Algebra

The Real Numbers

Real numbers are simply the combination of rational and irrational numbers, in the number system. In
general, all the arithmetic operations can be performed on these numbers and they can be represented
in the number line, also. At the same time, the imaginary numbers are the un-real
numbers, which cannot be expressed in the number line and is commonly used to represent
a complex number.

The Integers and Rational Numbers

To the natural numbers one adjoins their negatives and zero to form the integers. The ratios a/b of the
integers, where a and b are integers and b /= 0, constitute the rational numbers; the integers are those
rational numbers for which b = 1. The rational numbers may also be represented by repeating decimals;
e.g., 1/2 = 0.5000 …, 2/3 = 0.6666 …, 2/7 = 0.285714285714 …

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Negative integers appear, when the greater integer is subtracted from the smaller one resulting to an
overall number less than zero, for instance:

10 – 15 = – 5

The sign “minus” before 5 shows, that this number is negative.

Series of negative integers continue endlessly:

–1, –2, –3, – 4, –5 …

Fractional negative numbers appear, for example, when the greater number is subtracted from the
smaller one:

Also, it is possible to say, that fractional negative numbers appear as a result division of a negative
integer by a natural number:

- 13 ÷ 7 =

Positive numbers in contrast to negative numbers (integers and fractional ones), are the numbers
greater than zero.

Rational numbers – positive and negative numbers (integers and fractional ones) and zero. The more
exact definition of rational numbers, adopted in mathematics, is the following:

A number is called rational, if it may be presented as a simple, not a cancelled fraction of the shape:
m /n,
where m and n are integers.
The decimal expansion for rational number executes finite or recurring decimals

Whole (natural) numbers

Natural numbers – numbers, which appear as a result of counting single subjects: people, animals,
birds, trees and so on. Series of natural numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … is continued endlessly and is called
natural series.

Algebra | 7
 Irrational Numbers

Irrational numbers cannot be presented as a fraction or ratio form and cannot be a cancelled fraction
of the shape: m / n, where m and n are integers. Numbers can be in the form of non-terminating and
non-recurring decimals.
They can appear as results of geometrical measurements, for example:
- a ratio of a square diagonal length to its side length is equal to √2
- a ratio of a circumference length to its diameter length is an irrational number

Examples of another irrational numbers:

Imaginary and Complex Numbers

Consider the pure quadratic equation:

x2 = a

where a – a known value. Its solution may be presented as:

Here the three cases are possible:

1). If a = 0, then x = 0.

2). If a is a positive number, then its square root has two values: one positive and one negative;
for example, the equation x2 = 25 has the two roots: 5 and –5.

This is often written as the root with double sign before:

3). If a – a negative number, then the equation has no solution among known us positive and
negative numbers, because the second power of any number is a non-negative number. But
if we wish to receive solutions of the equation x2 = a also at negative values of a, we are obliged
to introduce the new kind numbers – imaginary numbers. So, a number is imaginary, if its
second power is a negative number. According to this definition of imaginary numbers we can
define an imaginary unit as:

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 Then, for the equation

x2 = – 25

We receive the two imaginary roots:

Substituting both these roots into our equation we’ll receive the identity. Check it, please!

In contrast to imaginary numbers all the rest numbers (positive and negative, integers and
fractional, rational and irrational ones) are called real numbers. A sum of a real and an
imaginary number is called a complex number, and marked as:

a + b i , where a, b – real numbers, i – an imaginary unit.

In more details about complex numbers see the section “Complex numbers”.

Examples of complex numbers: 3 + 4i, 7 – 13.6i, 0 + 25i = 25i, 2 + i

Arithmetic and Number Sense

Addition: 11 + 6 = 17. Here 11 and 6 – addends, 17 – the sum.

Subtraction: 17 – 6 = 11. Here 17 is a minuend, 6 – a subtrahend, 11 – the difference.

Multiplication: To multiply one number n (a multiplicand) by another m (a multiplier) means to repeat

a multiplicand n as an addend m times. The result of multiplying is called a product.

The operation of multiplication is written as: n x m or n · m. For example, 12 x 4 = 12 + 12 + 12 + 12 =

48. In our case 12 x 4 = 48 or 12 · 4 = 48. Here 12 is a multiplicand, 4 – a multiplier, 48 – a product.
If a multiplicand n and a multiplier m are changed by places, their product is saved the same:

12 · 4 = 12 + 12 + 12 + 12 = = 48 and 4 ·12 = 4 +4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 48.

Therefore, a multiplicand and a multiplier are called usually factors or multipliers.

Division: consider 48 ÷ 4= 12. Here 48 is a dividend, 4 – a divisor, 12 – the quotient.

At dividing integers, a quotient can be not a whole number. Then this quotient can be present as a
fraction or a ratio. If a quotient is a whole number, then it is called that numbers are divisible, i.e. one
number is divided without remainder by another. Otherwise, we have a division with remainder. For
example, 23 isn’t divided by 4 ; this case can be written as: 23 = 5 · 4 + 3. Here 3 is a remainder.

Algebra | 9
 Raising to a power: To raise a number to a whole (second, third, fourth, fifth etc.) power means
to repeat it as a factor two, three, four, five and so on. The number, repeated as a factor, is
called a base of a power; the quantity of factors is called an index or an exponent of a power;
the result is called a value of a power. A raising to a power is written as:

35 = 3 · 3 · 3 · 3 · 3 = 243

Here 3 – base of the power, 5 – an exponent (an index) of the power, 243 – a value of
the power. The second power is called a square, the third one – a cube. The first power of any
number is this number.

Extraction of a root – an operation of finding a base of a power by the power and its exponent:

Here 243 – a radicand, 5 – an index (degree) of the root, 3 – a value of the root. The second root
is called a square root, the third root – a cube root. The second degree of square root
isn’t written:

Order of Operations

P Parentheses first
E Exponents (i.e. Powers and Square Roots, etc.)
MD Multiplication and Division (left-to-right)
AS Addition and Subtraction (left-to-right)

If parentheses are absent, the following order of operations is right:

1. raising to a power and extraction of a root (one after another);

2. multiplication and division (one after another);
3. addition and subtraction (one after another).

If parentheses are present, at first all operations inside brackets are executed according to the afore-
said order, and then the rest of the operations out of brackets are executed (in the same order).

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Example:
Calculate the next expression:
(10 + 23 · 3 ) + 43 – ( 16 : 2 – 1 ) · 5 – 150 : 52 .

Solution:
At first, powers must be calculated and changed by theirs values:
(10 + 8 · 3) + 64 – (16: 2 – 1) · 5 – 150: 25;

After this, multiplication and division in the brackets and out of them are executed:
(10 + 24 ) + 64 – ( 8 – 1 ) · 5 – 6 ;

Now, additions and subtractions in the brackets are executed:

34 + 64 – 7 · 5 – 6 ;

Finally, after the rest of the multiplication 7 · 5 = 35 we receive:

34 + 64 – 35 – 6 = 57

Properties of Addition and Multiplication

Commutative property of addition: m + n = n + m. A sum isn’t changed at rearrangement of its ad-

dends.

Commutative property of multiplication: m · n = n · m. A product isn’t changed at rearrangement of

its factors.

Associative property of addition: (m + n) + k = m + (n + k) = m + n + k. A sum doesn’t depend on

grouping of its addends.

Associative property of multiplication: (m · n) · k = m · (n · k) = m · n · k. A product doesn’t depend

on grouping of its factors.

Distributive property of multiplication over addition: (m + n) · k = m · k + n · k. This law expands

the rules of operations with parenthesis

Prime and Composite Numbers

Numbers, which aren’t divisible by any numbers except 1 and itself, are called prime numbers. Num-
bers, which have also other factors, are called composite numbers. There is an infinite set of prime
numbers. The set of them till 200 is:

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43,
47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 101,
103, 107, 109, 113, 127, 131, 137, 139, 149, 151,
157, 163, 167, 173, 179, 181, 191, 193, 197, 199.

Algebra | 11
 Factorization: Resolution into Prime Factors

Any composite number can be presented as a product of prime factors by the single way.
Example: 48 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 3
For large numbers it is possible to use the following way. Consider the number 1463. Look over prime
numbers and stop, if the number is a factor of 1463. According to the divisibility criteria, this number
is divisible by 7, 1463/7 = 209. By the same way we test the number 209 and find its factor: 209: 11 =
19. The last number is a prime one, so the found prime factors of 1463 are: 7, 11 and 19, i.e., 1463 = 7 ·
11 · 19. It is possible to write this process using the following record:

Number Factor
-
...........................................................
1463 7
209 11
19 19
- end
...........................................................

Greatest Common Factor

Common factor of some numbers - a number, which is a factor of each of them. For example, numbers
36, 60, 42 have common factors 2 and 3. Among all common factors there is always the greatest
one, in our case this is 6. This number is called a Greatest Common Factor (GCF).

To find a greatest common factor (GCF) of some numbers it is necessary:

1. To express each of the numbers as a product of its prime factors, for example:

360 =2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 5

2. To write powers of all prime factors in the factorization as:

360 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 5 = 23 · 32 · 51

3. To write out all common factors in these factorizations

4. To take the least power of each of them, meeting in the all factorizations
5. To multiply the common factors having the least power

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 Example: Find GCF for numbers: 168, 180 and 3024
Solution: 168 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 7 = 23 · 3¹ · 71
180 = 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 5 = 2² · 3² · 51

3024 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 3 · 7 = 24 · 33 · 71

Write out the least powers of the common factors 2 and 3 and multiply them:

GCF = 22 · 31 = 12

Least Common Multiple

Common multiple of some numbers is called a number, which is divisible by each of them. For exam-
ple, numbers 9, 18 and 45 have as a common multiple 180. But 90 and 360 are also their common
multiples. Among all common multiples there is always the least one, in our case this is 90. This num-
ber is called a Least Common Multiple (LCM).

To find a Least Common Multiple (LCM) of some numbers it is necessary:

1. To express each of the numbers as a product of its prime factors, for example:

504 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 7

2. To write powers of all prime factors in the factorization as:

504 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 7 = 23 · 3² · 71

3. To write out all prime factors, presented at least in one of these numbers
4. To take the greatest power of each of them, meeting in the factorizations
5. To multiply these numbers having the greatest power

Example: Find LCM for numbers: 168, 180 and 3024.

Solution: 168 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 7 = 2³ · 31 · 7¹
180 = 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 5 = 2² · 3² · 5¹
3024 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 3 · 7 = 24 · 3³ · 7¹

Write out the greatest powers of all prime factors: 24, 3³, 5¹, 71
and multiply them:

LCM = 24 · 3³ · 5 · 7 = 15120

Algebra | 13
 Divisibility Rules

Divisibility by 2. A number is divisible by 2, if its last digit is 0 or is divisible by 2. Numbers, which

are divisible by 2 are called even numbers. Otherwise, numbers are called odd numbers.

Divisibility by 4. A number is divisible by 4, if its two last digits are zeros or they make a two-digit
number, which is divisible by 4.

Divisibility by 8. A number is divisible by 8, if its three last digits are zeros or they make a three-dig-
it number, which is divisible by 8.

Divisibility by 3 and by 9. A number is divisible by 3, if a sum of its digits is divisible by 3. A number

is divisible by 9, if a sum of its digits is divisible by 9.

Divisibility by 6. A number is divisible by 6, if it is divisible by 2 and by 3.

Divisibility by 5. A number is divisible by 5, if its last digit is 0 or 5.

Divisibility by 25. A number is divisible by 25, if its two last digits are zeros or they make a number,
which is divisible by 25.

Divisibility by 10. A number is divisible by 10, if its last digit is 0.

Divisibility by 100. A number is divisible by 100, if its two last digits are zeros.

Divisibility by 1000. A number is divisible by 1000, if its three last digits are zeros.

Divisibility by 11. A number is divisible by 11 if and only if a sum of its digits, located on even places
is equal to a sum of its digits, located on odd places, OR these sums are differed by a number, which
is divisible by 11.

Simple fractions

A part of a unit or some equal parts of a unit is called a vulgar or simple fraction. A number of equal
parts into which a unit has been divided, is called a denominator; a number of these taken parts, is
called a numerator. A fraction record:

Here 3 – a numerator, 7 – a denominator.

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If a numerator is less than a denominator, then the fraction is less than 1 and called a proper fraction.
If a numerator is equal to a denominator, the fraction is equal to 1. If a numerator is greater than a
denominator, the fraction is greater than 1.
In both last cases the fraction is called an improper fraction. If a numerator is divisible by a denomi-
nator, then this fraction is equal to a quotient: 63 / 7 = 9. If a division is executed with a remainder,
then this improper fraction can be presented as a mixed number:

Here 9 – an incomplete quotient (an integer part of the mixed number), 2 – a remainder (a numerator
of the fractional part), 7 – a denominator.

It is often necessary to solve a reverse problem – to convert a mixed number into a fraction. For this
purpose, multiply an integer part of a mixed number by a denominator and add a numerator of a frac-
tional part. It will be a numerator of a vulgar fraction, and its denominator is saved the same.

Reciprocal fractions are two fractions whose product is 1.

Example:
3 / 7 and 7 / 3
15 / 1 and 1 / 15

Algebra | 15
 Operations with simple fractions

Extension of a fraction. A fraction value isn’t changed, if to multiply its numerator and denominator
by the same non-zero number. This transformation of a fraction is called an extension of a fraction.
For instance:

Cancellation of a fraction. A fraction value isn’t changed, if to divide its numerator and denominator
by the same non-zero number. This transformation of a fraction is called a cancellation of a fraction or
lowest term. For instance:

Comparison of fractions. From two fractions with the same numerators that one is more, a denomi-
nator of which is less:

From two fractions with the same denominators that one is more, a numerator of which is more:

To compare two fractions, which have different both numerators and denominators, it is necessary to
extend them to reduce to the same denominators.

Example:
Compare the fractions:

Solution:
Multiply numerator and denominator of the first fraction - by denominator of the second fraction and
numerator and denominator of the second fraction - by denominator of the first fraction:

The used transformation of fractions is called a reducing of fractions to a common denominator.

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Addition and subtraction of fractions. If denominators of fractions are the same, in order to add the
fractions, it is necessary to add their numerators and copy the same denominator; in order to subtract
the fractions, it is necessary to subtract their numerators (in the same order) and copy the same de-
nominator.

If denominators of fractions are different, before these operations it is necessary to reduce fractions
to a common denominator. At addition of mixed numbers, take the sum of integer parts and a sum
of fractional parts separately. At subtracting mixed numbers, it is recommended to reduce the mixed
numbers to improper fractions first, then subtract the fractions and convert the difference into its sim-
plest form (mixed number if necessary).

Example:

Multiplication of fractions. To multiply some number by a fraction means to multiply it by a numer-

ator and to divide a product by a denominator. Hence, we have the general rule for multiplication of
fractions: to multiply one fraction by another it is necessary to multiply separately their numerators and
denominators and to divide the first product by the second.

Example:

Division of fractions. To divide fractions, it is necessary to get the reciprocal of the divisor and then
change the operation into multiplication. This rule follows from the definition of division
Example:

Decimals

Decimal is a result of dividing of unit by ten, hundred, thousand parts etc.

Example:

One of advantages of decimals – they are easily reduced to the shape of simple fractions: a number
after a decimal point (5047 in our case) is a numerator, and the n-th power of 10 (n – a quantity of
decimal places, in our case n = 4) is a denominator:

If a decimal doesn’t contain an integer part, zero is put before a decimal point:

Algebra | 17
 Properties of decimals

1. A decimal will not change by adding zeros to the right of it:

13.6 =13.6000.

2. A decimal fraction will not change by removing zeros located in the end:

0.00123000 = 0.00123

Note: it is prohibited to remove zeros that are not located in the end of a decimal.

3. A decimal fraction will be increased by 10, 100, 1000, …times by moving the decimal point one, two,
three, … places to the right correspondingly:

3.675---> 367.5 (it increases by 100 times)

4. A decimal fraction will be decreased by 10, 100, 1000, …times by moving the decimal point one, two,
three, … places to the right correspondingly:

1536.78 ---> 1.53678 (it decreases by 1000 times)

These properties permit quickly to multiply and to divide decimal fractions by 10, 100, 1000 and so on.

Repeating decimal is a decimal in which a digit or a group of digits repeats endlessly in a pattern.
This group of repeating digits is called a period of decimal and is written with a bar on top of repeating
digits. For instance,
___
Example: If to divide 47 by 11, then the result is 4.27272727…=4.27

Operations with decimal fractions

Addition and subtraction of decimals. These operations are executed as well as an addition and
a subtraction of whole numbers. It is necessary to write the corresponding decimal places one under
another or align the decimal point one under another.

Example:

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Multiplication of decimals. At first stage let’s multiply the fractions as integers, not taking a decimal
point into consideration. After this we use the following rule: a number of decimal places in a product
is equal to a sum of numbers of decimal places in all factors.

Note: before putting the decimal point in the product it is prohibited to disregard zeros at the end of
the product.

Example:

A sum of numbers of decimal places in factors is equal: 3 + 4 = 7. A sum of digits in the product is 6.
Therefore, it is necessary to add one zero to the left: 0197056 and to put before this a decimal point:
0.0197056.

Division of decimals

Division of decimal by integer.

If a dividend is less than a divisor, write zero in integer part of a quotient and put a decimal point after
it. Then, without taking the decimal point into consideration, bring down the next digit of decimal part
together with the integer part and compare the resulting number again with the divisor. If a new num-
ber is again less than a divisor, put one more zero after a decimal point in a quotient and bring down
the next digit. Thus, repeat this process till the resulting dividend would be not more than a divisor.
After this one can fulfill the division as for integers. If a dividend is more than a divisor or equal to it,
divide at first its integer part, write a result of the division in the quotient and put a decimal point. After
this one can continue the division as for integers.

Example: Divide 1.328 by 64

Algebra | 19
Division of decimal by another decimal

First, count the number of times the decimal point has to be moved in the divisor to make it a whole
number. Then, move the decimal point of the dividend by the same exact number of times.
Now, divide as in the previous case.

Example: Divide 0.04569 by 0.0006.

Solution: Transfer the decimal points to 4 places to the right and divide 456.9 by 6:

Converting a Decimal to a Simple Fraction and Back

To convert a decimal to a simple fraction it is necessary: make the digits after the decimal point as the
numerator, and the n-th power of 10 (here n – a quantity of decimal places) - as the denominator. A
non-zero integer part of a decimal is written the same in a simple fraction. For example:

To convert a simple fraction to a decimal it is necessary to divide the numerator by the denominator
according to the division rules.
Example:
1. Convert 5 / 8 to a decimal fraction.

Solution: Dividing 5 by 8, we’ll get 0.625

2. Convert 1 / 3 to a decimal fraction.

__
Solution: Dividing 1 by 3 will be infinite: 1:3 = 0.333…=0.3

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 Percent

Percent is a hundredth part of unit. A record 1% means 0.01. There are three main problems
in percents:

Problem 1: Find an indicated percent of a given number.

Example: A deposit in a bank has an annual increase 6%. A sum of money in the beginning was equal
to Php 10000. How many dollars will the sum be increased by in the end of the year?

Solution: Php 10000 · (6 / 100) = Php 600

Problem 2: Find a number by another given number and its percent value of the unknown number.
Example: A salary by January was equal to Php 15000, that was equal 7.5% of an annual salary. What
was the annual salary?

Solution: Php 15000 / (7.5 / 100) = Php200000.

Problem 3: Find the percent expression of one number by another.

Example: On 2001 a plant has produced 40000 cars; and on 2002 - only 36000 cars. What percent
does it constitute relatively to the output of 2001?

Solution: (36000 / 40000) · 100 = 90%.

Variations

Three types of Variations:

1. Direct Variation
Direct Variation is a relationship between two or more quantities where a change in one quantity in one
direction yields a corresponding change to the other quantities in the same directions. That is, when
one of the quantities increases, all other quantities also increase. Often, such quantities are described
as “directly proportional” to each other.

Example:
Given the formula:
A=l x w
where:
A=area of a rectangle
l=length
w=width

When the length of a rectangle is increased while the width is constant, then the area of the rectangle
also increases. Hence, we say that the area of the rectangle is directly proportional to the length.

Algebra | 21
2. Indirect Variation
Indirect variation describes the given quantities as “inversely proportional” to each other. That is,
when one quantity increases, the other quantity decreases or vice-versa.
Example:
Given the formula:

where:
r=rate
t=time

In doing work, when the time of a worker to do a part of the work increases while the amount of work
is kept constant, then the rate of the worker decreases. That is, the longer it takes the worker to do the
same task, the slower is his speed. Hence, we say that the time it takes the worker to finish his work is
inversely proportional to his rate.

3. Joint Variation
Joint variation is a combination if direct and indirect variation with at least three quantities involved.
Example:
Given the formula:

where,
P=pressure of gas
T=Temperature of gas
n=number of moles
V=volume of gas
R=rationality constant

The formula is known as the ideal gas equation. It tells us that whenever the temperature is increased
while the other quantities on the right side of the equation (R, n, V) are kept constant, the pressure of
the gas increases. On the other hand, when the volume of the gas is increased while the other quanti-
ties on the right side of the equation (T, n, R) are kept constant, the pressure decreases. Hence, we say
that the temperature is directly proportional to the pressure while the volume is inversely proportional
to the pressure.

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 Ratio, Rate, and Proportion

A. Ratio
A ratio is a comparison of two quantities. The ratio of a to b is denoted as:

Example:
A coin purse has 30 coins in it. If there are 10 five-peso coins and 20 one-peso coins, the ratio of
five-peso coins to one-peso coins is expressed as 10/20 or 10:20 and read as 10 is to 20. Or, this can
be expressed in its simplest form, which is ½ or 1:2 and is read as 1 is to 2.

Take note of the order of precedence of the mentioned quantities since the ratio must also be written
in that same order. The example above the asks for the ratio of five-peso coins to one-peso coins so
the number 10, which pertains to the number of five-peso coins, goes before the number 20, which
pertains to the number of one-peso coins and NOT vice versa.

B. Rates
A rate is a ratio of two measurements having different units.

Example:
What is the rate of an object that fell from the top of a 60-storey building in 5 minutes?
Answer: The rate of the object is 60-storey in 5 minutes which is expressed as:

Is read as 12 storeys per minute.

C. Proportion
A proportion is a statement of equivalence between two ratios. When two pairs of numbers have the
same ratio, we say that they are proportional. The proportion of a is to b and c is to d is denoted as:

Note:
b and c, the numbers in the middle, are called the means; while a and d, the numbers at the opposite
ends, are called the extremes.

Example:
5:7 = 21:92
In this proportion, the means are 7 and 21. The extremes are 5 and 92.

Algebra | 23
Two types of Proportion
1. Direct Proportion
A proportion is a direct proportion if the product of the means is equal to the product of the extremes.
That is, given any real number (a, b, c, d) ≠ 0

Direct proportion also means that two (or more) quantities increase or decrease in the same ratio.

Example: An electric pole, 7 meters high, casts a shadow of 5 meters. Find the height of a tree that
casts a shadow of 10 meters under similar conditions.

Solution: Let the height of the tree be x meters. We know that if the height of the pole increases the
length of shadow will also increase in same proportion. Hence, we observe that the height of the tree
and the length of its shadow exist in direct proportion. In other words, height of pole is directly propor-
tional to the length of its shadow. Thus,

2. Indirect Proportion
A proportion is an indirect proportion if the product of the quantities in the first ratio is equal to the
product of the second ratio. That is, given any real number (a, b, c, d)≠0

Two quantities a and b are said to be in inverse proportion if an increase in the quantity a, there will
be a decrease in the quantity b, and vice-versa.

Example: It takes 4 men 6 hours to repair a road. How long will it take 8 men to do the job if they work
at the same rate?

Solution: The number of men is inversely proportional to the time taken to do the job.
Let t be the time taken for the 8 men to finish the job.

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 Percentage, Rate and Base

R B

where:
P= percentage
R=Rate
B=Base

Rate: The rate is the percent

Percentage: The result obtained when a number is multiplied by a percent

Base: The base is the amount you are taking a percent of

Example:
1. Take a look at the following percent sentence: 40 % of 60 is 24

40% is the rate

60 is the base
21 is the percentage

2. Percentage: Finding the percentage of a number

The student answered 80 questions on the mathematics test. 95% of answers were correct.
How many answers were correct?

Solution: Since 95% of 80 answers were correct, the number of correct answers was equal to

Answer. There were 76 correct answers.

3. Rate: Finding what percent of one number is another

An alloy weighs 2.5 pounds. It contains 1.75 pounds of silver. What is the percent of silver in the alloy?

Solution: The percent of silver in the alloy is in the alloy.

Answer. The alloy contains 70% of silver.

Algebra | 25
4. Base: Finding a number when a percent of it is known
Brian bought a printer on sale at the store. The discount was 15%, and Brian saved Php 13.50.
What was the printer original price?

Solution: You are given the discount amount, it is Php 13.50. This is the part P of the original price.
You are given that this part is 15% of the original price. This is the rate R, expressed in percent.

The original price was

= Php 90

Note/s:
To solve percent problems, change them to equations and solve them.
When dealing with numbers in word problems:
- of means to multiply
- is/are/was/were means equal (=)

Essentials of Algebra

Algebra is one among the oldest branches in the history of mathematics that deals with the number
theory, geometry, and analysis. The definition of algebra sometimes states that the study of the math-
ematical symbols and the rules, and it involves the manipulation of these mathematical symbols.

Terminologies:

1. Constant - any real number, A fixed quantity that does not change
Example: 5,4, -2

2. Variable - is a symbol that we assign to an unknown value. It is usually represented by letters such
as x, y, or t.

3. Constant Coefficient - the number that is placed in front of a variable.

Example: 3 × w can be written as 3w and 3 is the coefficient.

Coefficient
4. Algebraic Expressions - a constant, variable or combination of variables and constants involving a
finite number of indicated operations
Example: 3w + 4xy2 + 5

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5. Polynomial - defined as an expression which is composed of variables, constants and exponents,
that are combined using the mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division (No division operation by a variable). Based on the numbers of terms present in the expres-
sion, it is classified as monomial, binomial, and trinomial.

Example: 3x2 – 6x + x3 – 18 is a polynomial

x−2 + 2x + 4 is not a polynomial because one variable has negative exponent.

is not a polynomial because the terms here are bound with division.

6. Term of a polynomial - are the parts of the equation which are generally separated by “+” or “-”
signs. So, each part of a polynomial in an equation is a term.

Example, in a polynomial, say, 2x2 + 5 + 4, the number of terms will be 3 which are 2x2, 5 and 4

7. Monomial - a polynomial with one term

8. Binomial - A polynomial with two terms

9. Trinomial -a polynomial with three terms

10. Degree of a term - sum of the exponents of the variable in a given term
Example: Given the term 6x3y2, the degree of the term is 5

11. Degree of a polynomial - the highest degree/power in the polynomial

Example: Given the polynomial 8y6+2x2+5, the degree of the polynomial is 6

We can find the degree of a polynomial by identifying the highest power of the variable that occurs
in the polynomial. The term with the highest degree is called the leading term because it is usually
written first. The coefficient of the leading term is called the leading coefficient. When a polynomial
is written so that the powers are descending, we say that it is in standard form.

Algebra | 27
 Operations on Polynomials

Addition/Subtraction
Given multiple polynomials, add or subtract them to simplify the expressions
1. Combine like terms.
2. Simplify and write in standard form. Standard form means you start with the leading term, and write
the rest of the terms in descending order by degree.

Example:
1. (12x2+9x−21) + (4x3+8x2−5x+20)
4x3+(12x2+8x2) + (9x−5x) + (−21+20) Combine like terms.
4x3+20x2+4x−1 Simplify.

2. (7x4−x2+6x+1) − (5x3−2x2+3x+2)
7x4−5x3+(−x2+2x2) + (6x−3x) + (1−2) Combine like terms.
7x4−5x3+x2+3x−1 Simplify.

Multiplication
Given the multiplication of two polynomials, use the distributive property to simplify the expression
1. Multiply each term of the first polynomial by each term of the second.
2. Combine like terms.
3. Simplify.

Example:
1. (2x+1)(3x2−x+4)
2x(3x2−x+4)+1(3x2−x+4) Use the distributive property.
(6x3−2x2+8x)+(3x2−x+4) Multiply.
6x3+(−2x2+3x2)+(8x−x)+4 Combine like terms.
6x3+x2+7x+4 Simplify.

A shortcut called FOIL is sometimes used to find the product of two binomials. It is called FOIL
because we multiply the first terms, the outer terms, the inner terms, and then the last terms of each
binomial.

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The FOIL method is simply just the distributive property. We are multiplying each term of the first bi-
nomial by each term of the second binomial and then combining like terms.
1. Example: (2x−18)(3x+3)
6x²+6x−54x−54 Add the products.
6x²+(6x−54x)−54 Combine like terms.
6x²−48x−54 Simplify

Special Products
a(x + y) = ax + ay (Distributive Law)
(x + y)(x − y) = x² − y² (Difference of 2 squares)
(x + y)2 = x² + 2xy + y² (Square of a sum)
(x − y)² = x² − 2xy + y² (Square of a difference)

Division

Splitting the Terms

Split the terms of the polynomial separated by the operator ( '+' or '-' ) between them and simplify each
term. For example, (4x2 - 6x) ÷ (2x) can be solved as shown here. We first take common terms from
the numerators and denominators of both the terms, we get, [(4x²) / (2x)] - [(6x) / (2x)]. Cancelling the
common term 2x from the numerator and the denominator, we get 2x - 3.

Factorization

When you divide polynomials, you may have to factor your polynomials to find a common factor be-
tween the numerator and the denominator. For example: Divide the following polynomial:
(2x² + 4x) ÷ (x + 2)

Both the numerator and denominator have a common factor of (x+2). Thus, the expression can be
written as:

2x (x + 2) / (x + 2)
Canceling out the common term x + 2, we get, 2x.

Algebra | 29
Long Division of Polynomials

When there are no common factors between the numerator and the denominator, or if you can't find
the factors, you can use the long division process to simplify the expression.

Let us go through the algorithm for the long division of polynomials using an example: Divide: (4x² - 5x
- 21) ÷ (x - 3). Here, (4x² - 5x - 21) is the dividend and (x - 3) is the divisor. Observe the division shown
below, followed by the steps.

Step 1. Divide the first term of the dividend (4x²) by the first term of the divisor (x), and put that as the
first term in the quotient (4x).
Step 2. Multiply the divisor by that answer, place the product (4x² - 12x) below the dividend.
Step 3. Subtract to create a new polynomial (7x - 21).
Step 4. Repeat the same process with the new polynomial obtained after subtraction.

Synthetic Division

Step 1. Arrange the terms of the polynomial in descending orders according to degree of the terms
Note: missing terms are replaced by zero coefficient
Step 2. Line-up the coefficients in order obtained in step 1. Equate the divisor to 0.
Step 3. Drop the coefficient of the first term. Multiply this coefficient to the number from the divisor.
Place the product below the coefficient of the second term. This procedure continues to the last co-
efficient.
Step 4. Express the constants in terms of the variables of the polynomials. Subtract 1 for each degree
starting from the first term. The last term indicates the remainder. If this value equals zero, it means
that the divisor is a zero of the polynomial.

Example:

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Binomial Expansion and Pascal’s Triangle
Consider the following expanded powers of (a + b)n, where a + b is any binomial and n is a whole num-
ber. Look for patterns.

Each expansion is a polynomial. There are some patterns to be noted.

1. There is one more term than the power of the exponent, n. That is, there are terms in the expansion
of (a + b)n.

2. In each term, the sum of the exponents is n, the power to which the binomial is raised.

3. The exponents of a start with n, the power of the binomial, and decrease to 0. The last term has no
factor of a. The first term has no factor of b, so powers of b start with 0 and increase to n.

4. The coefficients start at 1 and increase through certain values about "half"-way and then decrease
through these same values back to 1.

Example:

1. Suppose that we want to find an expansion of (a + b)6. The patterns we just noted indicate that there
are 7 terms in the expansion: a6 + c1a5b + c2a4b2 + c3a3b3 + c4a2b4 + c5ab5 + b6.
How can we determine the value of each coefficient, ci? The method involves writing the coefficients
in a triangular array, as follows. This is known as Pascal’s triangle:

Algebra | 31
 Relations and Functions

A relation is a set of ordered pairs.

A function is a relation for which each value from the set the first components of the ordered pairs is
associated with exactly one value from the set of second components of the ordered pair.

{(A,1),(B,2),(C,3)} {(A,1),(B,2),(C,3)} {(A,1),(B,2),(C,3)}

One-to-one Many-to-One One-to-Many
Function Function Not a Function

Vertical Line Test

To perform a vertical line test, draw vertical lines that pass through the curve. For the curve to pass the
test, each vertical line should only intersect the curve once. Passing the vertical line test means it only
has one y value per x value and is a function.

Horizontal Line Test

The horizontal line test is the vertical line test but with horizontal lines instead. For the curve to pass,
each horizontal should only intersect the curve once. Passing the horizontal line test means it only has
one x value per y value.

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Domain and Range

The domain of an equation is the set of all x’s that we can plug into the equation and get back a real
number for y.

The range of an equation is the set of all y’s that we can ever get out of the equation.

When finding the domain, remember:

• The denominator (bottom) of a fraction cannot be zero
• The number under a square root sign must be positive in this section

When finding the range, remember:

• Substitute different x-values into the expression for y to see what is happening. (Ask yourself:
Is y always positive? Always negative? Or maybe not equal to certain values?)
• Make sure you look for minimum and maximum values of y.

Example:
1. Find the domain and range of the function f(x) = x² + 2.

Domain: The function f(x) = x² + 2 is defined for all real values of x (because there are no restrictions
on the value of x). Hence, the domain of f(x) is "all real values of x".

Range: Since x² is never negative, x² + 2 is never less than 2. Hence, the range of f(x) is
"all real numbers f(x)≥2".

We can see that x can take any value in the graph, but the resulting y = f(x) values are greater than or
equal to 2.

Algebra | 33
Operations on functions

Given:
f(x)=3x+2
g(x)=4-5x

1. Addition
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
= [3x + 2] + [4 – 5x]
= 3x + 2 + 4 – 5x
= 3x – 5x + 2 + 4
= –2x + 6

2. Subtraction
(f – g)(x) = f (x) – g(x)
= [3x + 2] – [4 – 5x]
= 3x + 2 – 4 + 5x
= 3x + 5x + 2 – 4
= 8x – 2

3. Multiplication
(f • g)(x) = [f (x)][g(x)]
= (3x + 2)(4 – 5x)
= 12x + 8 – 15x2 – 10x
= –15x2 + 2x + 8

4. Division

5. Composition of Functions

=3(4-5x)+2
=12-15x+2
=14-15x

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 Linear Equations

Linear equations are equations of the first order. These equations are defined for lines in the coordi-
nate system. This is any equation that can be written in the form

ax+by+c=0
where a,b and c are real numbers and x and y are variables.

Terminologies:
1. x-axis and y-axis
Horizontal and vertical lines in the Cartesian plane passing through the origin
2. Abscissa
The x-position of a point in the coordinate plane
3. Ordinate
The y-position of a point in the coordinate plane
4. x-intercept, a
The abscissa of the point where the line intersects the x-axis
5. y-intercept, b
The ordinate of the point where the line intersects the y-axis
6. slope, m
The steepness of a line:

, where (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) are two different points in a line

Note/s:
2 lines, l1 and l2, are said to be parallel if m1=m2, where m1 is the slope of l1 and m2 is the slope of l2
2 lines, l1 and l2, are said to be perpendicular if , where m1 is the slope of l1 and m2 is the
slope of l2

Example:
1. What is the equation of a line parallel to y = -4x + 5 and passing through the point (6,-3)?
The slope of the given line, y = -4x + 5 is -4 (remember y = mx + b).
Since parallel lines have = slopes, our line has a slope of -4.
Use the point -slope form of the equation of a line: y - y1 = m(x - x1).
m = -4 (x1, y1) = (6,-3)

ANSWER: y - (-3) = -4(x - 6)

y + 3 = -4x + 24
y = -4x + 21

Algebra | 35
 Forms of the Equation of a Line

Finding the equation of a line

1. Two different points are given

a. Solve for the slope m
b. Substitute one of the given points in the slope to the point-slope form to get the equation of
the line

2. Another line is given that is either parallel or perpendicular to the unknown line wherein the unknown
line passes through a given point
a. Solve for the slope using the properties of parallel or perpendicular lines
b. Substitute the given point and the computed slope to the point-slope form to get the
equation of the line

Example:
1. Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (-2, 6) with a slope of 3.

Let’s solve this using the point-slope formula which is y - y1 = m (x - x1)

Now, let’s substitute

y - (6) = 3 (x - (-2))
y - (6) = 3 (x + 2)

Now, let’s manipulate this to get the slope intercept form

y - 6 = 3x + 6

Answer: Now, let’s isolate y by adding 6 on both sides.

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y - 6 + 6 = 3x + 6 + 3
y = 3x + 12

Note/s:
-Use algebraic manipulations to change the form of the equation of line to another form.
-To find the distance between two points, use the distance formula:

-To find the midpoint between the two points, use the midpoint formula:

Quadratic Functions

Definition: Quadratic functions are polynomial functions whose degree is 2. Its general form is:

Where a,b and c are real numbers and a≠0

Note:
The roots of a quadratic equation are the values of x which will make the equation true.
Finding the Roots of a quadratic equation
1. By factoring

2. By Quadratic Formula

3. Completing the square

Example:
1.Solve for x:
x2 - 9x + 14 = 0
Solution:
In the given quadratic equation, the coefficient of x2 is 1.
Decompose the constant term +14 into two factors such that the product of the two factors is equal to
+14 and the addition of two factors is equal to the coefficient of x, that is -9.
Then, the two factors of +14 are
-2 and -7
Factor the given quadratic equation using -2 and -7 and solve for x.
(x - 2)(x - 7) = 0
x - 2 = 0 or x - 7 = 0
x = 2 or x = 7
So, the solution is {2, 7}.
Algebra | 37
2. Find the roots of x2+6x+8=0
Where, a=1, b=6 and c=8

Use the quadratic formula

x = 2 and x = -4

3. Completing the square

Consider x² + 4x = 0.

To perform the correct complete the square steps:

- First look at the x-coefficient, here this is 4.
- Half this number, then square it.
4/2 = 2, 22 = 4

- Add this number to both sides of the equation.

x2 + 4x + 4 = 4
- Now the Left Hand Side can be arranged into a square, and solutions can be found.

=> ( x + 2 )2 = 4

=> ( x + 2 ) = + 2

=> x = -2 + 2

=> x = 0 , x = -4

Note/s:
The discriminant, d=b2-4ac, tells what kind of roots a quadratic equation has:
When d›0, then the quadratic equation has 2 distinct real roots
When d=0, then the quadratic equation has 2 equal real roots
When d‹0, then the quadratic equation has 2 distinct imaginary roots
The sum of two roots is given by the formula:

The product of two roots is given by the formula:

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Graphing Quadratic Functions

Key Points
• The graph of a quadratic function is a U-shaped curve called a parabola.
• The sign on the coefficient aa of the quadratic function affects whether the graph opens up
or down. If a<0a<0, the graph makes a frown (opens down) and if a>0a>0 then the graph
makes a smile (opens up).
• The extreme point (maximum or minimum) of a parabola is called the vertex, and the axis of
symmetry is a vertical line that passes through the vertex.
• The x-intercepts are the points at which the parabola crosses the x-axis. If they exist, the
x-intercepts represent the zeros, or roots, of the quadratic function.

Key Terms
• vertex: The point at which a parabola changes direction, corresponding to the minimum or
maximum value of the quadratic function.
• axis of symmetry: A vertical line drawn through the vertex of a parabola around which the
parabola is symmetric.
• zeros: In a given function, the values of xx at which y=0y=0, also called roots.

The graph of a quadratic function is a U-shaped curve called a parabola. This shape is shown below.

The vertex(h, k) where h is the abscissa of the vertex and k is the ordinate of the vertex is given by the
formula:

Note/s:
It is sometimes faster to solve for k by substituting h in the equation of the parabola.

k=f(h)

Algebra | 39
Example:
1. Find the vertex of y=x2+4x−9, where: a=1, b=4, and c=−9.

Step 1. Find the x-coordinate of the vertex

x=−42 . 1
x=−42
x=−2 ← x-coordinate of the vertex

Step 2. Find the y-coordinate of the vertex.

Substitute −2 for x and solve for y.
y=(−2)2+4(−2)−9
y=4−8−9
y=−13 ← y-coordinate of the vertex
The vertex is (−2,−13).

Advanced Algebra

A. Lines and Slopes

Parallel lines have equal slopes
Perpendicular lines have slopes that are negative reciprocals of each other

B. Intersecting lines
Lines intersect at point (x,y) if the values of their functions are equal at x.

A. Distance between two points

B. Midpoint

Systems of Linear Equations

A system of linear equations is just a set of two or more linear equations.

In two variables (x and y), the graph of a system of two equations is a pair of lines in the plane.

There are three possibilities:

• The lines intersect at zero points. (The lines are parallel.)
• The lines intersect at exactly one point. (Most cases.)
• The lines intersect at infinitely many points. (The two equations represent the same line.)

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Zero solutions:
y=−2x+4y=−2x−3y=−2x+4y=−2x−3

One solution: Infinitely many solutions:

y=0.5x+2y=−2x−3y=0.5x+2y=−2x−3 y=−2x−4y+4=−2xy=−2x−4y+4=−2x

• The Graphing Method . Just graph the two lines, and the zero is the intersection of the two lines.
• The Substitution Method . First, solve one linear equation for y in terms of x. Then substitute that
expression for y in the other linear equation. You'll get an equation in x. Solve this, and you have the x
-coordinate of the intersection. Then plug in xx to either equation to find the corresponding y
-coordinate.

Algebra | 41
Example:
Solve the system: (1) 3x+2y=167
(2) x+y=19
Solution:
Solve the second equation for y.
y=19−7x

Substitute 19−7x for y in the first equation and solve for x.

3x+2(19−7x) =16
3x+38−14x=16
−11x=−22
x=2

Substitute 2 for x in y=19−7x and solve for y.

y=19−7(2)
y=5
The solution is (2,5).

• The Elimination Method. Add (or subtract) a multiple of one equation to (or from) the other equa-
tion, in such a way that either the x -terms or the y -terms cancel out. Then solve for x (or y, whichever's
left) and substitute back to get the other coordinate.

Example:
Solve the system: (1) 4x+3y=−2
(2) 8x−2y=12

Solution:
Multiply the first equation by −2 and add the result to the second equation.
−8x−6y=4   
8x−2y=12
−−−−−−−−−−−            
  −8y=16

Solve for y .
y=−2
Substitute for y in either of the original equations and solve for x .
4x+3(−2)=−2
4x−6=−2
4x=4
x=1
The solution is (1,−2) .

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 Composite Functions

A composite function is generally a function that is written inside another function. Composition of a
function is done by substituting one function into another function.
(f o g) (x) = f [g (x)]

Example:
Given the functions f (x) = x² + 6 and g (x) = 2x – 1, find (f o g) (x).

Solution:
Substitute x with 2x – 1 in the function f(x) = x² + 6.
(f o g) (x) = (2x – 1)² + 6 = (2x – 1) (2x – 1) + 6

Apply FOIL

= 4x² – 4x + 1 + 6
= 4x² – 4x + 7

Inverse of a Function

If f(x) is a one-to-one function, then the inverse of f(x), denoted by f-1(x), is the set of all ordered pairs
(x,y) such that f-1(f(x))=1.
Steps in getting the inverse of a function
1. Solve for x in terms of y. The function obtained will be f-1(y).
2. Interchange x and y in f-1(y) to get f-1(x).

Example:
The function: f(x)=2x+3

Solution:
Put "y" for "f(x)": y=2x+3
Subtract 3 from both sides: y-3=2x
Divide both sides by 2: (y-3)/2=x
Swap sides: x=(y-3)/2

Answer: (put "f-1(y)" for "x"): f-1(y)=(y-3)/2

Algebra | 43
 Theory of Equations

f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x +a0

where an≠0, n›0

an is the leading coefficient

a0 is the constant term

A. Remainder theorem
According to this theorem, if we divide a polynomial P(x) by a factor ( x – a); that isn’t essentially
an element of the polynomial; you will find a smaller polynomial along with a remainder. This
remainder that has been obtained is actually a value of P(x) at x = a, specifically P(a).

Example:
if f(a) = a3-12a2-42 is divided by (a-3) then the quotient will be a2-9a-27 and the remainder is -123.
if we put, a-3 = 0
then a = 3
Hence, f(a) = f(3) = -123
Thus, it satisfies the remainder theorem.

B. Factor Theorem
Factor Theorem is generally applied to factoring and finding the roots of polynomial equations. It is
the reverse form of the remainder theorem. Problems are solved based on the application of synthetic
division and then to check for a zero remainder.

When p(x) = 0 then y-x is a factor of the polynomial. Or if we consider the other way, then When y-x
is a factor of the polynomial then p(x) =0.

B. Rational Root Theorem

The list of all possible roots given function, f(x), can be obtained by getting the list of , where the
value of p takes all the value of any factors of the constant term and q takes all the value of any of the
factors of the leading coefficient.

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D. Descartes’ Rule of signs
1. Maximum number of positive real roots – number of sign changes in f(x)
2. Maximum number of negative real roots – number of sign changes in f(-x)

E. Upper Bound and Lower Bound

1. The divisor is a lower bound if the coefficients have alternating signs
(positive-negative-positive or negative-positive-negative). If the divisor is a lower bound, then
all the possible roots whose value is less than the divisor can’t be a root of the function.
2. The divisor is an upper bound if all the coefficients have positive signs. If the divisor is an
upper bound, then all the possible roots whose value is greater than the divisor can’t be a root
of the function.

Example:

Determine the number of positive and negative real zeros for the given function:

f(x)=x5+4x4−3x2+x−6

First, make sure that the function is arranged in descending powers of the variable. Second, count the
number of changes in sign for the coefficients of f(x).

Here are the coefficients of our variable in f(x):

1+4−3+1−6

The variables go from positive (1) to positive (4) to negative (-3) to positive (1) to negative (-6).

Between the first two coefficients there are no change in signs but between the second and third, there
is a first change, then between the third and fourth, there is a second change and between the 4th and
5th coefficients, there is a third change of coefficients.
Descartes´ rule of signs tells us that there are exactly 3 real positive zeros or less but an odd number
of zeros. Hence, the number of positive zeros must then be either 3, or 1.
In order to find the number of negative zeros we find f(-x) and count the number of changes in sign
for the coefficients:

f(−x) = (−x)5+4(−x)4−3(−x)2+(−x)−6=
=−x5+4x4−3x2−x−6

There are two changes of signs, hence there are two negative zeros or less but an even number of
zeros.

Totally, we have 3 or 1 positive zeros or 2 or 0 negative zeros.

Note: The theories discussed will help us determine the zeros of the function.

Algebra | 45
 Inequality

An inequality compares two values, showing if one is less than, greater than, or simply not equal to
another value.

a ≠ b says that a is not equal to b

a < b says that a is less than b

a > b says that a is greater than b

a ≤ b means that a is less than or equal to b

a ≥ b means that a is greater than or equal to b.

Trichotomy Property
The trichotomy property states that if a and b are real numbers, then either one of the following state-
ments are true: a > b or a < b or a=b .

Linear Inequalities

1. Non-strict Inequality (Inclusive)

The inequalities "≤" and "≥" allow the variable to equal the number to which it's being compared.

2. Strict Inequality (Exclusive)

The inequalities we've already worked with—the ones involving the symbols "<" and ">"—are called strict
inequalities, because the variable isn't allowed to equal the number to which it's being compared.

3. Continued Inequality
Strict or non-strict inequality which involves 3 quantities.

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 Properties of Inequalities

Addition property:
If x < y, then x + z < y + z
Example: Suppose Sylvia's weight < Jennifer's weight, then Sylvia's weight + 4 < Jennifer's weight + 4
Or suppose 1 < 4, then 1 + 6 < 4 + 6

If x > y, then x + z > y + z

Example: Suppose Sylvia's weight > Jennifer's weight, then Sylvia's weight + 9 > Jennifer's weight + 9
Or suppose 4 > 2, then 4 + 5 > 2 + 5

Subtraction property:
If x < y, then x − z < y − z
Example: Suppose Sylvia's weight < Jennifer's weight, then Sylvia's weight − 4 < Jennifer's weight − 4
Or suppose 4 < 8, then 4 − 3 < 8 − 3

If x > y, then x − z > y − z

Example: Suppose Sylvia's weight > Jennifer's weight, then Sylvia's weight − 9 > Jennifer's weight − 9
Or suppose 8 > 3, then 8 − 2 > 3 − 2

Multiplication property:
z>0
If x < y, and z > 0 then x × z < y × z
Example: Suppose 2 < 5, then 2 × 10 < 5 × 10 ( Notice that z = 10 and 10 > 0)

If x > y, and z > 0 then x × z > y × z

Example: Suppose 20 > 10, then 20 × 2 > 10 × 2

z<0
If x < y, and z < 0 then x × z > y × z
Example: Suppose 2 < 5, then 2 × -4 > 5 × -4 ( -8 > -20. z = -4 and -4 < 0 )

If x > y, and z < 0 then x × z < y × z

Example: Suppose 5 > 1, then 5 × -2 < 1 × -2 ( -10 < -2 )

Algebra | 47
Division property:
It works exactly the same way as multiplication
z>0

If x < y, and z > 0 then x ÷ z < y ÷ z

Example: Suppose 2 < 4, then 2 ÷ 2 < 4 ÷ 2

If x > y, and z > 0 then x ÷ z > y ÷ z

Example: Suppose 20 > 10, then 20 ÷ 5 > 10 ÷ 5

z<0
If x < y, and z < 0 then x ÷ z > y ÷ z
Example: Suppose 4 < 8, then 4 ÷ -2 > 8 ÷ -2 ( -2 > -4 )

If x > y, and z < 0 then x ÷ z < y ÷ z

Example: Suppose 5 > 1, then 5 ÷ -1 < 1 ÷ -1 ( -5 < -1 )

Transitive property:
If x > y and y > z, then x > z
Example: Suppose 10 > 5 and 5 > 2, then 10 > 2

x < y and y < z, then x < z

5 < 10 and 10 < 20, then 5 < 20

Example:
1. Solve: 2 (x – 4) ≥ 3x – 5

Solution
2 (x – 4) ≥ 3x – 5
Apply the distributive property to remove the parentheses.
2x – 8 ≥ 3x – 5

Add both sides by 8.

2x – 8 + 8 ≥ 3x – 5 + 8
2x ≥ 3x + 3

Subtract both sides by 3.

2x – 3x ≥ 3x + 3 – 3x
-x ≥ 3
x≤–3

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2. Calculate the range of values of y which satisfies the inequality: y − 4 < 2y + 5.
Solution
Add both sides of the inequality by 4.
y – 4 + 4 < 2y + 5 + 4
y < 2y + 9

Subtract both sides by 2y.

y – 2y < 2y – 2y + 9
−y < 9 Multiply both sides of the inequality by −1 and change the direction of the inequality symbol.

Answer: y > − 9

Quadratic Inequality

Example:
Solve –x2 + 4 < 0.
First, look at the associated two-variable equation, y = –x2 + 4, and consider where its graph is below
the x-axis. To do this, determine where the graph crosses the x-axis. That is, find where –x2 + 4 is equal
to zero:

–x² + 4 = 0
x² – 4 = 0
(x + 2)(x – 2) = 0
x = –2 or x = 2

This says that the quadratic crosses the x-axis at x = –2 and at x = 2. Critical numbers are 2 and -2.
These zeroes divide the number line into three intervals:

x < -2 -2 < x <2 x>2

Algebra | 49
 (x+2) (x-2) (x+2)(x-2)

(-ꝏ, -2) - - +

-2 0 -4 0

(-2,2) + - -

2 4 0 0

(2, +ꝏ) + + +

Now, figure out where (that is, on which intervals) the graph is below
the axis. But that's easy! Since this is a "negative" quadratic, its graph
is an upside-down parabola.

In other words, the graph is high (above the axis) in the middle, and
low (below the axis) on the ends:

To solve the original inequality, find the intervals where the graph is
below the axis (so the y-values are less than zero).

The graph together with the zeroes found above, tells that the solution
is on intervals on either end, rather than the interval in the middle:
Then the solution is clearly:

x < –2 or x > 2

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 Absolute Inequality

The absolute value of a number is the distance of a value from the origin, regardless of the direction.
When solving absolute value inequalities, there are two cases to consider.
Case 1: The expression inside the absolute value symbols is positive.
Case 2: The expression inside the absolute value symbols is negative.

• Solve | 2x – 3 | > 5.
The first thing I need to do is clear the absolute-value bars by splitting the inequality into two pieces.
Then I'll solve the two regular inequalities.

| 2x – 3 | > 5
-(2x-3) > 5 or 2x – 3 > 5
2x – 3 < –5 or 2x – 3 > 5

This is the pattern for "greater than" absolute-value inequalities.

2x < –2 or 2x > 8

Get the union of the two cases: x < –1 or x > 4

This PAIR of inequalities is the solution to the original absolute-value inequality.

x < –1 or x > 4
Answer: (-∞, -1) U (4, +∞)

Exponents

24=16

This quantity is read as two to the fourth power. That is, 2 is to be multiplied to itself 4 times. In this
example, 2 is called the base, 4 as the exponent and 16 as the product.

2x2x2x2=16

Base: the number to be multiplied to itself

Exponent: a number written as a superscript to the base which indicates the number of times the base
is to be multiplied by itself

Product: the product obtained by multiplying the base by itself one or more times

Algebra | 51
 Laws of exponents

Rule Name Rule Example

an . am = an+m 23 . 24 = 23+4 = 128

Product rules
an . bn = (a . b)n 32 . 42 = (3 . 4)2 = 144

an / am = an-m 25 / 23 = 25-3 = 4
Quotient Rules
an / bn = (a / b)n 43 / 23 = (4/2)3 = 8

.m .2
(bn)m = bn (23)2 = 23 = 64

b
nm = b(nm) 2
32 = 2(32)= 512
Power Rules
m
√(bn) = bn/m 2
√(26) = 26/2 = 8

b1/n = n√b 81/3 = 3√8 = 2

Negative Exponents b-n = 1 / bn 2-3 = 1/23 = 0.125

b0 = 1 50 = 1
Zero Rules
0n = 0 , for n>0 05 = 0

b1 = b 51 = 5
One Rules
1n = 1 15 = 1

Radicals

The definition of the radical: If n is a positive integer that is greater than 1 and a is a real number then,

where n is called the index, a is called the radicand, and the symbol √ is called the radical. The left
side of this equation is often called the radical form and the right side is often called the exponent
form.

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Example
1. Simplify:3√(-432x7y5)

Solution
• To solve such a problem, first determine the prime factors of the number inside the radical.
432 = 2 x 2 x 2 x2 x 3 x 3 x 3

• Because, it is cube root, then our index is 3.

–3
√(2 x 2 x 2 x2 x 3 x 3 x 3 x x 7 x y 5)

• Extract each group of variables from inside the radical, and these are: 2, 3, x, and y.
-2 x 3 x y 3 x x√(2xy2)

• Multiply the variables both outside and inside the radical.

-6xy3√(2xy 2)

2. Simplify: √252

Solution
• Find the prime factors of the number inside the radical.
252 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 7

• Find the index of the radical and for this case, our index is two because it is a square root. Therefore,
we need two of a kind.
√ (2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 7)

• Now pull each group of variables from inside to outside the radical. In this case, the pairs of 2 and 3
are moved outside.
2 x 3 √7

• By multiplication, simplify both the expression inside and outside the radical to get the final answer
as:
6 √7

Algebra | 53
 Logarithms

The inverse of exponential function. A logarithm is the power to which a number must be raised in
order to get some other number.

with restrictions a>0, a≠1 and b>0

Types of Logarithms

Briggsian or Common Logarithm

-the base a is equal to 10. Written as log10x = logx

Natural or Napierian Logarithm

-the base is equal to e, which is equal to 2.71928
-the inverse of the natural exponential function

Laws of Logarithms
The rules of logarithms are:

1. Product Rule
The logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of the factors.

logaxy = logax + logay

2. Quotient Rule
The logarithm of a quotient is the logarithm of the numerator minus the logarithm of the denominator.

3. Power Rule
loga xn = nlogax

4. Change of Base Rule

where x and y are positive, and a > 0, a ≠ 1

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Example:
Simplify the following, expressing each as a single logarithm:

1. log24 + log25
2. loga28 – loga4
3. 2 loga5 – 3 loga2

Solution:
1. log24 + log25 = log2(4 × 5) = log220
2. loga28 – loga4 = loga(28 ÷ 4) = loga7
3. 2loga5 – 3loga2 = loga52 – loga23 = loga

Example:
1. Evaluate 2log3 5 + log340 – 3log3 10
Solution:
1. 2 log3 5 + log3 40 – 3 log3 10
= log3 52 + log3 40 – log3 103
= log3 25 + log3 40 – log3 1000

= log3

= log3 1
=0

2. Given that log2 3 = 1.585 and log2 5 = 2.322, evaluate log4 15

Solution:

The Properties of Logarithms and Applications

1. loga 1 = 0 since a0 = 1
2. loga a = 1 since a1 = a
3. loga ax = x since ax = ax

Algebra | 55
 Word Problems
1. Read the problem.
2. Determine what is known and what needs to be found (what is unknown).
3. Try a few numbers to get a general idea of what the solution could be.
4. Write an equation.
5. Solve the equation by inverse operations or by plugging in values.
6. Check your solution--does it satisfy the equation? Does it make sense in the context of the problem?
(e.g. A length should not be negative.)
Translation from words to Algebraic Expressions
Verbal Expression Mathematical Expression
Addition
The sum of a number and 8 x+8
5 more than a number X+5
4 plus a number 4+x
25 added to a number x+25
A number increased by 9 x+9
The sum of two numbers x+y
Subtraction
4 less than a number x-4

14 minus a number 14-x

A number decreased by 11 x-11
A number subtracted from 18 x-18
The difference between two numbers x-y
4 less a number 4-x
Multiplication
15 times a number 15x
Twice a number 2x
Thrice a number 3x
A number multiplied by 8 8x
½ of a number ½x
The product of two numbers
Division

The quotient of 9 and a number

A number divided by 7

The ratio of two numbers

The quotient of two numbers

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Example:
1. Thrice a number, decreased by 5 is 31.
2. The sum of a number and twice the number is 16.
3. The product of a number and 11, decreased by 10, is 45.
4. The quotient of a number minus 6 is 2.
5. The quotient of a number and 4, plus the number, is 12.

Answer:

Subtraction and Division are not commutative operations, it is important to correctly translate expres-
sions involving them.

Number relation problems

Problem 1. The product of the two numbers is 120. The smaller number is 2 less than the larger num-
ber. What is the sum of the two numbers?

Solution:
Let x – be the larger number
x-2 – be the smaller number

The product of these two numbers is 120, then this will be the equation.
x(x-2)=120

Simplify to get the value of x.

x(x-2 )= 120
x²-2x=120
x²-2x-120=0
(x-12)(x+10)=0
x-12=0, x+10=0
x=12, x=-10

Since the number is positive, the value of x will be 12 or x=12.

To obtain the value of the smaller number, substitute the value of x.

x-2 = 12-2 = 10
The value of the smaller number is 10.
Finally, we are going to add the numbers to obtain the sum.
12+10= 22

Answer: The sum of the two numbers is 22.

Algebra | 57
Problem 2. A number multiplied by 4 less than itself is equal to 24 more than itself.
What is the number?
Solution:
Let x be the number
This will be the equations:
x(x-4) and 24+x
Equate these two equations:
x(x-4) = 24+x
x²-4x = 24+x
x²-4x-x-24=0
x²-5x-24=0
(x-8)(x+3)=0
x=8, x=-3
Since the number is a positive, the value of x will be 8 or x=8.
Answer: The number is 8.

Problem 3. The sum of three numbers is 48. The second number is twice the first number and the third
number is thrice the first number. What are the numbers?

Solution:
Let
x be the first number
2x be the second number
3x be the third number

The sum of the three numbers is 48 then this will be the equation.
x+2x+3x=48

Simplify to get the value of x.

x+2x+3x=48
6x=48
6x/6=48/6
x=8

Since the value of the first number is 8, we can easily find the remaining numbers.
To get the second number:
2x = 2(8) = 16
To get the third number:
3x = 3(8) = 24

Answer:
First Number: 8
Second Number: 16
Third Number: 24

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 Consecutive numbers

Problem 1. Sum of 3 consecutive odd integers is -3, what are the integers?

Solution
A number is odd if it has the following format: 2n + 1
Let 2n + 1 be the first odd integer
Let 2n + 3 be the second odd integer
Let 2n + 5 be the third odd integer

Since the sum is equal to -3, we get the following equation:

2n + 1 + 2n + 3 + 2n + 5 = -3
2n + 2n + 2n + 1 + 3 + 5 = -3
6n + 9 = -3
6n + 9 - 9 = -3 - 9
6n + 0 = -12
6n = -12

Divide both sides by 6

6n / 6 = -12 / 6
n = -2

The first odd integer is 2n + 1 = 2 × -2 + 1 = -4 + 1 = -3

The second odd integer is 2n + 3 = 2 × -2 + 3 = -4 + 3 = -1
The third odd integer is 2n + 5 = 2 × -2 + 5 = -4 + 5 = 1

Answer: The 3 consecutive odd integers are -3, -1, and 1

Indeed -3 + -1 + 1 = -3 + 0 = -3

Algebra | 59
 Digit Problem

Problem 1. The digit at the ten’s place of a two-digit number is twice the digit at the unit’s place. If the
sum of this number and the number formed by reversing the digits is 66. Find the number.

Solution:
Let the unit place digit = x
Ten’s place digit = 2x

Number formed = 10(2x) + x = 20 x + x = 21x

Reversing the digit:
Unit digit = 2x
Ten’s digit = x

New number formed = 10 (x) + 2x = 10x + 2x = 12x

As the sum of the number is 66.

21x + 12 x = 66
33x = 66
X=2
So unit digit = 2
Number = 21x = 21(2)

Number= 42

Problem 2. The sum of digits of two-digit number is 12. If the new number formed by reversing the
digits is less than the original number by 54 .Find the original number.

Solution:
Let the unit digit = x
Ten’s digit = 12 –x
Original number = 10( 12 –x ) + x
= 120 – 10x + x
Original number = 120 – 9x

Reversing the digits:

Unit digit = 12 – x
Ten’s digit = x
New number = 10x + 12 – x
New number = 9x +12

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As new number is less than the original number by 54
9x +12 = 120 – 9x -54
9x +12 = 66 – 9x
9x + 9x = 66 -12
18 x = 54
X=3

Original number = 120 – 9x

= 120 – 9(3)
= 120 – 27

Answer: Original number = 93

Age Problems

Problem 1. Cary is 9 years older than Dan. In 7 years, the sum of their ages will equal 93.
Find both of their ages.

Solution:
Let
x = Dan's age now
x + 9 = Cary's age now (Cary is 9 years older than Dan)

x + 7 = Dan's age in 7 years

x + 16 = Cary's age in 7 years

x + 7 + x + 16 = 93 (in seven years the sum of their ages will be 93)

2x + 23 = 93 (combined like terms)
2x = 70 (subtracted 23 from both sides)
x = 35 (divided both sides by 35)
x + 9 = 44 (substituted 35, in for x, into x + 9)

Answer: Dan is 35
Cary is 44

Algebra | 61
Problem 2. Fred is 4 times as old as his niece, Selma. Ten years from now, he will be twice as old as
she will be. How old is each now?

Solution
Let
x = Selma's age now
4x = Fred's age now (Fred is 4 times as old as Selma)

x + 10 = Selma's age in 10 years

4x + 10 = Fred's age in 10 years

4x + 10 = 2(x + 10) (his age in 10 years is twice her age in 10 years)

4x + 10 = 2x + 20 (used distributive property)
2x + 10 = 20 (subtracted 2x from both sides)
2x = 10 (subtracted 10 from both sides)
x = 5 (divided both sides by 2)
4x = 20 (substituted 5, in for x, into 4x)

Answer:
Selma is 5 now
Fred is 20 now

Mixture Problems

Problem 1. Coffee worth Php 1.05 per pound is mixed with coffee worth 85¢ per pound to obtain 20
pounds of a mixture worth 90¢ per pound. How many pounds of each type are used?

First, circle what you are trying to find— how many pounds of each type. Now, let the number of pounds
of Php 1.05 coffee be denoted as x. Therefore, the number of pounds of 85¢-per-pound coffee must be
the remainder of the twenty pounds, or 20 – x. Now, make a chart for the cost of each type
and the total cost.

Cost Per Pound Amount in Lbs. Total Cost of Each

Php 1.05 coffee 1.05 x 1.05 x
Php 0.85 coffee 0.85 x 20–x = 0.85(20–x)
mixture 0.90 20 0.90(20)

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Now, set up the equation.

Therefore, five pounds of coffee worth Php 1.05 per pound are used. And 20 – x, or 20 – 5, or fifteen
pounds of 85¢-per-pound coffee are used.

Problem 2. Solution A is 50% hydrochloric acid, while solution B is 75% hydrochloric acid. How many
liters of each solution should be used to make 100 liters of a solution which is 60% hydrochloric acid?

First, determine what you're trying to find— liters of solutions A and B. Now, let x stand for the number
of liters of solution A. Therefore, the number of liters of solution B must be the remainder of the 100
liters, or 100 – x. Next, make the following chart.

% of acid liters concentration of acid

solution A 50% x .50 x
solution B 75% 100–x .75(100–x)
new solution 60% 100 .60(100)

Now, set up the equation.

Therefore, using the chart, 60 liters of solution A and 40 liters of solution B are used.

Algebra | 63
 Work Problems

For any work problem, the working equation is:

WORK= RATE x TIME

where a and b are the lengths of time for doing a piece of work individually.

Problem 1. Ernie can plow a field alone in four hours. It takes Sid five hours to plow the same field
alone. If they work together (and each has a plow), how long will it take to plow the field?

First, circle what you must find— how long …together. Work problems of this nature may be solved by
using the following equation.

Therefore,

Finding a common denominator

Cross multiplying

Therefore, it will take them hours working together.

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Problem 2. One pipe can fill a pool 1.25 times as fast as a second pipe. When both pipes are opened,
they fill the pool in five hours. How long would it take to fill the pool if only the slower pipe is used?

My first step is to list the times taken by each pipe to fill the pool, and how long the two pipes take
together. In this case, working "together" time is known, but not the individual times. One of the pipes'
time is expressed in terms of the other pipe's time, so pick a variable to stand for one of these times.

Take note on how to work with that "1.25 times as fast" part. Try doing similar computations with simpler
numbers. For instance, if the faster pipe filled the pool 2 times as fast as the second pipe, then it would
take one-half as long to fill the pool; ½ is the reciprocal of 2. If the faster pipe filled the pool 3 times
as fast as the second pipe, then it would take one-third as long to fill the pool; is the reciprocal of 3.

Following this same reasoning of using the reciprocal, since the faster pipe fills the pool 1.25= (5/4) as
fast as does the second pipe, then it takes (4/5) as long as does the second pipe to fill the pool.

Since the faster pipe's time to completion is defined in terms of the second pipe's time, pick a variable
for the slower pipe's time, and then use this to create an expression for the faster pipe's time:

Hours to complete job:

slow pipe: s

fast pipe:

together: 5

Next, convert all of the completion times to per-hour rates:

completed per hour:

slow pipe:

fast pipe:

together:

Then make the necessary assumption that the pipes' contributions are additive, add the two pipes'
contributions, and set this equal to the combined per-hour rate:
adding their labor:

multiply by 20s (being the lowest common denominator of all the fractional terms):
20 + 25 = 4s
45 = 4s
45/4 = 11.25 = s
The time of the slower pipe is being asked, so the answer is:
The slower pipe takes 11.25 hours.
Algebra | 65
 Motion Problems

Motion problems are based on the formula

d = rt
where d = distance, r = rate and t = time.

How to solve Motion or Distance Word Problems?

Step 1: Draw a diagram to represent the relationship between the distances involved in the problem.
Step 2: Set up a chart based on the formula: rate × time = distance.
Step 3: Use the chart to set up one or more equations.
Step 4: Solve the equations.

Problem 1. How long will it take a bus traveling 72 km/hr to go 36 kms?

First, determine what is being asked— how long will it take (time). Motion problems are solved by using
the equation below:

Therefore, simply substitute: 72 km/hr is the rate (or speed) of the bus, and 36 km is the distance.

Therefore, it will take ½ hour for the bus to travel 36 km at 72 km/hr.

Problem 2. How fast in miles per hour must a car travel to go 600 miles in 15 hours?

First, determine what is being asked— how fast (rate). Now, using the equation d = rt, simply substitute
600 for distance and 15 for time.

So, the rate is 40 miles per hour.

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Problem 3. Mrs. Smith leaves Burbank at 9 a.m. and drives west on the Ventura Freeway at an average
speed of 50 miles per hour. Ms. Santiago leaves Burbank at 9:30 a.m. and drives west on the Ventura
Freeway at an average speed of 60 miles per hour. At what time will Ms. Santiago overtake Mrs. Smith,
and how many miles will they each have gone?

First, determine what is being asked— at what time and how many miles. Now, let t stand for the time
Ms. Santiago drives before overtaking Mrs. Smith. Then Mrs. Smith drives for hours before being
overtaken. Next, set up the following chart.

rate r time t distance d

Ms. Santiago 60 mph t 60 t
x =
Mrs. Smith 50 mph

Because each travels the same distance,

Ms. Santiago overtakes Mrs. Smith after 2.5 hours of driving. The exact time can be figured out by us-
ing Ms. Santiago's starting time: 9:30 + 2:30 = 12 noon. Since Ms. Santiago has traveled for 2.5 hours
at 60 mph, she has traveled 2.5 × 60, which is 150 miles. So, Mrs. Smith is overtaken at 12 noon, and
each has traveled 150 miles.

Problem 4. John and Philip who live 14 miles apart start at noon to walk toward each other at rates of
3 mph and 4 mph respectively. After how many hours will they meet?

Solution:
Let x = time walked.
3x + 4x = 14
7x = 14
x=2
r t d
John 3 x 3x
Philip 4 x 4x

They will meet in 2 hours.

Note/s:

Condition Effective rate Legend

Tailwind/Downstream x+y Plane/boat rate=x
Headwind/Upstream x-y Wind/current rate=y

Algebra | 67
 Clock Problems

In clock problems, if x is the number of minutes travelled by the minute hand, then x/12 is that of the
hour hand.

Problem 1. The current time is exactly 3 in the morning. At what time will the minute hand and the
hour hand coincide?

Solution:
The hour hand and minute hand are initially 15 minutes apart with the hour hand leading. If x is the
number of minutes that will be travelled by the minute hand, the equation will be:

x=16.3636 minutes

Therefore, at 3 hours and 16.36 minutes, the hour hand and the minute hand coincide.

Business Mathematics

Denomination Problems

Problem 1. Tamar has four more quarters than dimes. If he has a total of $1.70, how many quarters
and dimes does he have?

First, determine what is being asked— how many quarters and dimes. Let x stand for the number of
dimes, then x + 4 is the number of quarters. Therefore, 0.10 x is the total value of the dimes, and 0.25(
x + 4) is the total value of the quarters. Setting up the following chart can be helpful.

number value amount of money

dimes x .10 .10x
quarters x+4 .25 .25(x + 4)
Now, use the table and problem to set up an equation.

So, there are two dimes. Since there are four more quarters, there must be six quarters.

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Problem 2. Sid has $4.85 in coins. If he has six more nickels than dimes and twice as many quarters
as dimes, how many coins of each type does he have?

First, circle what you must find— the number of coins of each type. Let x stand for the number of dimes.
Then x + 6 is the number of nickels, and 2 x is the number of quarters. Setting up the following chart
can be helpful.

number value amount of money

dimes x .10 .10x
nickels x+6 .05 .05(x + 6)
quarters 2x .25 .25(2x)

Now, use the table and problem to set up an equation.

So, there are seven dimes. Therefore, there are thirteen nickels and fourteen quarters.

Discounts

Problem 1. Ned got a 12% discount when he bought his new jacket. If the original price, before the
discount, was $50, how much was the discount?

Let
x = amount of the discount.
12% of 50 dollars = the amount of the discount (x).
(12/100) * 50 = x.
6 = x.

This means that Ned's 12% off amounted to a $6 discount.

Algebra | 69
Markup

Problem 1. A golf store pays its wholesaler $40 for a certain club, and then sells it to a golfer for $75.
What is the markup rate?

Markup % = (selling price – cost) / cost x 100

where the markup formula is dependent on,
Selling Price = the final sale price
Cost = the cost of the good

Solution:
Cost price (C.P) = $40
Selling price (S.P) = $75
Mark up value = 75 - 40 = $35
Mark up rate = (35 / 40) . 100% = 87.5%

So, the mark up rate is 87.5 %.

Markdown

Note/s: Markup tells how much is the increase there is in the prices, while markdown, says how much
is the decrease in the prices.

Markdown % = (Original price-selling price) / Original price x 100

where the markdown formula is dependent on,
Selling Price = the final sale price
Original price = price before any changes

Problem 1. An item that regularly sells for $425 is marked down to $318.75. What is the markdown
rate?
First, find the amount of the markdown:
425 – 318.75 = 106.25

Then, calculate "the markdown over the original price", or the markdown rate: ($106.25) is (some per-
cent) of ($425), so:
106.25 = (x)(425)

and the relative markdown over the original price is:

x = 106.25 ÷ 425 = 0.25

Since the "x" stands for a percentage, I need to remember to convert this decimal to percentage form.

The markdown rate is 25%.

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 Incomes and Wages

Earnings

Formula: Net=Gross-Expenses

Problem 1. It costs Veronica Php 50 to make 50 ounces of slime. If she sold the slime at Php 30 for
every 10 ounces, how much would she have earned from selling 100 ounces of slime?

Solution:

Problem 2. Natasha works an 8hr/day job as a soap maker and is being paid $ 50/hr with a 20%
additional pay for every hour of overtime. If in her 5-day week period she worked 4 hours of overtime,
how much would she be paid for the week?

Solution:
Regular Pay = (5 days)(8 hrs)($ 50) = $ 2000
Overtime Pay = (4 hrs)($ 50) (1+0.20) = $240
Total Wage = 2000+240 = $ 2240

Investment Problems
-Problems that involve money saved or invested in banks, stocks, bonds, etc.

Simple interest
-Interest is calculated only once to the initial capita; and added each period

I=PRT
A=P(1+rt)

where I=Interest
P=Principal invested
r=rate earned
t=number of time period the interest is applied
A=Accumulated amount

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Problem 1. A person deposits $5,000 in a bank account which pays 6% simple interest per year. Find
the value of his deposit after 4 years.

Solution:
Formula for simple interest is

I = Prt
here, P = 5000, t = 4, r = 6%

Substitute these values in the above formula

I = 5000 . 6/100 . 4
I = 1200
The formula to find the accumulated value is

= Principal + Interest
= 5000 + 1200
= 6200

Hence, the value of his deposit after 4 years is $6,200.

Compound Interest
-Interest is calculated to the updated amount

where m is the number of times the interest is applied within a time period

Problem 1. Alfonso invested Php2000 at Brayton at a 4 % annual interest compounded semiannually.

How much would his money be after 1 year.

Solution:

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Bonds
-An investment where you loan an amount (bond) to a company who pays the interest until the maturity
-The initial invested amount will be returned upon maturity
-The payment is fixed and assured regardless of the company’s performance

Problem 1. Find the cost of Php 1 million worth of bonds, which sold for 80% and the amount of inter-
est you will earn if the annual interest rate is 5%.

Cost of Bond = Face value × Percent of Face

Cost of Bond = 1,000,000 × 0.80
Cost of Bond = 800000

The cost is then Php 800000

Here is how to find the interest they will pay you if the annual interest is 5%?

Interest = Face Value × Annual Rate

Interest = 1000000 × 0.05
Interest = 50000
The interest you will receive is Php 50000.

Stocks
-An investment where you buy a portion(share) of a company.
-Earnings can come from reselling the share and/or from dividends paid by the company.
-Investors can earn ore lose depending on the company’s performance.

Problem 1. Zen bought Php 10,000 worth of stock that is traded at Php 500 per share. If the stock
was paid Php 100 annually in dividend per share, how much will he expect to receive in dividends after
a year?

Solution:

Annual dividend = 20 (100) = Php 2000

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