles going to one cell, called the Figure 2.2 Oogenesis https://
textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com/boundless-
secondary oocyte and only one set of biology/figure-43-03-06.jpe#fixme
chromosomes and a small amount of
cytoplasm going to the other cell. This second cell is called a polar body and
usually dies. A secondary meiotic arrests occurs, this time at the metaphase II
stage. During ovulation, this secondary oocyte will be released and travel going
to the uterus via the oviduct. If secondary oocyte is fertilized, the cell continues
through the meiosis II, completing meiosis, producing a second polar body and
fertilized egg containing chromosomes coming from half of the sperm and egg
cell.

Fertilization
Fertilization refers to the fusion of two gametes of opposite sexes to form a
zygote or an embryo. In mammals the sperm are placed in the body of the female
and the eggs are fertilized internally. They then develop to quite an advanced
stage inside the body of the female. When they are born they are fed on milk
excreted from the mammary glands and protected by their parents until they
become independent.

Probability
Expression such as “fifty-fifty chance” or “chances are one in ten” describe the
likelihood that an event will happen. The uses of fractions or ratios to predict
the likelihood of an event’s occurrence is called probability. Probability is
symbolized by the letter P.

Probability is used by Geneticists to predict the phenotypes and genotypes of

offspring in breeding experiment. Probability can even predict the numbers of
each kind of offspring before a cross is performed.

Geneticists, uses Punnett square to predict probability. Punnett square is a grid

organizing genetic information. Punnett square make it easier to predict the
results of a genetic cross. It is important to remember that Punnett square shows
probabilities and not actual result. To use he Punnett square, follow these steps:

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1. Determine the alleles in the gametes of the parents.

2. Place the alleles of the gametes of one parent along the top of the grid
and those of the other parent along left side.
3. Combine the alleles inside the boxes of the Punnett square.
4. Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring inside the
boxes.

The Mendelian Inheritance

 The process of segregation and recombination of genes is governed
purely by chance and that the occurrence of each new combination may
be predicted according to the rules of probability.

Law of Segregation – states that the unit of hereditary characters occur in pairs,
and that in the information of gametes during meiosis, these separate from each
other so that only one member of the pair goes into the particular gamete each
parent must have contributed equally to the progeny. It is a matter of chance
whether the gamete gets the dominant or recessive allele.

Law of Independence – states that gees for the different characters are inherited
independently from each and randomly combine during meiosis.

Non-Mendelian Inheritance
 The inheritance of some characters did not follow the Mendelian laws.
The deviations were due to chromosomal phenomena.

Linkage – a measure of the tendency of some genes to be inherited as a group

rather than individually because of the proximity of their loci in the
chromosome.
Locus (loci) – is a place at which a particular gene resides on the genetic or
linkage map.
Autosomes – carry the genetic material but do not determine the sex.
Sex Chromosomes – determine the sex of the individual.
The types of sex chromosomes are the following:
Sex Chromosome Pair
Class of Animal
Male Female
Mammals XY XX
Birds ZZ ZW

Sex-linked genes – genes that are located in the sex chromosomes

Sex-linkage
- The inheritance of certain characteristics that are associated with
one sex or the other because the genes controlling them are
located in the sex chromosomes.
- The heterogametic offspring could only receive the gene from its
homogametic parent while the homogametic offspring receives
the allelic genes from both parents.

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- The distribution of genotypes in the male and female progeny is

not the same when reciprocal crosses are made between pure
recessive and dominant genotypes.
- Example: haemophilia; color blindness (in some mammalian
species); barring plumage pattern and dwarfism (in some species
of poultry)

Non-nuclear inheritance
I. Cytoplasmic inheritance
- Occurs in plants; the chlorophyll – bearing plastids are carried in
the cytoplasm.
- Quite rare in animals.
- There are some evidences that cytoplasmic genetic material
affecting milk production may be present in cattle.
II. Maternal influence
- Other than the genetic materials in the chromosomes and the
possibility that there may be genetic materials in the cytoplasm,
the mother could further influence in the characteristics of her
offspring because of the material care she provides to her young.
- Maternal effect part of the total environment of the individual.

Application

I. Critical Thinking
1. Demonstrate: In pea plants, round seed shape is dominant to
wrinkled seed shape. Gray seed coat color is dominant to white
seed coat color. Use a Punnett Square to show a cross between a
purebred plant with round seeds and gray seed coats and a
purebred plant with wrinkled seeds and white seed coats. What
traits are seen in the F1 generation?

2. Analyze: Suppose the F1 generation from question 1 is allowed

to self- fertilize. Use a Punnett square to show the results.
Determine the probability for each phenotype and genotype.

3. Hypothesize: Genes that control hair or feather color in some

animals are expressed differently in winter than in summer, as
shown. How might such a difference in expression be beneficial
to this bird?

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Feedback

I. Identification
Directions: Read and identify what is being asked in the given
statement.
1. Genes found on the X or the Y chromosome are called _____.
2. All the chromosome pairs except the sex chromosomes are
called ______.
3. This refers to a specialized cell of sexual reproduction. it
contains the haploid number of chromosomes.
4. The chromosome responsible for determining the sex of n
organism.
5. Sex chromosome pair for female bird.
6. This refers to the likelihood that an event will occur.
7. Mendel’s law which states that each pair of alleles separates
during meiosis. Because of this, half of an organism’s gametes
have one allele from each pair and half of the gametes have the
other allele.
8. Mendel did several experiments in which he studied the
inheritance of two traits at the same time. This refers to Mendel’s
law which states that gene pairs segregates into gametes
randomly and independently of each other.
9. This refers to the synthesis of an ovum.
10. This refers to the production or development of male gamete.

II. Completion
Directions: Write a word or phrase that correctly completes the
following statements.
1. The law of _________ can be understood in terms of the
separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis.
2. Alleles are genes that control ________ traits.
3. The ______ of an organism is the trait that is observed.
4. ________ alleles are both expressed in the heterozygous
condition.
5. Crossing a plant that has a yellow, round seeds with a plant that
has greed, wrinkled seeds is an example of a _______ cross.

III. Concept Review

Directions: Write a complete response to each of the following
questions.
1. Describe the process that occurs during mitosis.
2. Compare meiosis I to meiosis II in terms of the number and
arrangement of chromosomes.
3. Why is reproduction important to farmers?
4. Describe the role of meiosis in evolution.

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IV. Concept Map. Use key terms in this topic (Topic 2: The Mechanics of
Inheritance) to make a concept map that describes gametogenesis and
fertilization.

References
1. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biolo
gy/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/43%3A_Animal_Reprod
uction_and_Development/43.3%3A_Human_Reproductive_Anatomy_
and_Gametogenesis/43.3C%3A__Gametogenesis_(Spermatogenesis_a
nd_Oogenesis)
2. https://eachmephysiology.com/reproductive-
system/embryology/gametogenesis/
3. GreenEMPIREPh – Licensure Examination for Agricuturists Reviewer

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Topic 3: Genes in Population

Time Allotment: 1 hour

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
a. Explain genetic composition of animal population
b. Explain equilibrium population; and
c. Explain the factors affecting change in the genetic
composition of population

Presentation of Content

Gene Pool – the totality of the genes that could potentially be transmitted by
individuals in a population to the next generation.

Population
- A group of individuals sharing a common gene pool; a community of
sexually interbreeding or potentially interbreeding individuals.
- Characterized by the frequencies in which the genes and genotypes
occur in them.

Genetic Composition of Animal Population

The genetic make-up of a population can be described by the frequency of
alleles that exist in that population. This is typically expressed as a fractional
equivalent of one. In other words, a population that has only one allele for a
particular gene has an allele frequency of one for that allele. If two or more
alleles for a particular gene exists, then each has an allele frequency that is some
fraction of one.

The genetic composition of most populations is in a flux. It changes from

generation to generation.

Equilibrium population
– A state when no change may occur.
– In Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium stating that in an indefinitely large
population undergoing random mating, the gene and the genotypic
frequencies will remain constant from generation to generation provided
that there is no selection, migration and mutation.

The British Mathematician Hardy and the German physician Weinberg

independently formulated the principle in 1908.

Factors Affecting the Genetic Composition of Population

1. Selection – process in which certain genotypes contribute more progeny
in the next generation than other genotypes.

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2. Migration – process in which individuals from one population transfer

to another population. The change in the genetic composition I the host
population after migration is directly proportional to the following
factors:
a. The number of migrants in proportion to that of the resulting
population after migration; and
b. The difference in the gene frequencies between the migrants and
the natives.
3. Mutation – a spontaneous change in the biochemical structure of the
gene resulting in an entirely different phenotypic effect. If mutation
happens in the somatic cells (as in the case of cancer), it is not heritable.
But if it happens in the germinal cells, then it could be transmitted to the
offspring or next generation.

Small population size would result in change in the gene frequency simply
because of change variation. Because of certain physical, physiological or
physiological factors, some individuals tend to mate more often together than
with some other individuals.

4. Non-random mating – occurs when some individuals do not have the

same chances of mating with individuals of the opposite sex. Only
changes the genotypic frequency in the population. Important forms of
non-random mating are:
a. Assortative – individuals that are more phenotypically similar
tend to mate more often, tend to drive the population toward
homozygosis.

b. Disassortative mating – individuals which are less

phenotypically similar tend to mate more other together than
would be expected by chance, tend to maintain the production of
more heterozygotes at the expense of homozygotes.

Complete disassortative mating – sex dirmophism in mammals

(example, the maintenance of male and female sexes) where only
the mating between XX and XY genotypes is successful.

c. Inbreeding – the individuals that are related by descent tend to

mate more often than under random mating. Also process in
which certain genotypes contribute more progeny in the next
generation than other genotypes.

Application

I. Multiple Choice
Directions: Select the correct answer for each of the following question.
Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.

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1. This refers to characterized frequencies in which the genes and

genotypes occur in them.
a. Genetic population
b. Population
c. Inventory
d. Migration
2. This refers to the sum of all the individual genes in a given population.
a. Genetic population
b. Gene pool
c. Gene Action
d. Frequency
3. This refers to a principle stating that the genetic variation in a population
will remain constant from one generation to the next in the absence of
disturbing factors.
a. Gene Population
b. Equilibrium population
c. Hardy-weinberg equilibrium
d. Both c and d
4. This refers to a process in which certain genotypes contribute more
progeny in the next generation than other genotypes.
a. Migration
b. Selection
c. Random mating
d. Inbreeding
5. System of random mating in which certain genotypes contribute more
progeny in the next generation than other genotypes.
a. Inbreeding
b. Assortative
c. Complete disassortative
d. All of the above

References
1. GreenEMPIREPh – ALE Reviewer
2. https://wikispaces.psu.edu/display/110Master/Genes+in+Populations
3. https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-122

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Topic 4: Animal Breeding

Time Allotment: 1 hour

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
a. Know the objectives of animal breeding; and
b. Explain the systems of breeding

Presentation of Content

Animal breeding is the art and science of the genetic improvement of farm
animals. Genetic improvement is affected by the purposeful manipulation of the
genetic constitution of animals which determines the expression of their
inherent characteristics. Reproduction alone is not animal breeding in the true
sense. But since the mode and rate of reproduction of animals affect the
efficiency of a breeding program, improvement of reproduction is an important
concern in animal breeding.
Animal Breeding – is the application of scientific knowledge to the genetic
improvement of animals
Breeding program involves system of management as well as system of
breeding.
Environmental influences
1. Nutrition
2. Disease prevention
3. Housing

Contribution of animal breeding

1. The increase of milk
2. Rearing of broiler production becomes shorter (consumption per capita
of poultry meat has been increased due to short rearing and nutritional
and housing innovation have contributed to this remarkable change)
3. Type of hogs (leaner meat of swine has progressed)

Objectives of animal breeding

The general objectives of animal breeding are:
1. Improve growth rate;
2. Improve the quantity of production of farm animals and of their
products (milk, meat, egg, wool etc.) per unit of time;
1. Improve the efficiency of production of farm animal and of their
products;
2. Improve the quality of farm animals and their products;
3. Improve the aesthetic value of farm animals and their products; and
4. Improve resistance to pests and diseases.

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Economically important traits

Beef Cattle Dairy Cattle Goat Sheep Horse
- Post - milk yield - multiple - fleece - galloping
weaning rate - butter yield births weight speed
of gain - milk total - weaning - fiber - trotting
- Marbling solids weight diameter speed
- milk yield - jumping
style
- trotting
pace length
Chicken for meat Chicken for eggs Ducks for eggs Swine
- growth rate - egg production - egg production - ADG
- FCR - egg weight - egg weight - litter size
- dressing - shell thickness - fertility - loin eye area
percentage - haugh unit - yolk color - backfat
thickness

Pedigree. All individuals in a genetic population (such as a herd, family line, or

breed) are related to some extent. Pedigree refers to a record of an individual’s
ancestors related to it through its parents. Ancestral relationships among
individuals of a family over two or more generations.

Breeding Systems
Breeding systems may include selection, introduction of exotic animals
(migration) and subsequent crossbreeding, induction of mutation and
assortative and disassortative mating including inbreeding.

I. Selection
Selection is used as a tool for livestock improvement. Selection is a process
allowing certain animals to be parents of future generations while culling others.
Retained animals possess the desirable characteristics which make them
produce more.
Methods of Selection
a. Progeny testing – group of progenies are used as an aide to increase
accuracy in the selection of breeding stock.
b. Mass selection – animals with superior characteristics are selected from
a herd and then allowed to breed among each other randomly.
II. Inbreeding
When breeding is between animals of the same breed for 4-6 generations, it is
called inbreeding. Inbreeding may be explained by taking an example of cows
and bulls. Superior cows and superior bulls of the same breed are identified and
mated. The progeny obtained from such mating are evaluated and superior
males and females are iden-tified for further mating. A superior female, in the
case of cattle, is the cow that produces more milk per lactation.

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III. Out breeding

Out breeding is the breeding between the unrelated animals which may be
between individuals of the same breed (but having no common ancestors) or
between different breeds (cross breeding) or different species (interspecific
hybridization).

IV. Crossbreeding
Crossbreeding begins with the mating of two purebreds of different breeds. This
results in first-cross progeny, termed F1. There are three potential benefits of
crossbreeding—heterosis, favorable breed combinations, and complementarity.
Heterosis - also called hybrid vigor, occurs when the performance of crossbred
progeny is different (usually better) than the average of their parent types.

Application

I. Directions: Using the different breeding systems, design a breeding

scheme that would enhance the production of large cattle in the country.
Breeding scheme should include assumption on the expected qualitative
or quantitative traits of the specie to be developed.

References
1. Texas Adapted Genetic Strategies for Beef Cattle IV: Breeding
Systems by: Stephen P. Hammack
2. GreenEMPIREPh – ALE Reviewer
3. https://peda.net/kenya/css/subjecs/agriculture/form-3/lsab
4. http://www.biologydiscussion.com/breeding/animal-breeding-
objective-and-methods-of-animal-breeding/1369

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Topic 5: Reproduction and Genetic Improvement of Animals

Time Allotment: 1.5 hour

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
a. Learn reproduction cycle and rate of genetic improvement;
b. Explain artificial insemination; and
c. Explain embryo transfer technology

Presentation of Content

Animal Reproduction – involves the physical and physiological processes in

both sexes leading to fertilization of egg by the sperm cell and the subsequent
development of the young.
Rate of Genetic Improvement
Genetic improvement needs more time and it will take you time to achieve your
desired traits for the animal. The amount of time is influenced by three factors
this are:
1. Heritability of the trait – refers to the degree to which the trait will be
passed on. Highly heritable traits are easier to select for. While the
heritability of a trait cannot be changed, the degree of heritability of
particular traits needs to be considered in the overall breeding program.
2. Generation interval – refers to the time interval between generations,
determined by the average age of the parents at each mating. This can
be reduced by using young sires and technologies such as JIVET
(juvenile in vitro embryo transfer).
3. Selection differential - The difference between the average genetic merit
of the parents and the average of the population from which they came.
This is a breeder's main tool in driving genetic improvement. Producers
who buy ram from seed stock breeders who undertake whole flock
recording and have high quality data and, therefore, more accurate
breeding value will be better able to exploit selection differential as a
driver of genetic improvement.
Artificial Insemination
Artificial insemination
(AI) is the process of
collecting sperm cells
from a male animal
and manually
depositing them into
the reproductive tract
of a female. Figure 5.1 Artificial Insemination https://encrypted-
tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcTK4MdpJvRnl_4gsz6Xeoorb6gEkNNkJhZPdQSDZqr
BhNhrWXk7&usqp=CAU

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Benefits of Artificial Insemination

1. Increased efficiency of bull usage. During natural breeding, a male will
deposit much more semen than is theoretically needed to produce a
pregnancy. In addition, natural breeding is physically stressful. Both of
these factors limit the number of natural mating a male can make. However,
collected semen can be diluted and extended to create hundreds of doses
from a single ejaculate. Also, semen can be easily transported, allowing
multiple females in different geographical locations to be inseminated
simultaneously, and semen can be stored for long periods of time, meaning
that males can produce offspring long after their natural reproductive lives
end.
2. Increased potential for genetic selection. Because artificial insemination
allows males to produce more offspring, fewer males are needed. Therefore,
one can choose only the few best males for use as parents, increasing the
selection intensity. Furthermore, because males can have more offspring,
their offspring can be used in a progeny test program to more accurately
evaluate the genetic value of the male. Finally, individual farmers can use
artificial insemination to increase the genetic pool with which his or her
animals can be mated, potentially decreasing effects of inbreeding.
3. Decreased costs. Male animals often grow to be larger than females and can
consume relatively larger amounts of feed. Also, male animals are often
more strong, powerful, and potentially ill-mannered and thus require special
housing and handling equipment.
4. Increased safety for animals and farmers. As mentioned, male animals can
become large and aggressive. These factors mean that maintaining a bull on
a farm may be dangerous. Also, because of the relatively larger size of adult
males than females, natural mating is more likely to result accidents and
injury to either the cow or the bull than is artificial insemination.
5. Reduced disease transmission: Natural mating allows for the transfer of
venereal diseases between males and females. Some pathogens can be
transmitted in semen through artificial insemination, but the collection
process allows for the screening of disease agents. Collected semen is also
routinely checked for quality, which can help avoid problems associated
with male infertility.

Artificial insemination has some potential drawbacks, however, that must be

considered. First, it can be more laborious. Male animals instinctively detect the
females that are in the correct status for conception. With artificial insemination
the detection work falls on the responsibility of the farmer. Poor detection
results in decreased rates of fertility. Also, increasing the number of offspring
per male has selective advantages only if the best males can be accurately
determined. Otherwise this process only decreases the genetic variability in a
population. Increasing the number of offspring per male always reduces the
gene pool. The benefits of more intense selection must be balanced against the
negative effects of decreased variation.

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Embryo Transfer Technology

Embryo transfer is one step in the process of removing one or more embryos
from the reproductive tract of a donor female and transferring them to one or
more recipient females. Embryos also can be produces in the laboratory via
techniques such as in vitro fertilization or somatic cell cloning. But the actual
transfer of an embryo is only one step in a series of processes that may include
some or all of the following:
a. Superovulation and insemination of donors
b. Collection of embryos
c. Isolation
d. Evaluation
e. Shorterm storage of embryos
f. Micromanipulation and genetic testing od embryos
g. Freezing of embryos
h. Embryo transfer

Embryo transfer in cattle has recently gained considerable popularity with

seedstock dairy and beef producers. Most of the applicable embryo transfer
technology was developed in the 1970s and 1980s; however, the history of the
concept goes back much farther. Embryo transfer was first performed and
recorded by Walter Heape in 1890. He transferred two Angora rabbit embryos
into a gestating Belgian doe. The Belgian doe produced a mixed litter of Belgian
and Angora bunnies. Embryo transfer in food animals began in the 1930s with
sheep and goats, but it was not until the 1950s that successful embryo transfers
were reported in cattle and pigs by Jim Rowson at Cambridge, England.

The first commercial embryo transfers in this country were done in the early
1970s. Initially, embryos were recovered from valuable donors and transferred
to recipient animals using surgical procedures. It was not until nonsurgical
methods were developed in the late 1970s that embryo transfer grew in
popularity.

Figure 5.2 Embryo Transfer in Cattle https://encrypted-

tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcRtuVt1ur6_rKHVfcyAgkxHr1Rlv
muvQ1pESDybqUF_uojmslvu&usqp=CAU

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Application
Directions: Answer the following questions briefly.
1. Discuss the potential application of embryo transfer technology in
animal production.
2. Discuss briefly the importance of artificial insemination animal
breeding.
3. Compare and contrast artificial insemination and embryo transfer
technology and their significance to Philippine agriculture.

Feedback

I. Debate (Fishbowl)
Directions: The class will be divided into two teams according to their
opinion regarding the issue “Which should we promote today, the use
of artificial insemination or the use of embryo transfer technology to
augment the large cattle population in the country?

Those who choose Embryo Transfer Technology shall stay on one side
of the room and the other group who chose Artificial Insemination on
the other side. Each of the team shall choose four speakers for every
group. They will compose the discussion group and will be seated in
front. They will be given time to have a conversation to share their
opinions regarding the topic. Each one shall be given opportunity to talk
and give reasons for their opinion.

The rest of the students will have to listen to the group’s discussion.
After all the participants in the fish bowl have raised their opinions, the
listeners will be given their turn to give their opinion or ideas on what
they have heard from the discussion. They could agree, disagree or add
information to what was being discussed. This way the discussion is
enriched and every member of the class is given a chance to talk.

Expand Your Knowledge

1. What are the steps in embryo transfer in cattle?
2. What are limitations in Artificial Insemination?
3. What are the methods of inseminating the cow and other livestock
animals?
4. What are the methods of pregnancy diagnosis?
_______________________________________________________________
References

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1. Embryo Transfer in Cattle by: Agriculture and Natural Resources

DIVISION OF AGRICULTURE R E S E A R C H & E X T E N S I O N,
University of Arkansas System, FSA3119
2. https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/Genetics-and-
breeding/Sheep?Genetics?Benefits-of-genetic-improvement#
3. https://www-maweb.iaea.org/nafa/aph/resources/technology-ai.html

Cagayan State University – Lal-lo Campus

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