Lecture Notes on Transistors

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and

electrical power. It is one of the fundamental building blocks of modern electronic devices.
Transistors are used in a wide range of applications, from simple electronic circuits to complex
digital systems.

There are two main types of transistors: Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) and Field-Effect
Transistors (FETs).

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

BJTs are composed of three layers of semiconductor material, which form two PN junctions.
They come in two types: NPN and PNP, based on the arrangement of the N-type and P-type
materials.

• NPN Transistor: The layers are arranged as N-type, P-type, and N-type. In an NPN
transistor, a small current at the base terminal controls a larger current flow from the
collector to the emitter.
NB

1. The arrows are always dawn on the emitter

2. The arrows are always pointing towards the n-type semiconductor
3. The arrows indicate the direction of emitter current

§ IC =Collector current
§ IB= Base current
§ IE= Emitter current
§ VBE= Base emitter voltage
§ VCE= Collector emitter voltage
 § VCB= Collector base voltage

Biasing an npn transistor

• Basically, a BJT can be considered as two p-n junction diodes connected back- to-back.
In the forward active bias of the transistor, the emitter-base junction is forward biased
by a dc power supply VEB and the collector-base junction is reverse biased by the bias
power supply VCB. The forward bias decreases the depletion region across the emitter-
base junction and the reverse bias increases the depletion region across the collector-
base junction. Hence, the barrier potential across the emitter-base junction is decreased
and the collector-base junction is increased. The voltage across the emitter-base
junction is represented as VEB and the collector-base junction as VCB.

• In an NPN transistor, the majority charge carriers in the emitter are electrons. As it is
heavily doped, it has a large number of electrons. The forward bias across the emitter-
base junction causes the electrons in the emitter region to flow towards the base region
and constitutes the emitter current (IE). The electrons after reaching the base region
recombine with the holes in the base region. Since the base region is very narrow and
lightly doped, all the electrons will not have sufficient holes to recombine and hence
most of the electrons reach the collector region.

• Eventually, the electrons that reach the collector region will be attracted by the collector
terminal as it has positive potential and flows through the external circuit. This
constitutes the collector current (IC). The holes that are lost due to recombination in the
base region are replaced by the positive potential of the bias voltage VBE and constitute
 the base current (IB). The magnitude of the base current will be in micoamperes as
against milliamperes for emitter and collector currents.
• It is to be noted that if the emitter current is zero, then the collector current is almost
zero. It is therefore imperative that a BJT is called a current controlled device. Applying
Kirchoff ’s law, we can write the emitter current as the sum of the collector current and
the base current.

§ Since the base current is very small, we can write, IE ≈ IC. There is another component
of collector current due to the thermally generated electrons called reverse
saturation current, denoted as (ICO). This factor is temperature sensitive. Therefore, care
must be taken towards the stability of the system at high temperatures.

§ The ratio of the collector current to the emitter current is called the forward current gain
(αdc) of a transistor.

§ The α of a transistor is a measure of the quality of a transistor. The higher the value
of α, the better is the transistor. This means that the collector current is closer to the
emitter current. The value of α is less than unity and ranges from 0.95 to 0.99. This
indicates that the collector current is 95% to 99% of the emitter current.

Biasing a pnp transistor

As indicated in the figure below, a large number of majority carriers i.e. holes will diffuse
across the forward-biased p-n junction into the n-type material. Since the sandwiched n-type
material is very thin and has a low conductivity, a very small number of these carriers i.e. holes
will take this path of high resistance to the base terminal. The magnitude of the base current is
typically on the order of microamperes as compared to milliamperes for the emitter and
collector currents. The larger number of these majority carriers i.e. holes will diffuse across the
reverse-biased junction into the p-type material connected to the collector terminal as shown
in the figure. The reason for the relative ease with which the majority carriers can cross the
reverse-biased junction is easily understood if we consider that for the reverse-biased diode the
injected majority carriers will appear as minority carriers in the n-type material. In other words,
there has been an injection of minority carriers into the n-type base region material. This is the
reason, holes which arrived in n-type material will not go as base current IB rather will cross
reversed biased np junction to share collector current IC.
Transistor configuration pnp transistors
PNP Transistor: The layers are arranged as P-type, N-type, and P-type. In a PNP transistor, a
small current at the base terminal controls a larger current flow from the emitter to the collector.
The emitter-base junction is forward biased whereas the collector-base junction is reverse
biased. In this case, the majority charge carriers in emitter are holes which are repelled towards
the base. As the base layer is thin, thus only little interaction occurs when electrons and holes
combine. Most of the holes reach the collector. The current is carried by holes in p-n-p
transistors.

Why are n-p-n Transistors Most Preferred Over p-n-p Transistors

There are several reasons for this:

• Carrier Mobility – The majority charge carriers in n-p-n transistors are electrons
unlike in p-n-p transistors where the majority charge carriers are holes. Electrons move
 far more easily than holes within the crystal lattice. As a result, they have higher
mobility and operate faster providing a much better level of performance.

• Production Costs – The manufacture of silicon-based transistors is most economically

carried out using large N-type silicon wafers. The manufacture of PNP transistors
requires three times more surface area of the wafer, and this significantly increases the
costs.

• Negative Grounding – Over the years, a negative ground has become standard and the
polarity of NPN transistors means that the basic transistor configurations operate with
a negative ground.

Transistor configuration
Transistors can be configured in various ways to perform different functions in electronic
circuits. The three most common configurations are:

1. Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

2. Common Base (CB) Configuration
3. Common Collector (CC) Configuration, also known as an Emitter Follower

Each configuration has unique characteristics and applications.

1. Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

In common emitter configuration, base is the input terminal, collector is the output terminal
and emitter is the common terminal for both input and output. That means the base terminal
and common emitter terminal are known as input terminals whereas collector terminal and
common emitter terminal are known as output terminals. In common emitter configuration, the
emitter terminal is grounded so the common emitter configuration is also known as grounded
emitter configuration. Sometimes common emitter configuration is also referred to as CE
configuration, common emitter amplifier, or CE amplifier. The common emitter (CE)
configuration is the most widely used transistor configuration
 IE = IB + IC

Amplification Factor β = Ic/IB

The common emitter (CE) amplifiers are used when large current gain is needed. The input
signal is applied between the base and emitter terminals while the output signal is taken
between the collector and emitter terminals. Thus, the emitter terminal of a transistor is
common for both input and output and hence it is named as common emitter configuration.
The supply voltage between base and emitter is denoted by VBE while the supply voltage
between collector and emitter is denoted by VCE. In common emitter (CE) configuration, input
current or base current is denoted by IB and output current or collector current is denoted by
IC. The common emitter amplifier has medium input and output impedance levels. So the
current gain and voltage gain of the common emitter amplifier is medium. However, the power
gain is high. To fully describe the behaviour of a transistor with CE configuration, we need
two set of characteristics – input characteristics and output characteristics

The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or base current (IB)
and input voltage or base-emitter voltage (VBE).
Input characteristics
To determine the input characteristics, the output voltage VCE is kept constant at zero volts and
the input voltage VBE is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels. For each voltage
level of input voltage (VBE), the corresponding input current (IB) is recorded. A curve is then
drawn between input current IB and input voltage VBE at constant output voltage VCE (0 volts).

Output characteristics
The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current (IC) and output
voltage (VCE).

The y-axis represents output current or collector current (IC) and the output voltage (VCE) is
taken along x-axis,
In common collector configuration, if the input current or base current is zero then the output
current or emitter current is also zero. As a result, no current flows through the transistor. So
the transistor will be in the cutoff region. If the base current is slightly increased then the output
current or emitter current also increases. So the transistor falls into the active region. If the base
current is heavily increased then the current flowing through the transistor also heavily
increases. As a result, the transistor falls into the saturation region.
A bipolar junction transistor can operate in one of three regions - cutoff, saturation, and active
regions. When we want to use the transistor as a switch (i.e. in digital circuits) we use the
transistor in cutoff and saturation. But, when we want to use transistor as an amplifier, we
use it in the active region.

The Q-point
A DC operating point, also known as quiescent or Q point, refers to the state of the transistor
when no input current is applied to the component. In other words, this operating point (Q
point) is the intersection where the optimum forward voltage and forward current converge,
and it is also the point where the diode operates at its optimum.

1 Characteristics:

§ Voltage Gain: High

§ Current Gain: High
§ Power Gain: High
§ Input Impedance: Moderate
§ Output Impedance: Moderate

2 Applications:
 • Amplifiers: CE configuration is widely used in amplifier circuits because of its high
voltage and current gain.
• Switching: Used in switching applications due to its high current gain.

2. Common Base (CB) Configuration

Description:

In common base configuration, emitter is the input terminal, collector is the output terminal
and base terminal is connected as a common terminal for both input and output. That means
the emitter terminal and common base terminal are known as input terminals whereas the
collector terminal and common base terminal are known as output terminals. In common base
configuration, the base terminal is grounded so the common base configuration is also known
as grounded base configuration. Sometimes common base configuration is referred to as
common base amplifier, CB amplifier, or CB configuration. The supply voltage between base
and emitter is denoted by VBE while the supply voltage between collector and base is denoted
by VCB. In every configuration, the base-emitter junction JE is always forward biased and
collector-base junction JC is always reverse biased. Therefore, in common base configuration,
the base-emitter junction JE is forward biased and collector-base junction JC is reverse biased.

IE = IB + IC
The current gain of a transistor in CB configuration is defined as the ratio of output current or
collector current (IC) to the input current or emitter current (IE).

Amplification factor: α = IC/IE…………………………….1

Relationship between α and β

IE = IB + IC……………………………………………..2

Amplification Factor β = Ic/IB…………………………………………………3

From equation 1, IE = IC/ α………………………………………………….4

From equation 3, IB= IC/ β…………………………………………………..5

Substituting equation 4 and 5 into equation 2

IC/ α = IC/ β + IC……………………………………6

Divide both sides by IC

1/ α = 1/ β + 1…………………………………….…..7

Multiply through equation by α β

β = α + α β = α(1+ β)……………………….…..8

Therefore α = β/ (1+ β)

From equation 8, β - α β = α

β (1 – α) = α

β = α/(1 – α)

Example
1. In common emitter transistor configuration, if the voltage drop across a 5K ohm resistor
connected in the collector is 5V. Find the value of IB when β is 50
(ans; 0.01mA, 0.25mA, 0.03mA, 0.02mA)
2. Find the value of β if (i) α = 0.9 (ii) α = 0.98 (iii) α = 0.99.
Solution:
3. Find the α rating of the transistor shown in the figure below. Hence determine the value of
IC using both α and β rating of the transistor.

Solution:

4. For a transistor, β = 45 and voltage drop across 1kΩ which is connected in the collector
circuit is 1 volt. Find the base current for common emitter connection.

Solution:

Characteristics:

• Voltage Gain: High

• Current Gain: Low (slightly less than 1)
• Power Gain: Moderate
• Input Impedance: Low
• Output Impedance: High
• Phase Shift: 0 degrees (the output signal is in phase with the input)
Applications:

• High-Frequency Amplifiers: CB configuration is used in high-frequency applications

due to its low input impedance and stability.
• Impedance Matching: Useful for impedance matching because of its low input
impedance and high output impedance.

Common Collector Configuration

In this circuit arrangement below, input is applied between the base and collector while output
is taken between the emitter and collector. Here, the collector of the transistor is common to
input and output circuits and hence the name common collector connection. Figure (a) shows
a common collector p-n-p transistor circuit whereas Figure (b) shows a common collector n-p-
n circuit.

IE=IB+IC

Amplification factor for g = IE/IB

Input and Output Characteristics of Common Collector Configuration

Input characteristics are the relationship between the input current and input voltage keeping
output voltage constant. Here input current is IB and input voltage VBE and output voltage is
VCE. The output voltage VCE initially kept at 3V and kept constant. The input voltage VBE is
increased from zero gradually and the corresponding input current IB is noted.

Output characteristics are the relationship between the output current and output voltage
keeping input current constant. Here output current is IE and output voltage is VCE and the
input current is IB.

Initially the input current IB is kept at zero and kept constant. Slowly input current IB is
increased like 10µA,20µA and kept constant and the output voltage VCE is increased gradually
from zero and the corresponding output current IE is noted.

When the input current is zero no current flows in the transistor and it is called cut off region.
When the input current is very high the current through the transistor is also very high and the
transistor will be in saturation region.

The region where there is a change in the output current for the change in output voltage is the
active region. Here the active region almost looks flat.
Questions and solution

1. A common base transistor amplifier has an input resistance of 20 Ω and output resistance
of 100 kΩ. The collector load is 1 kΩ. If a signal of 500 mV is applied between emitter and
base, find the voltage amplification. Assume αac to be nearly one.

Solution
shows the conditions of the problem. Here the output resistance is very high as
compared to input resistance, since the input junction (base to emitter) of the transistor
is forward biased while the output junction (base to collector) is reverse biased.

2. In a common base connection, IE = 1mA, IC = 0.95mA. Calculate the value of IB.

Solution:
3. In a common base connection, current amplification factor is 0.9. If the emitter current is
1mA, determine the value of base current.

Solution:

4. In a common base connection, IC = 0.95 mA and IB = 0.05 mA. Find the value of α.

Solution:

5. In common emitter transistor configuration, if the voltage drop across a 5K ohm resistor
connected in the collector is 5V. Find the value of IB when β is 50

6. In a common base connection, the emitter current is 1mA. If the emitter circuit is open, the
collector current is 50 μA. Find the total collector current. Given that α = 0.92.

Solution:

7. In a common base connection, α = 0.95. The voltage drop across 2 kΩ resistance

which is connected in the collector is 2V. Find the base current.

Solution:

The figure above shows the required common base connection. The voltage drop across
RC (= 2 kΩ) is 2V.
8. For the common base circuit shown in Fig. 3, determine IC and VCB. Assume the
transistor to be of silicon, and IC is approximately equal to IE

Solution
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the emitter-side loop, we have

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the collector-side loop, we have,

9. Calculate IE in a transistor for which β = 50 and IB = 20 μA.

Solution:

10. An n-p-n transistor at room temperature has its emitter disconnected. A voltage of 5 V is
applied between collector and base. With collector positive, a current of 0.2μA flows. When
the base is disconnected and the same voltage is applied between collector and emitter, the
current is found to be 20μA. Find α, IE and IB when collector current is 1 mA.
Solution:

11. When the emitter circuit is open as shown in (i), the collector-base junction is reverse
biased. A small leakage current ICBO flows due to minority carriers.

12. The collector leakage current in a transistor is 300 μA in CE arrangement. If now

the transistor is connected in CB arrangement, what will be the leakage current? Given
that β = 120.

Solution:

13. For a certain transistor, IB = 20 μA; IC = 2 mA and β = 80. Calculate ICBO.

Solution:

14. Determine VCB in the transistor circuit shown in below. The transistor is of silicon and has
β = 150.
Solution:

Figure (i) shows the transistor circuit while figure (ii) shows the various currents and voltages
along with polarities.

15. In a transistor, IB = 68 μA, IE = 30 mA and β = 440. Determine the α rating of the

transistor. Then determine the value of IC using both the α rating and β rating of the
transistor.

Solution: