Other functions

Property Role Example

Liquid at room temperature Medium of protoplasm Major component in

protoplasm is H2O

Polarity Powerful solvent Most of the materials of a

cell are dissolved in
protoplasm & cell sap

Metabolic reactions takes

place in an aqueous
medium in a cell

Chemical property Reactant in some Photosynthesis

biochemical processes 6CO2+6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Hydrolysis –
Starch + H2O Maltose

Cell enlargement
High adhesive and cohesive Maintenance of turgor in mechanical support in
forces. cells herbaceous plants, turgor
movements,
Movement of guard cells
Blooming of flowers

-7-
 Property Role Example

High surface tension Provides habitats for some Water skaters

aquatic insects

High adhesive and Transport and absorption of Translocation and ascent

cohesive forces materials in organisms of sap, absorption of water
and minerals from soil
solution.

High specific heat capacity Water resists to change its Maintain the body
temperature when a temperature of
considerable amount of heat poikilotherms within a
is absorbed or lost narrow range

Cooling the body surfaces Sweating, transpiration

High latent heat
of vaporization

A lot of heat should be Water will not freeze

High latent heat of fusion dissipated for water bodies easily within the cells and
to freeze in water bodies.

Water bodies will not freeze Aquatic organisms are

Anomalous expansion of solid. Ice forms on top and capable of surviving
volume on freezing liquid water remains at the during winter.
bottom

Allowing penetration of Allows to grow aquatic

Transparency light plants and algae in a
considerable depth in
water bodies.

-8-
Competency 2.1.0 : Investigates the chemical basis of life.
Competency Level 2.1.3 : Examines the chemical nature and functions of main
organic compounds of organisms.
Number of Periods : 08

Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to :
describe the basic chemical nature of four main types of organic compounds found in
organisms
elaborate on the functions of four major types of organic compounds.
conduct laboratory tests to identify the reducing sugars, non reducing sugars, starch,
proteins and lipids.

Suggested learning-teaching process

Demonstrate the laboratory tests for reducing and non-reducing sugars, starch, proteins
and lipids.
Provide the following unnamed solutions (such as starch, sucrose, glucose, egg white,
coconut oil etc.) to the students
Instruct them to identify the compounds and make a report on the procedures followed
Provide students with relevant literature (print and electronic)
Instruct students to present a report on carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids
and their functions in organisms.
Elaborate the subject content given for the relevant competency level.

Guidelines:
Describe the basic chemical nature and functions of the four main types of organic
compounds found in organisms
The major organic compounds found in organisms are
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Explain that carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids are found in living matter,
and are considered as major biological molecules.
State that large molecules (molecular weight 104 - 1010) such as proteins, nucleic acids
and some carbohydrates are considered as macromolecules.

Carbohydrates
Most abundant organic matter on earth
The substances that we know as sugars and flour in day-to-day life are examples
Major elemental composition is C,H,O
General formula Cx(H2O)y - Hydrates of carbon contains the same proportions of H:O
(2:1) found in water
Monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides are the three main classes of
carbohydrates

-9-
Monosaccharides
Explain the basic chemical nature and biological functions.
Name monosaccharides according to the number of C atoms as; Triose (3C ) e.g.
Glyceraldehyde, Tetrose (4C) e.g. Erythrose - rare in nature, Pentose (5C) e.g.
Ribose, Ribulose, Hexose(6C) e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose.
All Monosaccharides are reducing sugars
Disaccharides
Explain what glycosidic bonds are and how two monosaccharides form
disaccharides.
E.g., 2C6H12O6 C12H22O11 + H2O
Maltose, Lactose are reducing sugars, Sucrose is not a reducing sugar.
Polysaccharides
Explain how polymeric structure is formed. Straight chains and branched
chain structure. Basic structure and functions of starch, glycogen and
cellulose. Amylase activity on starch. Inulin as an example of another
polysaccharide and hemicellulose, pectin and chitin as important
polysaccharide derivatives.

Functions of Carbohydrates
Explain the importance and functions of monosaccharides, disaccharides and
polysaccharides in cellular function.
Demonstrate some simple laboratory tests to identify starch, reducing and non
reducing sugars and to observe hydrolysis of starch by amylase.
Lipids
Brief description of following points
Heterogeneous group of compounds which are insoluble in water.
Major elemental composition is C,H,O sometimes P and/or N. Less oxygen than
carbohydrates
The structure of fatty acids - saturated and unsaturated with examples.
Distinguish oils and fats. Triglyceride structure of oils and fats.
Give examples of other types of lipids e.g., waxes, phospholipids, steroids and
terpenes.
Explain major functions of lipids.
Laboratory tests to identify fats and oils.
Proteins
State proteins are polymers of amino acids with high molecular weights. They
contain C, H,O, N and sometimes S
State amino acids as monomer units of proteins. Although there are several
amino acids in the body only around 20 different amino acids are involved in
making proteins. Explain what are peptide bonds, how they are formed and
Polypeptide structure.
Complex structure of proteins can be described in 4 stages.
Primary - linear sequence of amino acids.
Secondary - helical or pleated sheet structure
Tertiary - bending, folding of polypeptide chains produce globular shape.
Different types of bonds stabilizing tertiary structure.

- 10 -
 Quaternary- aggregation of 2 or more polypeptides to form a complex
globular structure.
Denaturation of proteins, effect of denaturation on activity of protein.
Role of proteins in cells and organisms. Explain different types of functions
(structural, catalyst, transport, storage, contractile, protective, hormonal, toxic)
Laboratory tests for proteins. Biuret test.

Nucleic acids
Brief description of the following points
Polymers of high molecular weight, contains C, H, O, N and P.
Two types - DNA and RNA.
Nucleotides as building units. Constituents of nucleotides.
Types of N-bases. Purines and pyrimidines. Difference of sugars and bases
of nucleotides of DNA and RNA.
Polynucleotide structure. Explain fully the double helical structure of DNA.
Self replication of DNA
Denaturation of DNA. Renaturation of DNA.
Differences between RNA and DNA. Three different types of RNA (mRNA,
t-RNA and r-RNA).
Functions of DNA and RNA
Nucleotides other than those found in nucleic acids (ATP,NAD,NADP) and
their functions.
Practical:
Simple laboratory tests for identification of reducing and non-reducing
sugars, starch, proteins, fats and oils

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Competency 2.2.0 : Examines how cells and tissues contribute to the
functioning of organisms.
Competency Level 2.2.1 : Elaborates on the contribution of microscopes to the
expansion of knowledge on cells and cellular
organization.
Number of Periods : 04

Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to :
use the light microscope properly.
compare significant features of the electron microscope and light microscope
explain the cell theory
use electron micrographs to identify eukaryotic and prokaryotic cellular organizations.

Suggested Learning-teaching Process :

Provide the opportunity for the students to observe and draw onion epidermal cells and
buccal cavity cells from the lining of mouth under microscope.
Engage students to observe electron micrographs from relevant sources (print and
electronic) and identify eukaryotic and prokaryotic cellular organizations.
Advice students to make a presentation covering following points.
Cell theory, relative advantages and disadvantages of light and electron microscopes,
handling and taking care of laboratory microscopes, comparison of prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cellular organizations.
Make an elaboration to cover the specified subject content

Guidelines:
Proper use of microscope with care.
Magnification and resolution of light and electron microscopes
Comparison of light and electron microscopes
Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cellular organizations.

Light microscope.
Distinguish between simple and compound microscopes.
Explain the basic features and components of compound microscope, eye piece
and objective piece and their magnification powers. Magnification and
resolution powers (resolution refers to the minimum distance between two
points which can be distinguished).
Electron microscope,
Magnification and resolution powers.
Transmission and scanning type.
Demonstrate the proper handling of light microscope.
Demonstrate the use of microscope to observe specimens.

Cell theory.
All organisms are composed of cells, some of a single cell some of many cells.

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Recall the hierarchy of life, the levels of organization mentioned earlier. The basic
unit which can be called “living” is the cell, which may form a single celled
organism (e.g., Chlamydomonas, Yeast) or a multicellular plant or animal. The cell
is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
The level of organization of matter represented by a cell shows all the
characteristics of life. Any stage below level of a cell cannot be considered living,
whether it is a single celled organism or multicellular plant or an animal.
Robert Hooke (1663), while trying to understand why, cork which is a solid
substance can float, examined thin slices using a microscope and found that they are
made up of ‘pores’ and coined the term ‘cells’ to describe the pores.
Anton Van Leeuwenhook (1650), a contemporary of Robert Hooke was the first to
describe and record living single celled organisms, Euglena & bacteria
Matthias Schleiden (1831), a botanist, studying plant tissues concluded that all
plants are made up of cells.
Theodore Schwann a zoologist and Shleiden (1839),concluded that animal tissues
are also made up of cells.
Virchow (1855) showed that all cells arise from pre existing cells by cell division,
Schleiden ,Schwann and Virchow presented the ‘Cell Theory’ which included the
following.
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. The basic structural and functional unit of organisms is the cell.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Organization of cells
Two kinds of cellular organization - Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
The differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.
Bacteria and Archaebacteria have prokaryotic cells. All the other organisms have
eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells, in comparison to eukaryotic cells, are small in size, have no
organized nucleus, no membrane bound organelles, have 70 s ribosomes, flagella
are simple without microtubules and not bound by membrane, have no endoplasmic
reticulum and cytoskeleton, Peptidoglycan present in cell wall of bacteria and
polysaccharides and proteins present in Archaebacteria
Features of different cellular organizations illustrated by diagrams, electron
micrographs or electronic sources.

Practicals:
Parts and functions of microscope and using microscope to observe specimens
Use of electron micrographs to understand the structure of cellular components

- 13 -
Competency 2.2.0 : Examines how cells and tissues contribute to the
functioning of organisms.
Competency Level 2.2.2 : Analyses the structure and functions of the sub
cellular units.
Number of Periods : 07

Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to:
compare the structural differences between plant and animal cells.
use electron micrographs to identify cellular organelle and components.
describe the structure and function of organelle and sub cellular components of cells.

Suggested learning- teaching process:

Show two diagrams of plant and animal cells to the class.
Ask students to come up with the similarities and differences of these cells
Engage students in following group activity.
Out of the three sets of organelle given below, pay attention to the set assigned to
your group.
Mitochondria , chloroplasts, Golgi bodies, micro tubules, lysosomes
Plasma membrane, micro bodies, vacuoles, cell junctions, cytoskeleton
Cell wall, rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
nucleus, ribosomes, flagella and cillia
Use microscopic slides, electron micrographs and diagrams provided to your group to
observe and identify the structures assigned to your group.
Use the given sources to find the functions of the structures assigned.
Differentiate the organelles and sub cellular components as found in plant and animal
cells.
Be prepared to make an innovative whole class team presentation.
Make an elaboration covering all the relevant points

Guidelines
Use the electron micrographs of plant cells and animal cells.
Structures and functions of organelles and sub cellular components.

Cell wall
Outer envelope of plant cell. Animal cells do not have cell walls.
Made up of cellulose and pectin. Hemicellulose, lignin, suberin may also be
present.
May have primary and secondary walls. Explain the chemical components of
middle lamella, primary cell wall and secondary cell wall.
Cell wall has pits through which cytoplasm of adjoining cells join through
plasmodesmata.
Functions of cell wall.

- 14 -
Plasma membrane
Outer limit of protoplasm.
Illustrate the structure of the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane,
consisting of a bilayer of lipids, integral proteins and peripheral proteins.
Movable lipids give the fluidity whereas the arrangement of protein molecules
gives the mosaic structure.
Other membranes in the cell also have the same structure.
Explain the functions of plasma membrane
Dynamic boundary of cell.
Permits the entry of water, ions and certain organic molecules.
Regulates the exit of waste materials.
Maintains an osmotic balance within the cell.
Receives information through receptors and transmit signals to co-ordinate
activities between cells/ identification of cells.
Nucleus
Stores genetic information of the cell.
Most cells possess one nucleus, some have several nuclei. (e.g., fungi)
Explain the structure of nucleus, consisting of double membrane envelope,
nuclear sap, chromatin, nuclear pores, and nucleolus.
Explain the functions of nucleus.
Control cellular activities.
Synthesizes DNA to produce new nuclei for cell divisions.
Synthesizes ribosomes and RNA required for protein synthesis.
Ribosomes
Consists of a large and a small sub unit composed of r- RNA and protein.
Synthesizes proteins coded by m-RNA with the help of t-RNA.
Endoplasmic reticulum
Network of internal membranes forming flattened or tubular sacs
separating cytosol from ER lumen. Continuous with the outer membrane
of nuclear envelope
Two types of ER; Rough ER and Smooth ER
Rough ER
Rough ER consists of flattened sacs, and ribosomes bound to surface
Proteins synthesized by ribosomes move into lumen of ER.
Synthesize membrane phospholipids and membrane glycolipids
Transport enzymes and other proteins within cell. Produce
transmission vesicles for transport
Smooth ER
Network of tubular sacs without ribosomes
Presence of membrane bound enzymes
Synthesize lipids, steroids and carbohydrates
Transport within cell. Produce transmission vesicles for transport.
Detoxification
Stores Ca2+ ions

- 15 -
Golgi complex
Stacks of flattened vesicles or Golgi bodies
Inner and outer surfaces can be identified
Illustrate the structure of Golgi complex
Functions of Golgi complex
Proteins and lipids manufactured in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are transported
through channels of ER or vesicles into Golgi complexes
Lipids and proteins combine with polysaccharides to form glycolipids and
glycoproteins respectively within the cisternae of Golgi complex
When necessary ,vesicles containing glycoproteins or glycolipids are budded off
from cisternae and move into other locations of the cell
Produce lysosomes
Lysosomes
Membrane bounded vesicles contributing to digestive activity
Contain hydrolytic enzymes which catalyze breakdown of carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
Digest food particles received by phagocytosis
Digest worn out organelles
Transport residue material out of cell by exocytosis
Autolysis causing cell death
Microbodies (Peroxisome & glyoxysome)
Membrane bound vesicles with oxidizing enzymes.
Two common types of microbodies
Glyoxisomes – present in plant cells
Peroxysomes – present in plant and animal cells.
Enzymes in glyoxisome converts fat into carbohydrate
Enzymes in peroxysome catalyze the break-down of H2O2
Function of peroxysome
Detoxification of peroxides
Photorespiration in plants
Mitochondria
Organelle bound by two membranes. Inner membrane bearing cristae.
Illustrate the ultra structure of mitochondria with two membranes, cristae,
matrix with ribosomes and DNA.
Explain the function of mitochondria
Matrix carries enzymes for reactions of Krebs cycle. Cristae carry out
electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation system.
Synthesize ATP by oxidizing reduced coenzymes using oxygen.
Chloroplasts
Double membrane bound organelle found only in plant cells
Explain the gross structure of chloroplast using an electron micrograph
including outer membrane, inner membrane, thylakoids, grana and stroma with
ribosomes DNA and starch granules.
Thylakoids contain photosynthetic pigments.
Function of chloroplast - photosynthesis

- 16 -
Cytoskeleton
Supporting structure of cytoplasm made of microtubules and protein filaments.
Dynamic structure, breaking and reforming as needed.
Explain structure of three types of components.
Microtubules, Actin filaments, Intermediate filaments
Functions of cytoskeleton
Gives strength to cytoplasm
Support organelle of cell
Movement of cytoplasm, cytoplasmic streaming, moves organelle and
chromosomes when necessary.
Cilia and Flagella
Made of microtubules, with a 9+2 structure. Covered by plasma membrane.
Bound to a basal body.
Illustrate the structure with electron micrographs.
Functions of flagella and cilia includes locomotion and transport of material on
cell surface.
Centriole
A pair of cylindrical structures made of microtubules found in animal cells.
Produce aster and spindle in cell divisions.
Vacuoles
A large structure, bound by tonoplast, filled with liquid found in plant cells.
Stores water and other materials such as sugars, ions and pigments
Maintains water balance of cell
Gives turgidity and support to cell.
Produce colours in some plants with sap pigments
Stores soluble substances needed for cellular activities.
Cell junctions
Structures at which cytoplasm of adjoining cells are joined.
Plasmodesmata in plant cells.
Three types in animal cells
Tight junctions – connect the plasma membranes of adjacent cells tightly
e.g., in epithelial cells of gut preventing leakages through intercellular
space.
Anchor junctions – mechanically attach the cytoskeletons of adjoining
cells for strong binding eg. skin epithelium
Gap junctions (Communication junctions) – allow signal and material
exchange between adjacent cells through direct connections. e.g., heart
muscles

- 17 -
Competency 2.2.0 : Examines how cells and tissues contribute to the
functioning of organisms.
Competency Level 2.2.3 : Relates the structure of plant tissues to their
functions.
Number of Periods : 05

Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to :
describe the concept of 'tissue'.
list main types of plant tissues.
compile a list of characters of main types of plant tissues
relate the structural features of plant tissues to their function.
use characters of plant tissues to identify them under microscope.
compare the different types of plant tissues.
Suggested Learning- teaching process:
Use charts, drawings and power-point presentation to show tissues as seen in the plant
body.
Request the students to identify and make notes on the location, main features,
and expected functions of each type of plant tissue.
Provide opportunities for the students to observe plant tissues under microscope.
Prepare them for creative presentations on their findings.
Make an elaboration to highlight the important points to be considered.
Guidelines:
In multicellular organisms, the cells are organized into tissues, organs & organ
systems.
Tissue is a group of physically linked cells with common origin specialized for a
particular function or functions.
Types of plant tissues, their structure & function
Plant tissues can be classified into two groups
Simple tissues – mainly one type of cells
Complex tissues – more than one type of cells
Simple plant tissues are divided into three groups
1. Parenchyma 2. Collenchyma 3. Sclerenchyma
The structure, function and distribution of simple plant tissues.
Modified parenchyma cells and their distribution and function
Complex plant tissues are divided into two groups.
1. Xylem 2. Phloem
Structure, function and distribution of complex plant tissues.
Practical:
Microscopic observation and identification of different types of plant tissues

- 18 -
Competency 2.2.0 : Examines how cells and tissues contribute to the
functioning of organisms.
Competency Level 2.2.4 : Relates the structure of animal tissues to their
functions.
Number of Periods : 05

Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to :
list main types of animal tissues
relate the structural features of animal tissues to their function
compile a list of characters of main types of animal tissues
use characters of animal tissues to identify the main types under microscope.
compare the different types of animal tissues.
Suggested learning- teaching process:
Use relevant sources (prepared slides, pictures, PowerPoint presentations, diagrams
etc.) to show the structure of tissues.
Allow students to identify the parts.
Ask the students to collect information to relate the functions with the structure.
Encourage students to make a presentation on their findings.
• Make an elaboration to highlight important points.
Guidelines:
Main types of animal tissues and their characters.
Structure-function relationship of tissues.
Microscopic observations and identifying types of tissues.
Types of animal tissues, their structures and functions.
Basically animal tissues are grouped into four categories
1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Nervous tissue
Epithelial tissue
Explain the characteristics of epithelial tissue
There are two general classes of epithelium
1. Simple
2. Stratified
Explain that these classes are further subdivided into three based upon the shape of
the cells
1. squamous
2. cuboidal
3. columnar
Explain the structure, function and distribution of squamous, cuboidal and
columnar epithelium
Explain the characteristics and the structure of stratified epithelium and
distribution of different types of stratified epithelium

- 19 -
Connective tissues
Explain the characteristics of connective tissues
Divided into two major classes
1. Connective tissue proper
2. Special connective tissue
Connective tissue proper is divided into two
1. Loose connective tissue
2. Dense connective tissue
Explain the structure, function and distribution of loose connective tissue and
dense connective tissue.
Special connective tissues are classified into three
1. Cartilage
2. Bone
3. Blood
Explain the structure, function and distribution of cartilage, bone and blood.
Muscle Tissue
Explain the characteristic features of muscle tissue
There are three kinds of muscles
1. Smooth muscle
2. Skeletal muscle
3. Cardiac muscle
Explain the structure, function and distribution of smooth muscle, skeletal muscle
and cardiac muscle
Nervous tissue
Explain the characteristic features of nervous tissue
There are three types of neurons
1. Sensory neurons
2. Motor neurons
3. Inter neurons
Explain the structure and function of a neuron by using motor neurons.
Practical :
Microscopic obserrvation and identification of different types of animal tissues

- 20 -
Competency 2.3.0 : Investigates the importance of cell division
Competency Level 2.3.1 : Analyses the process of cell division
Number of Periods : 06

Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to :
elaborate on the phases of cell cycle.
discuss the main events that occur in each phase.
describe the four stages in mitosis with reference to chromosomal behavior
state the importance of mitosis and meiosis
use prepared slides to identify different stages of mitosis and meiosis under
microscope.

Suggested learning- teaching process:

Use various sources (print and electronic)to show the stages of cell cycle
Allow students to observe onion root and shoot tip slides under microscope to
identify different stages of mitosis
Provide literature or relevant computer assisted learning resources to study the
behavior of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis
Encourage students to make a presentation on their findings
Make an elaboration to highlight important points

Guidelines :
Cell cycle
The events that takes place in the cell from beginning of one cell division to the
beginning of the next.
Net result – one cell gives rise to two cells
Eukaryotic cell cycle
Explain the phases – G1, S, G2, M (mitosis)and C(cytokinesis) of cell cycle and
events that take place in each stage. G1+S+ G2 together forms interphase.

Mitosis
DNA synthesis takes place in S phase of cell cycle. Chromosomes are divided into
two chromatids bound together at centromere.
Mitosis has four phases, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
Explain the behavior of chromosomes in each of the above phases during mitosis.
Animal cells have centrioles which forms aster and spindle at mitosis.
Plant cells do not have centrioles but forms spindle.
Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores at the two sides of centromere before
separation into poles.
In cytokinesis animal cells form a cleavage furrow and plant cells form a cell plate.
Explain the significance of mitosis

- 21 -
Meiosis
Explain that meiosis involves two consecutive nuclear divisions. First one is a
reduction division and the second is exactly like mitosis.
Meiosis is divided into 8 stages, meiosis I and meiosis II both having 4 phases-
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Prophase I is the longest and eventful
phase.
Explain events occurring in all 8 phases.
Explain what are homologous chromosomes and how they pair in prophase I.
Explain formation of synaptonemal complex and exchange of segments of
chromatids.
Explain significance of meiosis.

Practical :
Identification of different stages of mitosis and meiosis using microscopic slides

- 22 -
Competency 2.4.0 : Investigates energy relationships in metabolic
processes of organisms
Competency Level 2.4.1 : Analyses the energy relationships in metabolic
processes
Number of Periods : 01

Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to:
highlight the need of energy for living systems
explain catabolic and anabolic reactions with examples
discuss the structure and the importance of ATP as an energy currency unit
list the cellular processes involving energy

Suggested learning- teaching process:

Provide students with relevant sources (print and electronic) on energy relations in cells
Facilitate students to extract important points and make a summary
Encourage students to make a presentation on their findings
Make an elaboration to highlight important points

Guidelines:
Explain the need of energy for living systems. Constant supply of energy is required to
maintain all life functions in different forms (mechanical, chemical, transport and
illumination).
Metabolism – sum of all chemical reactions carried out by a cell. Explain anabolic and
catabolic processes with suitable examples
Emphasize the need of energy for living systems, endogonic(energy absorbing)
reactions and exogonic(energy liberating) reactions.
Cells use energy of catabolic reactions to carry out anabolic reactions.
ATP acts as a carrier of energy between reactions.
Discuss the structure of ATP with examples on how it acts as an energy carrier.
-1
Hydrolysis reaction of ATP to ADP releases 30.6 kJ mol
ATP is mobile, can release energy quickly and reform quickly.

- 23 -
Competency 2.4.0 : Investigates energy relationships in metabolic
processes of organisms
Competency Level 2.4.2 : Investigates the role of enzymes in regulating metabolic
reactions
Number of Periods : 06

Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to :
explain the general characteristics of enzymes and their role
describe major features of enzymes
describe the importance of co-factors for enzymatic activities
describe the mechanism of enzyme activity by using suitable diagrams
explain how pH, temperature, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration and
inhibitors affect the rate of enzyme activity
conduct laboratory experiments to show how temperature affects the rate of enzyme
reaction using starch – amylase system

Suggested learning- teaching process:

Conduct simple experiments to demonstrate the role of enzymes.
Provide the students with relevant sources (print and electronic) on enzymes together
with material and equipment needed to determine the factors affecting enzyme activity
Advice the students to present their findings.
Make an elaboration highlighting the relevant points to cover the content

Guidelines :
Explain the general characteristics of enzymes, protein structure, specificity
Describe that the enzymes are capable of reducing activation energy of a particular
reaction.
Explain the mechanisms of an enzyme reaction with the aid of diagrams
1. Lock and key mechanism
2. Induced fit mechanism
Explain that some enzymes require non protein components called cofactors for their
efficient activity
There are three types of cofactors
1. Co-enzymes
2. Prosthetic groups
3. Inorganic ions
Explain the functions of three types of co factors with examples
Explain above three types of cofactors with suitable examples.
Explain how activators and inhibitors affect enzyme activity. Ex: Heavy metals
Ag+,Hg+,Cd+
Explain the factors affecting the rate of enzymatic reactions
pH, temperature, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, inhibitors.
Practical:

- 24 -
 Conduct laboratory experiments to demonstrate enzyme activity and to determine the
rate of enzymatic reactions (starch – Amylase)
Competency 2.4.0 : Investigates energy relationships in metabolic
processes of organisms
Competency Level 2.4.3 : Examines photosynthesis as an energy fixing
mechanism
Number of Periods : 08
Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to :
discuss the importance of the process of photosynthesis
describe the light reaction of photosynthesis
describe the dark reaction of photosynthesis
describe the C4 pathway of photosynthesis
conduct experiments to determine the factors affecting photosynthesis
describe the principle of limiting factors
carryout experiments to determine the rate of photosynthesis by amount of oxygen
released.
Suggested learning- teaching process:
Provide students with relevant sources (print and electronic) on photosynthesis
Facilitate students to extract important points and make a summary
Encourage students to make a presentation on their findings
Make an elaboration to highlight important points
Guidelines
Global and biological importance of photosynthesis
Define the process of photosynthesis in terms of reactions and the end products with
reference to the carbon and energy fixing mechanism.
Chloroplasts as the site of photosynthesis, its fine structure, thylakoids, grana and
stroma.
Pigments associated with absorption of light energy. Absorption spectrum of a pigment.
Compare with action spectrum of photosynthesis.
Mechanism of photosynthesis highlighting following points
Light reactions
Dark reactions
Light reaction
Explain with following details which takes place in thylakoid membranes.
Photosystems I and II. Antenna complex, excitation of pigment molecules,
resonance transfer of energy between pigment molecules. Reaction center
molecules, electron transport, photolysis of water, noncyclic and cyclic
photophosphorylation, synthesis of NADPH and ATP.
Dark reaction
Explain with following details which takes place in stroma.
Calvin cycle of reactions has three stages.
Carboxylation -CO2 fixation- RuBP as CO2 acceptor. RuBP carboxylase
enzyme. Formation of PGA.

- 25 -
 Reduction of PGA, with the use of ATP and NADPH produced in light reaction.
Formation of PGAL. Part of PGAL formed is used in synthesis of organic food.
Regeneration of RuBP. Part of PGAL formed is used to produce RuBP, using
ATP which happens through RuMP.
Photorespiration ,Combining of RuBP with oxygen to produce 1 PGA (C3) and
Phospho Glycolic Acid (C2).Thereby reducing the efficiency of photosynthesis

Explain the C4 mechanism of CO2 fixation. It takes place in two stages in two
different types of cells. Mesophyll cells and bundle sheath cells. PEP as a more
efficient CO2 acceptor, formation of oxaloacetate, malate, its transport through
plasmodesmata, release of CO2 in bundle sheath cells. Formation of pyruvate and
return to mesophyll cells. Calvin cycle in bundle sheath cells in a higher
concentration of CO2.
Explain the significance of C4 photosynthesis.
Distinguish between C3 photosynthesis and C4 photosynthesis.
Explain the factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis and the principle of
limiting factors.
Effect of CO2 concentration, light, water and temperature on the rate of
photosynthesis.
Practical:
Experiments to determine the rate of photosynthesis by amount of O2 released
Microscopic observation of cross section of a leaf with special reference to
adaptations for photosynthesis

- 26 -
Competency 2.4.0 : Investigates energy relationships in metabolic
processes of organisms
Competency Level 2.4.4 : Examines cellular respiration as a process of
obtaining energy.
Number of Periods : 08
Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to:
highlight cellular respiration as the process of supplying energy for all cellular
activities.
describe the location, major events and end products of aerobic respiration.
describe the location, major events and end products of anaerobic respiration
list out the significance of cellular respiration.
Suggested learning- teaching process:
Provide students with relevant sources (print and electronic) on respiration
Facilitate students to extract important points and make a summary
Encourage students to make a presentation on their findings
Make an elaboration to highlight important points.
Guidelines :
Importance of cellular respiration
Aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration
Steps of aerobic respiration of glucose
Glycolysis- Break down of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate. Takes place in
cytoplasm. Explain what substrate phosphorylation is and how NADH and ATP are
formed in the process.
Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl co-enzyme A in matrix of a mitochondrion with
release of CO2.
Krebs Cycle- oxidation of acetyl co-enzyme A to CO2 in a cycle of reactions taking
place in mitochondrial matrix.
Explain how reduced coenzymes NADH, FADH2 and ATP are formed in glycolysis,
pyruvate oxidation and in Krebs cycle.
Electron transport chain, oxidative phosphorylation–oxidation of reduced coenzymes
in inner membrane of mitochondria.
Calculate energy generating efficiency of aerobic oxidation of glucose.
Anaerobic respiration
Explain ethanol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation and their significance.
Energy generating efficiency of anaerobic respiration.
Use of substrates other than glucose in respiration-lipids and proteins.
Significance of krebs cycle as a center for metabolic intermediates, for the synthesis
of amino acids
Respiratory quotient – Explain what is respiratory quotient and how it can be
calculated.
Practical:
Determination of the rate of respiration using germinating seeds.

- 27 -
 Unit 3 – Diversity of organisms

Competency 3.1.0 : Explores the diversity of organisms

Competency Level 3.1.1 : Constructs hierarchy of taxa on scientific basis
Number of Periods : 08
Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to :
explain the importance of classifying organisms.
identify organisms through classification and nomenclature.
name organisms according to the binomial nomenclature.
explain the methods of natural & artificial classification
explain systems of classification.
identify taxonomic levels used in classification of organisms.
explain characteristics specific to viruses
use specific characteristics of organisms to classify them into three domains and kingdoms
Suggested learning- teaching process:
Conduct a brainstorming session on the ‘benefits of a systematic classification for the study of
organisms.’
Provide sources (print or electronic) on diverse organisms to the students and ask them to
prepare a set of criteria to classify them.
Lead a discussion on the attempts made to classify organisms in the past and the present status
of classification of organisms.
Advise students to prepare charts and tables depicting the modern biological classification.
Make an elaboration according to an appropriate sequence.
Guidelines :
Identification of organisms, classification and nomenclature.
Need for classification and nomenclature
From the dawn of human civilization people must have begun to identify plants and animals
and named them, because their survival was dependent on the use of plants and animals.
Species were identified separately by their specific characters.
Major groups of plants and animals (like grasses, fishes, snakes, birds)were also identified
separately.
The names used were however varied depending on the language of the people and the place.
Biological study of organisms needs a unified system of classification and nomenclature.
Aristotle was the first person who classified organisms systematically.
Binomial nomenclature
With the advance of science and knowledge of biology, different scientists, botanists and
zoologists used different methods of naming and classification of organisms. Most often a
polynomial system was used, until 18th century.
Carolous Linnaeus (1707-1778) proposed a binomial system of nomenclature of species,
which was accepted world wide.
The name of an organism has two parts
First is the generic name and the second is specific epithet
Generic name is usually a noun and specific epithet an adjective describing a particular
feature. Example: Homo sapiens- Homo means man, sapiens means intelligent
28
Related species have the same generic name with different specific epithets. Ex;
Dipterocarpus zeylanicus and Dipterocarpus grandiflorus
Dipterocarpus zeylanicus means fruit with two wings, and endemic to Sri Lanka.
Dipterocarpus grandiflorus means fruit with two wings and having large flowers.
International codes of Binominal nomenclature
Biologists have adopted sets of rules or Codes of nomenclature. These codes are slightly
different for plants, animals, bacteria and viruses. Some of the important rules for naming
plants, fungi,bacteria and animals are as follows.
Two species of organisms cannot have the same name.
Each species has a generic name and a specific epithet, both together forming the species
name or scientific name.
Name should be made up of Latinized words written in the Roman script.
It should be underlined when hand written and italicized when printed.
The first letter of the generic name must be capitalized and specific epithet must be in
simple letter.
In scientific work name of the author who gave the name is indicated by a capital letter, an
abbreviation or full word at the end of the name, which is not Latinized. Example Cocos
nucifera L., ( L for Linnaeus).
A third word can be used to represent a subspecies or a variety, example Panthera pardus
kotiya (Sri Lankan leopard).
Methods of natural & artificial classification
Arrangement of organisms into groups on the basis of the common characteristics is called
classification. Taxonomy is the scientific study on classification. This includes placing
groups of organisms in a hierarchical order.
Two methods of classification
(1) Artificial classification - grouping is based on a few pre selected unifying characters.
The characters are selected first according to convenience and organisms are grouped
based on the selected criteria.
Natural relationships are ignored.
Only system used before 18th century.
Easy to use, easy to expand by adding more groups.
Examples. Plants can be classified as cereals, ornamental plants, medicinal plants,
poisonous plants etc. Animals can be classified as two legged, four legged, six
legged, eight legged etc. Linnaeus classified plants according to number of stamens.
(2) Natural classification - grouping based on evolutionary relationships.
Represent true (natural) relationships, based on phylogeny.
Systems developed after study of evolution.
Based on many characters.
Characters used can be morphological, anatomical, cytological or molecular
biological.
Most recently DNA and RNA base sequences (molecular) are being used
Examples- Plants can be classified into Bryophyta, Lycophyta, Pterophyta,
Cycadophyta, Coniferophyta and Anthophyta etc. Arthropods can be classified into
Crustacea, Insecta, Chilopoda, Diplopoda and Arachnida.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the two systems of classification
Use of keys
Used to group organisms and identify
Common key is the dichotomous key
29
 Do not show the evolutionary relationships
Provide students keys to practice
Example 1: Silverfish, Butterfly, House fly, Beetle
1. Possess wings …………………………………………………. (2)
Do not possess wings ………………………………………….. Silverfish
2. Possess two pairs of wings …………………………………… …….. (3)
Do not possess two pairs of wings……………………………………………Housefly
3. Possess a proboscis ……...……………………………………..Butterfly
Do not possess a proboscis ……………………………............. Beetle

Example 2: Snake, Earthworm, Frog, Sea anemone, Butterfly

1. Radially symmetrical body ……………………………………..Sea anemone
Not having radially symmetrical body …………………………..(2)
2. Possess legs………………………………………………………(3)
Do not possess legs ……………………………………………...(4)
3. Wings present……………………………………….....................Butterfly
Wings absent ………………………………….....................Frog
4 .Body covered by scales …………………………………………Snake
Body is not covered by scales.………………………………….Earthworm
Systems of classification
The early classification systems were all artificial systems. Mostly based on human uses.
Aristotle was the first to classify organisms scientifically. He divided organisms into plants and
animals. Animals were further classified according to criteria such as mode of locomotion,
reproduction and presence or absence of red blood cells. Aristotle’s pupil Theophrastus
classified plants according to habit. e.g. Trees, Shrubs and herbs, and according to lifespan e.g.
annuals, biennials and perennials.
Up to the time of Linnaeus scientists used many different methods.
Carolus Linnaeus(1753), Swedish botanist, introduced binomial nomenclature and classified
about 6000 plants into a hierarchical order of taxa.; Species, genus, order, and class. His
classification of flowering plants was based on the number of stamens and styles of flower. He
identified two kingdoms of organisms; plants and animals.
With the discovery of microorganisms the scientists understood that there were organisms
which could not be assigned into either plants or animals. To get over this difficulty Ernest
Haeckel (1866) introduced a third kingdom: Protista. He also introduced the taxon Phylum and
classified many organisms.
With the discovery of electron microscope biologists identified prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cellular organization . Robert H Whittaker (1969) introduced five kingdom system of
biological classification; Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. His classification was
based on nature of cellular organization, unicellular or multicellular nature and mode of
nutrition.
With the acceptance of Darwin’s theory on evolution and unitary origin of life, taxonomists
began to use natural systems. With recent advancement of molecular biology and the use of
molecular methods in studying evolutionary relationships it became apparent that in the very
early evolution, organisms had separated into three stocks which are now called Domains. Carl
Woese (1977) classified organisms into three Domains Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya at a
higher level over Kingdoms .
30
Hierarchy of Taxa from Domains to Species.
In taxonomy each level of taxonomical hierarchy is called a taxon (plural-taxa) and each taxon
has a rank and a name.
E.g.: Class: Reptilia
Under the hierarchical system there are levels of taxa. Each Domain is divided into kingdoms.
Kingdom is divided into phyla (singular phylum), phylum into classes .etc. Many of these
categories may also be subdivided.
E.g.: Sub-family, Subspecies etc.

Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class No. of individuals
Common Characters
Order increase
increase
Family
Genus
Species

From domain to species, the number of shared characters among the members in the taxa
increases. From species to domain, the number of individuals in the taxon increases.
Present System of Classification and its basis
With the rapid advance of molecular biology new information on the evolutionary
relationships of organisms are being collected rapidly. The sequence of bases of DNA of
important genes, DNA of mitochondria, the base sequence of ribosomal RNA, the sequence
of amino acids in common proteins, molecular structure of cellular components are used as
important taxonomic criteria in modern systematics. As a result classification systems are
changing rapidly.

We adopt here the three domain classification suggested by Woese for convenience. It is very
clear however that the kingdom Protista is not a natural group. It is an artificial group
including organisms which have different evolutionary origins. Viruses do not have cellular
organization, therefore do not belong to any of the kingdoms. It is also an artificial group
considered separately.

31
Domain
Domain – Bacteria
Domain - Archaea
Domain - Eukarya
Kingdom - Protista
Kingdom - Fungi
Kingdom - Plantae
Kingdom - Animalia

Domain : Bacteria
Cellular organization prokaryotic
Cell wall component peptidoglycan.
Lipids in cell membrane are not branched.
Sensitive to antibiotics.
Protein synthesis begins with formyl methionine.
One kind of RNA polymerase enzyme.
Lives in many habitats.
Eg: Cyanobacteria, Purple bacteria, Green sulphur bacteria

Domain : Archaea
Cellular organization prokaryotic
Cell wall component lacks peptidoglycan, contains proteins and polysaccharides.
Lipids in cell membrane have branched and chained structure.
Not sensitive to antibiotics like streptomycin and chloramphenicol(like eukaryotes)
Protein synthesis begins with methionine (like in eukaryotes)
Several kinds of RNA polymerase enzymes (like in eukaryotes)
Lives in extreme environmental conditions such as volcanic pits, hot springs, salt
marshes, deep-sea etc.
Eg: Methanococcus, Thermococcus
Methanobacterium, Halobacterium

Domain Eukarya
Cellular organization eukaryotic
Cell wall component lacks peptidoglycan, contains polysaccharides.
Lipids in cell membrane are not branched.
Not sensitive to antibiotics.
Protein synthesis begins with methionine.
Several kinds of RNA polymerase enzymes.
Lives in many different environmental conditions.
E.g. protists, fungi, plants and animals.

Viruses - Discuss the common characteristics of viruses

32
 Tables given in this unit are for the teacher’s reference only
Kingdoms of Domain Eukarya

Main characteristics of each kingdom

Kingdom Protista Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Animalia
Unicellular or Unicellular or not Multicellular Multicellular
multicellular or truly multicellular
colonial form which form hyphae
Photoautotrophic or Heterotrophic Photoautotrophic Heterotrophic
heterotrophic
If cell wall is present Cell wall is made Cell wall is mainly Cell wall absent
it is made up of up of chitin composed of
cellulose cellulose
Diverse types of Storage food is Main storage food Main storage food
storage food glycogen is starch is glycogen
Flagella ,cilia or A few are Locomotory organs Special locomotory
pseudopodia may be flagellated absent but cilia or structures present
present flagella may be such as cilia,
found in gametes flagella and
contractile fibrils

33
Competency 3.1.0 : Explores the diversity of organisms
Competency Level 3.1.2 : Explores the diversity of organisms within
Domain Bacteria
Number of Periods : 02
Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to :
elaborate the characteristic features of domain Bacteria.
differentiate between Bacteria and Cyanobacteria.
Observe and identify bacteria and Cyanobacteria through microscope

Suggested learning- teaching process:

Provide students with literature (print or electronic) on Bacteria and Cyanobacteria.
Advise them to extract characteristic features and make attractive presentations.
Provide opportunities for the students to observe Bacteria and Cyanobacteria under light microscope.
Prepare the students for a presentation on the subject content.
Make an elaboration according to an appropriate sequence.

Guidelines :
Domain : Bacteria
Characteristic features of Bacteria
Prokaryotic organisms
Photoautotrophic, Chemoautotrophic or heterotrophic
Motile or nonmotile
Unicellular or colony forming
Cell division is by transverse binary fission
Plasma membrane is a fluid mosaic structure
The cell walls are composed of Peptidoglycan
Ribosomal proteins & RNA Polymerase are different from those of eukaryotes.
Examples : Coccus, Bacillus
Characteristic features of Cyanobacteria
Prokaryotic organisms
Photosynthetic
Most are unicellular. But some are linked to form filaments sheathed in mucous.
Photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll a , phycocyanin .Blue-green in colour.
Some have the ability of fixing atmospheric nitrogen
Examples : Lyngbya, Anabaena, Nostoc
Practical:
Observation of the characteristic features of typical Bacteria and Cyanobacteria

34
Competency 3.1.0 : Explores the diversity of organisms
Competency Level 3.1.3 : Explores the diversity of organisms within the
kingdom Protista
Number of Periods : 04
Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to :
elaborate the characteristic features of kingdom Protista.
classify organisms in kingdom Protista into phyla using characteristic features.
identify organisms belonging to kingdom Protista.
Suggested learning- teaching process:
Provide students with literature (print or electronic) on kingdom Protista
Advise them to extract characteristic features
Provide opportunities for the students to make observations using microscope and
live/preserved specimens of Protists to identify characteristics.
Prepare the students for a presentation
Make an elaboration according to an appropriate sequence.

Guidelines :
Phyla of kingdom Protista
Discuss the main characteristics of each phylum

Ciliophora Rhizopoda Chrysophyta Phaeophyta Rhodophyta Chlorophyta

Unicellular Unicellular Unicellular Multicellular Multicellular Uni or
multicellular
Heterotrophic Heterotrophic Photo autotrophic Photo Photoautotrophic Photoautotrophic
Chlorophyll-a,c, autotrophic Chlorophyll-a,d, Chlorophyll-a,b,
carotene fucoxanthin Chlorophyll- phy co - cyanin, carotene,
are the photosynthetic a,c, carotene phycoery thrin, xanthophyll
pigments fucoxanthin carotene
Cilia as the Pseudopodia Reproductive cells Reproductive No flagella Vegetative cells
locomotory have single flagellum cells have and reproductive
structures flagella cells posses
flagella
No cell wall No cell wall Made up of cellulose, Cellulose, Cellulose, agar Cellulose, pectin
pectin, mainly silica alginic acid
Storage Laminarin & Floridian starch Starch
- Chrysolaminarin manitol
Paramecium Amoeba Diatoms Sargassam Gelidium Chlamydomonas
Practical
Observation of the characteristic features of typical organisms of above phyla.

35
Competency 3.1.0 : Explores the diversity of organisms
Competency Level 3.1.4 : Explores the diversity of organisms within the
kingdom Fungi
Number of Periods : 04
Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to :
identify fungi growing in different habitats.
observe and identify the vegetative and reproductive structures of fungi.
classify organisms in kingdom Fungi on the basis of vegetative and reproductive structures.
Suggested learning- teaching process:
Provide students with literature (print or electronic) on kingdom Fungi.
Advise them to extract characteristic features
Provide opportunities for the students to make observations on microscopic and live/preserved
specimens of Fungi and identify characteristics.
Prepare the students for a presentation
Make an elaboration according to an appropriate sequence.
Guidelines :
Discuss the main characteristics of main phyla of kingdom Fungi

Phylum - Phylum – Phylum – Phylum –

Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota
Aquatic, flagellated Branched, coenocytic and Branched, multinucleated Branched, monokaryotic
fungi, dichotomously aseptate mycelium and septate mycelium or dikaryotic and septate
branched hyphae mycelium
Asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction by Asexual reproduction by Asexual reproduction by
by flagellated spores within sporangium conidia various spores
zoospores.
Sexual reproduction zygosporangium is Sexual reproduction by Sexual reproduction by
by motile male and produced in sexual ascospores basidiospores
female gametes reproduction
Allomyces Mucor Aspergillus Agaricus
Practical:
Observation of the characteristic features of typical organism of the above phyla.

36
Competency 3.1.0 : Explores the diversity of organisms
Competency Level 3.1.5 : Explores the diversity of organisms within the
kingdom Plantae
Number of Periods : 06

Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to :
classify organisms in to kingdom Plantae using characteristic features.
describe and compare the adaptations of each phyla in Plant kingdom for their successful
terrestrial life.
classify flowering plants into Monocots and Dicots using characteristics features.
Suggested learning- teaching process:
Provide students with literature (print or electronic) on Kingdom Plantae
Provide opportunities for the students to make observations on microscopic and live/preserved
specimens and identify characteristics.
Prepare students for a presentation.
Make an elaboration according to an appropriate sequence
Guidelines :
Discuss the main characteristics of the phyla of kingdom Plantae

Anthop
Bryophyta Lycophyta Pterophyta Cycadophyta Coniferophyta
hyta
Especially common Common in Terrestrial Life adaptations are found
in moist terrestrial moist terrestrial
places places
No vascular tissue Vascular tissues are present
Gametophytes are Sporophytes are Sporophytes are Sporophytes are dominant and photosynthetic
dominant & dominant & dominant both Gametophytes depend on Sporophytes
photosynthetic gametophytes are
partially depend photosynthetic
on sporophytes
Homosporous Homosporous or homosporous
Heterosporous
heterosporous
External water is necessary for fertilization For fertilization external water is not essential
Seed less plants Seed bearing plants
Naked seed plants seeds in fruits
Do not bear flowers Bear flowers
as sexual
reproducing
unit
Marchantia, Sellaginella Nephrolepis Cycas Pinus flowering
Mosses- Lycopodium (Ferns) plant
Pogonatum

37
 Discuss the main characteristic features of classes of phylum Anthophyta

Class – Monocotyledoneae Class – Dicotyledoneae

The embryos have only one cotyledone Embryos have two cotyledons
Fibrous root system Tap root system
Parallel veins in leaves Reticulate veins in leaves
Flower parts are trimerous Flowers are pentamerous or tetramerous
Perianth present in flowers (No distinct calyx & Distinct calyx and corolla present in flowers
corolla)
Vascular bundles in the stem do not have cambia Vascular bundles in the stem have cambia and
and are scattered arranged in a ring
E.g.: grasses, coconut, paddy E.g.: Rose, shoe flower

Practical:
Observation of characteristic features of typical organism of the above phyla and classes.

38
 Competency 3.1.0 : Explores the diversity of organisms
Competency Level 3.1.6 : Explores the diversity of organisms within
the kingdom Animalia
Number of Periods : 05
Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to:
elaborate the characteristic features of kingdom Animalia.
uses characteristic features of each phylum as appropriate criteria to classify organisms
belonging to kingdom Animalia
identify typical organisms belonging to phyla in kingdom Animalia.
Suggested learning- teaching process:
Provide students with literature (print or electronic) on invertebrate phyla of kingdom
Animalia.
Provide opportunities for the students to make observations on live/preserved specimens to
identify characteristics.
Advise them to synthesize characteristic features
Prepare the students for a presentation.
make an elaboration to highlight important points.

Guidelines :
Discuss the main characteristics, of the Invertebrate phyla of kingdom Animalia.

Coelenterata Echinoderm
Platyhelminthes Nematoda Annelida Mollusca Arthropoda
(Cnidaria) ata
Marine or Free-living forms Found in Found in Mostly Terrestrial or Exclusively
freshwater inhabit water or soil, water marine, marine or aquatic marine
moist soil, and as freshwater or freshwater,
parasites inside parasites. on/in soil Some
the host body terrestrial
Radial Adults: penta
symmetry radial
Bilateral symmetry symmetry
Larvae
:bilateral
symmetry
Diploblastic, Triploblastic
Mesoglea No body cavity Pseudocoel- Well Haemocoel Haemocoel Large
present om present developed (Coelom (Coelom coelom .A
between two coelom reduced) greatly part is
germ layers reduced ) developed as
water
vascular
system with
associated
tube feet

39
Coelenterata Echinoderma
Platyhelminthes Nematoda Annelida Mollusca Arthropoda
(Cnidaria) ta

Two types of Dorsoventrally Slender, Cylindri- A little trace Externally Cylindrical or

body form - flattened body. cylindrical -cal worm of segmen- segmented star or flower
tube like No segmentation tapered end like body tation body. Each like form.
polyp, body. No internal and Different segment No
umbrella like segmentation external types of body typically segmentation
medusa segmentation forms bears a pair
of jointed
No appendages.
segmentation
Cephalization Shows some Shows some Shows Clear Distinct No
absent degree of degree of cephalization cephalization. cephalization, cephalization
cephalization cephalizatio Body is parts of body; Body is
n divided into generally arranged in
head, divided into oral aboral
muscular head, thorax axis
foot, visceral & abdomen
mass
Nematocysts Epidermis soft and Extracellular Definite Body Exoskeleton Body covered
present in cell ciliated or covered tough cuticle and covering is of chitin by delicate
layer. No by cuticle and with cuticle is chetae of soft and it secreted by epidermis
cuticle external suckers or present chitin forms a epidermis often with
hooks or both mantle spines
Corals posses No skeleton Hydrostatic Hydrostatic Many have exoskeleton endoskeleton
limy or horny skeleton of skeleton of Exoskeleton,
Exoskeleton. pseudocoelo coelomic In some
mic fluid fluid endoskeleton
Lacks cilia Lacks cilia at
at any stage any stage

40
Coelenterata
Platyhelminthes Nematoda Annelida Mollusca Arthropoda Echinodermata
(Cnidaria)
Complete
Gastro vascular Incomplete Complete Alimentary canal having mouth & anus alimentary tract
cavity alimentary canal. in some. Some
Only mouth no lack anus
anus Radulla Mouth parts
present in present
some
Closed Open circulatory Reduced
No circulatory system circulatory system with circulatory
system with dorsal heart system
lateral hearts
Some have Gills or Gills or book Gills or papillae
No respiratory organs external ctenidia in the lungs or trachea or tube feet or
gills mantle cavity as respiratory cloacal
for respiration. structures respiratory tree
Land forms
as respiratory
respire
through structure
mantle
No excretory Simple excretory Simple Green gland or No excretory
system system with flame excretory Excretory structures: malphigian system
cells & ducts system with nephridia tubules
longitudinal
canals
Nerve net A pair of anterior Nerve ring One pair of Nerve ring Paired dorsal Nervous system
ganglia or a nerve with cerebral with pairs of cerebral ganglia with nerve rings
ring with longitudinal ganglia & ganglia & 2 & double and radial nerves
longitudinal nerve nerve cords double, pairs of ventral solid
cords (1-3)
solid, mid nerve cords nerve cord
ventral
nerve cord
Some with Free living forms Mainly Simple eyes. Some have Antennae, Most do not have
eyespots have eyespots & papillae tentacles tentacles, statocysts sensory organs.
and/or chemoreceptors and palps in eyes,eyespots sensory hairs Some have
statocysts as some and simple and tactile tube feet
sensory statocysts compound eyes eye spots & sen
structures sitive tentacles
Simple gonads Gonads, gonadal Gonads with Gonads and Gonads & Gonads & Large gonads
without ducts ducts, accessory ducts ducts ducts ducts with ducts
organs present
Asexual Asexual No asexual In some by In some In some
reproduction reproduction in reproduction budding or regeneration regeneration
by budding or some forms by or regeneration
regeneration fragmentation regeneration
Unisexual/ Usually bisexual Unisexual Unisexual or Usually Unisexual Unisexual
bisexual bisexual unisexual By parthen
ogenesis in
some insects
and crustaceans
External Internal Internal External or External or Mostly internal External
fertilization fertilization fertilization internal internal fertilization
fertilization
Planula larva Many larval Larval Trochophore Trochophore One or more Bipinnaria or
Stages in parasites. Stage in larva or veliger larval stages dipleurula larva
Free living some larva
forms have no larval
stages

41
Discuss characteristic features of Phylum Chordata
A rod like dorsal notochord present in adults or at least during some developmental
stages
A single, dorsal hollow nerve cord
Pharyngeal gill slits are present at some developmental stage
Post-anal tail is present in adults or at least during some developmental stage
Closed circulatory system with a ventral heart
Coelom well developed
Skeleton if present, is an endoskeleton formed by mesoderm
Sexes usually separate, oviparous, ovoviviparous or viviparous
Practical
Observation of characteristic features of typical organisms of the above phyla

42
Competency 3.1.0 : Explores the diversity of organisms.
Competency Level 3.1.7 : Uses the external features of organisms to identify
their classes.
Number of Periods : 06
Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to :
use external features to classify organisms in phylum Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes,
Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda and Echinodermata into major classes.
identify organisms belonging to major classes of phylum Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes,
Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda and Echinodermata.
explores the diversity of classes within the Invertebrate Phyla.
Suggested learning -teaching process:
Provide students with literature (print or electronic) on selected classes of Invertebrate
phyla of kingdom Animalia.
Provide opportunities for the students to make observations on live/preserved specimens to
identify characteristics.
Advise them to synthesize characteristic features and make presentations.
Make an elaboration to highlight the important points.
Guidelines :
Classes of Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

Hydrozoa Scyphozoa Anthozoa

Dominant stage- polyp which is Dominant stage-medusa which is Polyp stage only ,which is
solitary or colonial, medusa is umbrella shaped & free solitary or colonial , No medusa
small & free swimming swimming, polyp stage is minute stage
or lacking
A circle of tentacles around Four oral arms around mouth , Many tentacles around mouth
mouth Tentacles on the edge in many circles
E.g., Hydra, Obelia E.g., Aurelia (jelly fish) E.g.,Sea anemone, Corals

Classes of Phylum : Platyhelminthes

Turbellaria Trematoda Cestoda

Free living Endoparasitic or ectoparasitic Endoparasitic
Leaf like body. Eye spots Leaf like body, No eyespots in Slender, elongated,flat
present adults body divided into scolex
and proglottids, no eye
spots
Ventral mouth with protrudable Ventral sucker or suckers on Suckers and hooks on
pharynx, No suckers ventral side and oral sucker scolex. No mouth
surrounds mouth
Ciliated epithelium with mucus Cuticle with spines Cuticle with microvilli
glands
E.g., Planaria,Bipalium E.g., Fasciola (liver fluke) E.g., Taenia (tape worm)

43
 Classes of Phylum : Annelida

Polychaeta Oligochaeta Hirudinea

Distinct head with eyes No distinct head No distinct head, having anterior
and tentacles and posterior suckers
Presence of parapodia No parapodia No parapodia
Numerous setae Fewer number of setae No setae
No clitellum Clitellium present No clitellum
E.g.,Nereis E.g.,Earth worm E.g.,Leech

Classes of Phylum : Mollusca

Polyplacophora Bivalvia Gastropoda Cephalopoda

Dorsal shell Shell of two lateral Univalved shell usually Shell external, internal or none
formed by 8 over - valves coiled,In some shells
lapping plates are reduced or absent
Radula present No radula Radula present Radula present
Large, flat foot Hatchet shaped foot Largely developed foot Foot is modified into arms,
tentacles and siphon
Head is present, No head Head is present with Head is present with
without eyes or No eyes tentacles and eyes conspicuous eyes and 8-10
Tentacles. In some No tentacles Eyes on one pair of arms
eye spots present tentacles
E.g.,Chiton E.g.,Mussels, Oyster E.g.,Snail, Slug E.g.,Squid, Octopus

Classes of phylum : Arthropoda

Crustacea Insecta Chilopoda Diplopoda Arachnida
Body is divided Head, thorax Head followed by Head, short thorax (prosoma) cephalo -
into cephalothorax and abdomen numerous segments abdomen thorax and abdomen
and abdomen distinct of body (opisthosoma)(except
in ticks)
One pair of 3 pairs of legs on One pair of legs per Two pairs of legs 4 pairs of legs on
appendages per thorax one/two somite of the body. per somite in the cephalothorax
somite pairs of Poison claws present abdomen (prosoma)
wings.Some
without wings
Two pairs of One pair of One pair of long One pair of short No antennae
antennae antennae antenna antenna
E.g.,prawn, crab E.g., cockroach E.g., Centipede E.g.,Millipede E.g.,Scorpion,
(any insect) Spider, Tick, Mite

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Classes of phylum : Echinodermata
Asteroidea Ophiuroidea Echinoidea Holothuroidea Crinoidea
Consists of a central Small rounded No arms: Rounded or Elongated Body is a small
disc and five tapering disc with five flat body cylindrical cup shaped
arms,each with a distinct arms slender body calyx of limy
longitudinal central which are (calcified)plates
groove (ambulacral long,slender to which five
groove) fragile & flexible arms
jointed,closed (each with a
ambulacaral longitudinal
groove ambulacral
groove) are
attached. Some
have stalks
On the upper surface No pedicellaria Movable spines and No spines or Bearing many
there are many blunt Spines in pedicellaria. Ten gills pedicellaria slender lateral
calcareous spines and lateral side of around mouth pinnules. No
pedicellaria,Many gills arm spines
present
Mouth is in the Mouth is Mouth oral (ventral Mouth anterior. Mouth and
lower(oral) surface & centered & no surface) & anus Anus posterior anus on oral
anus is in the anus aboral(dorsal surface) (upper) surface
upper(aboral) surface
Tube feet with suckers Tube feet with Slender tube feet with Tube feet usually Tentacle like
are present in the oral no suckers in suckers present with tube feet
surface two rows suckers
E.g., Star fish E.g., Brittle star E.g., Sea urchin, Sand E.g., Sea E.g., Sea lily
dollar cucumber
Observation of characteristic features (external) of typical organisms of the above classes.

45
Competency 3.1.0 : Explores the diversity of organisms.
Competency Level 3.1.8 : Uses the characteristic features to study
organisms belonging to phylum Chordata
Number of Periods : 05
Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to :
classify organisms in phylum Chordata into classes using characteristic features.
identify organisms belonging to classes of phylum Chordata.
Suggested learning - teaching process
Provide students with literature (print or electronic) on selected classes of phylum
Chordata.
Provide opportunities for the students to make observations on live/preserved
specimens to identify characteristics.
Advise them to synthesize characteristic features and make presentations.
Make an elaboration to highlight important points.
Guidelines :
Characteristic features to identify major classes of Chordata.
Classes of Phylum : Chordata
Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia
Spindle shaped Spindle shaped Body Head, neck, Stream lined Body with
body divided into body divided comprises trunk and tail, body divided head, neck,
head , trunk and into head ,trunk head and trunk into head, neck, trunk & tail.
tail. and tail. Some have a trunk, tail Differ in forms
tail
Skin with placoid Skin with Soft skin with Skin dry with Skin bears Skin bears
scales cycloid or glands horny scales or feathers ;legs hairs and
ctenoid scales horny have scales glands
plates,No skin
glands
Paired pectoral Paired pentadactyl limbs Paired Paired
& pelvic fins pentadactyl pentadactyl
limbs; front pair limbs
form wings
Heterocercal Homocercal Some adults Post anal tail Short tail bears Tails are of
caudal fin caudal fin have tail . covered with long tail feathers diverse
All larval scales forms.Some
forms have have tails only
tails in embryo
Ventral mouth Usually Ventral mouth. Wide mouth Mouth is Ventral mouth
with enamel terminal mouth If teeth are margined with extended as with teeth in
capped teeth with teeth present they teeth, in some beak;. no teeth sockets
which are bony are fastened to teeth in
the surface of sockets
bones

46
Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia

Inner ear only; no Inner ear Inner and Inner ,middle Inner ,middle External, middle
middle or external only;no middle ear and external and external and inner ear.
ear middle or only; no ear ear Pinna present
external ear external ear
Cartilaginous Bony skeleton Largely bony Completely Skeleton Skeleton largely
skeleton. skeleton ossified light, strong, of bony with
skeleton fully ossified cartilage
with air articulating over
surfaces
cavities
Eyes usually well Eyes usually Eyes often Large lateral Large and Eyes with
developed without well with movable eyes with eye lateral eyes movable lids
lids,lateral line developed lids. lids and with eye lids some have
present without lids. Nictitating nictitating and nictitating
membrane. In
lateral line membrane membrane nictitating
some it is
present present. membrane vestigial
Lateral line
in larvae
Two chambered Two Three Three Four Four chambered
heart chambered chambered chambered chambered heart
heart heart heart heart
Respiration Respiration Respiration
by gills ,sever by gills, pair by gills, Respiration by lungs
al gill openings of gill openings. lungs, skin or
No operculum Gills covered by Buccal cavity
operculum lining

Excretion by kiExcretion by kidney, Excretion by Excretion by kidney, major Excretion by ki

dney, major major nitrogenous kidney, major nitrogenous waste is uric acid dney, major
nitrogenous waste is urea - for nitrogenous nitrogenous
waste is urea marine forms, NH3 waste is urea waste is urea
for fresh for adults,
water forms NH3 for
larval forms

Poikilothermic Homoeothermic

Ten pairs of cranial nerves Twelve pairs of cranial nerves

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Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia

No larval stage; Larval stage may Larval No larval No larval No larval

oviparous or be present; stage stage. stage. stage.
ovoviviparous; usually usually Oviparous or Yolky eggs Embryo
oviparous; present. ovoviviparous in develop
Oviparous ; yolky eggs calcareous within
in shells shells; mother.
oviparous. Viviparous
,some are
oviparous .
Some feed
on milk
produced
by the
mammary
glands of
mother

Internal External External or Internal Internal Internal

fertilization fertilization internal fertilization fertilization fertilization
fertilization

E.g.: shark, E.g.: mullet, E.g.: toad, E.g.: lizard, E.g.: parrot, E.g.: rat,
skate Tuna, frog, Cobra, crow,Ostrich man,
Carangids,Tilapia salamander, crocodile, (Any bird) whale, sea
Ichthyophis turtle ,tortoise lion,
platypus,
bat (Any
animal that
feeds on
mother’s
milk)
Practical
Observe the characteristic features (external) of typical organisms of the above
classes.

48
 Unit 4 - Nutrition
Competency 4.1.0 : Explores the diversity of nutritional processes.
Competency Level 4.1.1 : Investigates the modes of nutrition in
organisms
Number of Periods : 06

Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to:
explain nutrition as an essential life process
differentiate between photoautotrophic & chemoautotrophic nutrition.
explain the process of heterotrophic nutrition.
describe modes of heterotrophic process.
describe the nutrition of insectivorous plants as a special mode
Suggested learning- teaching process:
Show a video/ picture of an insectivorous plant and get the students to name a few
examples.
Provide sources (print and electronic ) on nutrition
Make them understand insectivorous plants as a special mode of nutrition.
Let the students study the resource materials and extract the following points on each
mode of nutrition
Concept
Need
Process
Benefits
Examples
Instruct the students to present their findings.
Make an elaboration according to an appropriate sequence
Guidelines :
Nutrition and its need
Nutrition is the process of acquiring energy and carbon
Organisms need energy for synthesis of substances for growth and repair. Ex:
Protein synthesis, active transport of substances into and out of cells against
concentration gradient (Sodium-Potassium pump), electrical transmission of nerve
impulses, mechanical contraction of muscle and beating of cilia and flagella
Different modes of nutritional patterns in the living world:
Living organisms can be grouped on the basis of their source of energy or source
of carbon
Organisms which have an inorganic source of carbon such as carbon dioxide are
described as autotrophic
Organisms having an organic source of carbon are described as heterotrophic
Organisms using light energy are described as phototrophic
Organisms using chemical energy are described as chemotrophic

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Autotrophs synthesize their own organic requirements from simple inorganic
materials
Autotrophic nutrition - is of two types:
Photoautotrophic – Energy source is sunlight and carbon source is
carbondioxide.eg: cyanobacteria, ,green plants
Chemoautotrophic- energy source is chemical substances and carbon source is
Carbondioxide eg; nitrifying bacteria like Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas
Heterotrophic nutrition - organisms feed on an organic source of carbon. All
animals and fungi and majority of bacteria are heterotrophic
Modes of heterotrophic nutrition
There are three types:
1. Saprotrophic
2. Holozoic
3. Symbiotic
Saprotrophic nutrition
Organisms which feed on dead or decaying organic matter are called
saprotrophs. eg: Many fungi and bacteria. Saprotrophs secrete enzymes on
to the dead organic matter and digest. Soluble end products of this
extracellular digestion are then absorbed and assimilated by the saprotrophs
Holozoic nutrition
Most animals are holozoic. They ingest food into their alimentary canal.
This mode of nutrition consists of five main steps ;
Ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and ejection.
Symbiosis
Two different species of organisms living together. It is divided into three
groups.
Mutualism
Parasitism
Commensalism
Mutualism
It is a close association between two living organisms of different
species, which is beneficial to both partners. e.g., Legume root nodules
and Rhizobium
Parasitism
It is a close association between two living organisms of different
species, which is beneficial to one (parasite) and harmful to the other
(host)
e.g., Plasmodium, Necator americanus, Cuscuta, Loranthus
Commensalism
It is a close association between two living organisms of different
species which is beneficial to one and does not affect the other. e.g., Sea
anemone and hermit crab, epiphytes (orchids)

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Insectivorous plants
This is a special type of nutrition. These plants capture insects passively or actively
and obtain specially their nitrogen requirements by digesting them.
e.g., Nepenthes, Drosera, Utricularia

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Competency 4.1.0 : Explores the diversity of nutritional processes

Competency Level 4.1.2 : Analyses the nutritional requirements for the

optimum growth of plants
Number of Periods : 01
Learning Outcomes :
The student should be able to:
state the macro & trace elements required for plants.
explain forms of absorption
describe functions & deficiency symptoms

Suggested learning- teaching process:

Engage the students referring the competency level 2.1.1 (examines the elemental
composition of living bodies)
Give the following groups of elements to the students.
C, N, Mg, Cl, Zn, Mo
O, K, P, Fe, B
H, Ca, S, Mn, Cu
Instruct the students to gather information from a variety of sources regarding the
following topics, and conduct a presentation to the class.
Divide the elements into macro and trace elements required for plants, forms of
absorption, functions and deficiency symptoms.
Make an elaboration to cover the specified content
Guidelines :
Macro and trace elements required for plants
Plants require a number of inorganic nutrients
Some elements are considered essential elements due to the fact that:
They are components of structural material of plant
They cannot complete the life cycle without these nutrients
Some of these are macro elements, which the plants need in relatively large amounts-
e.g., C , H , O ,N , K , Ca , Mg , P , S
Trace elements are required in low amounts
e.g., Cl , Fe , B , Mn , Zn , Cu ,Mo,
Functions and deficiency symptoms
See appendix
Forms of absorption
See appendix

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