Index

1. Objective

2. Introduction

3. Theory and Concepts:

3.1 Some Basic Terms

3.2 Definition of SHM

3.3 Key Concepts

3.4 General Equation for SHM

3.5 Location of Particle in SHM

3.6 Force Law for SHM

3.7 Energy in SHM

4. Practical Examples and Applications:

4.1 Systems Exhibiting SHM

4.2 Applications

5. Historical Background and Contributions

6. Damped and Forced SHM

7. Conclusion

8. Bibliography

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 Objective
To investigate the principles of Simple Harmonic Motion
(SHM), its mathematical formulation, and practical
applications.

2
 Introduction

The concept of Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is central

to the study of oscillations in physics. It describes the
repetitive, back-and-forth movement of an object about a
central equilibrium position, where the restoring force is
directly proportional to the displacement.
SHM is not just a theoretical idea but has practical
applications in various fields, from the design of clocks
and musical instruments to understanding natural
phenomena like the motion of waves and vibrations.
This project delves into the core principles of SHM,
investigating its characteristics, equations, and real-life
applications.
By examining the behavior of oscillating systems, we can
better understand the fundamental dynamics that govern
motion in both mechanical and natural systems.

3
 Theory and Concepts
 Basic terminology

 Periodic motion – A motion that repeats itself at regular

intervals of time.
 Oscillatory motion – A motion in which a body moves to
and fro or back and forth repeatedly about a fixed point
in a regular interval of time.
 Period – The smallest interval of time after which a
periodic motion is repeated.
 Frequency – The number of oscillations/vibrations
performed by a oscillating body about its mean position
in a unit time.
 Periodic function –

A function that repeats its values at regular intervals or periods.

In other words, a periodic function exhibits a consistent pattern
over a fixed period of time or space. Mathematically, a function
f(t) is said to be periodic if there exists a positive constant T such
that:

f(t+T)=f(t)

for all values of t, where T is the period of the function .

 Definition

It is a special type of periodic motion in which a particle moves to

and fro repeatedly about a mean position under the influence of a
restoring force.

 Characteristics of restoring force in SHM

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The restoring force is always directed towards the mean position
and its magnitude at any instant is directly pro proportional
portional to the
displacement of the particle from its mean position at that
instant. As the restoring force is directed towards the mean
position at any point in its oscillation, thus, displacement of SHM
is always a sinusoidal function of time.

 Equation of SHM

Consider a particle oscillating back and forth about the origin of

an x-axis
axis between the limits +A and and-A
A as given in the figure
below.

This oscillatory motion of the particle is said to be SHM if the

displacement x of the particle from the origin varies with time as

Displacement, x(t) = A cos (ωt + φ)

Where, A (amplitude), ω (angular frequency) and φ (phase

constant) are constants.

Note: Each interval of time is

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 Simple Harmonic motion and uniform Circular Motion

( Geometrical Interpretation of SHM )

Consider that a particle P starting from X is moving with a

uniform speed along the circumference of a circle of radius A,
with centre at O. This circle is known as circle of reference,
reference while
the particle P is known as reference particle.

Let P' be the foot of perpendicular drawn from the point P to the
diameter XOX'. P' is known as projection of the particle P at
diameter XOX'.

As P moves along the circle from X to Y, Y tο Χ', Χ' tο

ο Υ' and Y' to X,
he projection of the particle P i.e. P' moves from X to O, O to X', X'
the
to O and O to X, respectively.
Thus, P revolves along the circumference of the circle while its

projection P' moves to and fro about the point O along the
diameter XOX'. Hence, the motion of P' about point O is said to be
simple harmonic.

Hence, SHM can be geometrically defined as the projection of a

uniform circular motion on any diameter of the circle of
reference.
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 Characteristics of SHM

Some of the important parameters which define the

characteristics of SHM are given below :

i. Discplacement

The displacement of a particle execuring SHM at an instant is

given by the distance of the particle from the mean position at
that instant.

Here,

Displacement, x(t) = A cos ( ωt + φ )

ii. Amplitude

The magnitude of maximum displacement of a particle executing

SHM is called amplitude of the oscillation of that particle.
Amplitude is measured on either side of mean position.

The displacement varies berween the extremes +A and -A

because the sinusoidal function of time varies from +1 to-1 .

Two SHM may have same (angular frequency) and (phase

constant) but different amplitudes A and B

iii. Phase

If amplitude A is fixed for a given SHM, then the state of motion

i.e. position and velocity of the particle at any time t is
determined by the argument

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(ωt + φ0 ) in the sinusoidal function. This quantity (ωt + φ0 ) is
called phase of the motion.

For t = 0 phase ωt + φ0 = φ0 . Thus, φ0 is called phase constant

or phase angle.

Two SHM may have the same A (amplitude) and ω (angular

frequency) but different phase angle φ .

iv. Angular Frequency

Angular frequency of a body executing periodic motion is equal

to the product of frequency of the particle with factor 2π.

It is denoted by ω and its SI unit is radian per second.

2π
We know that, T =
ω

ω= = 2πv
where, v = frequency of the particle.

Since, the motion is periodic with a period T,

x(t) = A cos ωt

A cos ωt = A cos ω ( t + T )

Now, the cosine function is periodic with period 2π . Therefore,

ω ( t + T ) = ωt + 2π

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 Angular frequency, ω =

Thus, angular frequency ω is 2π times the frequency of oscillation

.Two SHM may have the same amplitude (A) and phase angle
(φ) but different angular frequency ( ω ).

v. Velocity

The velocity of a particle executing SHM at any instant, is defined

as the time rate of change of its displacement at that instant.

Velocity, v = ω √𝐴 − 𝑥

At mean position, x=0

v = ωA [maximum velocity]

At extreme position, x=A

v=0 [minimum velocity]

The velocity can also be calculated as

v(t) = [𝑥(𝑡)] = [𝐴cos(ωt + φ)]

Velocity, v(t) = -ωA sin (ωt + φ)

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vi. Acceleration

The acceleration of the particle executing SHM at any instant is

defined as the time rate of change of its velocity at that instant.

Acceleration, a = -ω2x
At mean position, x=0

a=0 [minimum acceleration]

At extreme position, x=A

a = -ω2A [maximum acceleration]

The acceleration can also be calculated as

a(t) = [𝑣(𝑡)] = [−𝜔𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)]

Acceleration, a(t) = -ω2 Acos (ωt + φ)

 Force Law for SHM

When a body is displaced slightly from its equilibrium (mean)

position, a restoring force acts on it, directed opposite to the
displacement. This force is proportional to the displacement,
provided the displacement is small.

As the body moves back and forth under this restoring force, it
oscillates about the mean position with a definite period.

According to Newton's second law of motion,

F = ma

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For a body in SHM, we know that

a(t) = -ω2 x(t)

The restoring force can be expressed as:

Restoring force, F(t) = -kx(t)

Where,

k = mω2 or ω=

The negative sign indicates that the force always acts towards
the mean position. This relationship defines SHM: motion under a
force that is proportional to displacement and directed towards
equilibrium.

 Energy in SHM

A particle in SHM has kinetic energy (KE) and potential energy

(PE) that vary during oscillation. The total mechanical energy
remains constant and is conserved in the absence of friction .

Kinetic Energy

We know that,

v(t) = -ωA sin (ωt + φ)

At any point, the velocity squared is:

v 2 = A2 ω 2 1 −

KE = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚𝜔 𝐴 ( 𝐴 − 𝜔 )
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  KE is maximum at the mean position (x=0).
 KE is zero at the extreme positions (x=±A).

Potential Energy

We know that,

F = -kx

The work done to displace the particle by a small distance dx is:

𝑑𝑊 = -F𝑑𝑥 = -kx𝑑𝑥

The total work done to displace the particle from x=0 to x is:

W = ∫ (−𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥) = −

Potential Energy, U = 𝑘𝑥

 PE is maximum at the extreme positions (x=±A).

 PE is zero at the mean position (x=0).

Total Energy

The total mechanical energy is the sum of KE and PE:

E = KE + PE

E = 𝑚𝜔 ( 𝐴 − 𝑥 ) + 𝑚𝜔 𝑥

E = 𝑚𝜔 𝐴

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Thus, the total energy depends only on the mass m, angular
frequency ω, and amplitude A, and it remains constant
throughout the motion.

Practical Examples and Applications

 Some systems Exhibiting SHM

1. Oscillation Due to a Spring

Consider a massless spring lying on a frictionless horizontal

surface. One end is attached to a rigid support, while the other is
connected to a block of mass mmm. If the block is displaced by a
small distance xxx and released, it oscillates back and forth
about its equilibrium position under the action of a restoring
force.
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥

The negative sign indicates that the force is directed opposite to

displacement (x).

Using Newton's second law of motion:

𝑑 𝑥
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑥
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑥
= −𝜔 𝑥
𝑑𝑡

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This equation confirms that acceleration is proportional to
displacement (x) and acts in the opposite direction, making it a
case of Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM).

Also,

Time period, 𝑇 = 2𝜋

Frequency, 𝑣 = =

2. Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a small bob of mass m

suspended by an inextensible and weightless string of length L
fixed at one end. When displaced slightly and released, the
pendulum oscillates back and forth about its equilibrium position
under the influence of gravity.

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Key Forces Acting on the Bob

 Weight (mg): Acts vertically downward.

 Tension (T): Acts along the string.

 The tangential component of weight (𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) acts as the

restoring force, creating a torque about the pivot point.

Derivation of Time Period

 Torque about the pivot:

𝜏 = −𝑚𝑔𝐿 sin 𝜃
𝜏 = −𝑚𝑔𝐿𝜃

 Using rotational motion (𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼):

𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔𝐿𝜃

−𝑚𝑔𝐿𝜃
𝛼=
𝐼

The angular acceleration of the pendulum is proportional to the

angular displacement 𝜽 but in opposite sign.

Equation is the angular analogue of = 𝜔 𝑥 .

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 𝑚𝑔𝐿
𝜔=
𝐼

2𝜋 𝑚𝑔𝐿
=
𝑇 𝐼

𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑔

Key Observations

1. T depends on the length L and acceleration due to gravity g.

2. It is independent of the mass of the bob.
3. This formula is valid only for small angular displacements
(θ).

 Applications of SHM

 Clocks: Pendulum and quartz clocks rely on SHM for

accurate timekeeping.
 Seismographs: Detect earthquake vibrations using
oscillatory motion.
 Shock Absorbers: Use damped SHM to reduce vibrations in
vehicles.

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 Historical Background
 Galileo Galilei (1564–1642):
 First studied the motion of pendulums.

 Discovered the isochronism of a pendulum, where the

period is independent of amplitude for small angles.

 Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695):
 Developed the mathematical theory of pendulum motion.

 Invented the pendulum clock, applying SHM for timekeeping.

 Robert Hooke (1635–1703):

 Formulated Hooke's Law, which explains the restoring force

in springs.
 Laid the foundation for understanding SHM in elastic

systems.
 Isaac Newton (1642–1727):
 Derived SHM equations from his laws of motion.

 Explained the relationship between force, mass, and

acceleration in oscillatory systems.

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 Damped and forced SHM
 Damped SHM

In real-world systems, friction or resistive forces reduce the

amplitude of oscillation over time, leading to damped SHM.

Key Points:

1. Damping Force:
A resistive force proportional to velocity: 𝐹𝑑 = −𝑏𝑣, where
b is the damping constant.

2. Equation of Motion:
𝑚𝑎 + 𝑏𝑣 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

(where a is acceleration, v is velocity, x is displacement).

3. Types of Damping:

o Under-damping: Oscillations decrease gradually.

o Critical damping: Stops oscillation in the shortest time.

o Over-damping: Stops oscillation slowly without

oscillating.

4. Example – Car suspension systems

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 Forced SHM

When an external periodic force drives an oscillating system, it is

called forced SHM.

Key Points:

1. Equation of Motion:
𝑚𝑎 + 𝑏𝑣 + 𝑘𝑥 = F0 cos(ωt)
(where F0 is the external force and ω is its frequency).

2. Resonance:
Happens when the driving frequency matches the natural
frequency, causing maximum amplitude.

Example:

 Bridges vibrating due to wind or marching soldiers.

 Tuning forks and musical instruments.

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 Conclusion
The study of Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) lays a critical
foundation for understanding oscillatory motion, which is vital in
exploring various physical systems. This project delved into the
principles, mathematical formulations, and physical
interpretations of SHM, highlighting its occurrence in both
natural phenomena and engineered systems. From pendulums
and springs to modern technological applications, SHM bridges
theoretical physics and practical use, showcasing its versatility
and relevance.

Moreover, SHM provides a gateway to understanding more

complex oscillatory systems, including damped and forced
motions. Its principles of periodicity, restoring forces, and energy
conservation exemplify its elegance and applicability. By studying
SHM, we unlock insights into repetitive motions that shape our
world, fostering advancements in engineering, acoustics, and
scientific instrumentation. This project emphasizes the enduring
significance of SHM in physics and its pivotal role in solving real-
world problems.

Bibliography
 Arihant All in One for class 11
 NCERT Physics Textbook for Class XI
 Google Images

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