Scientific Method

●​ Scientific method- problem-solving procedures that can include:

1.​ Identifying the problem or a question
2.​ Gathering information
3.​ Developing a hypothesis
4.​ Testing the hypothesis
5.​ Analysing the results
6.​ Draw conclusions
7.​ Repeat for accuracy and validity
Observations
●​ Making sense of something by using our 5 senses
○​ Quantitative-Numerical data
○​ Qualitative-descriptive data
●​ Hypothesis- Educated Guess
●​ Inference- a statement that attempts to explain ot make sense of an observation
Key Science Terms
●​ Scientific Law: description of how things happen in nature.
○​ Ex: Newton's Laws of Motion
●​ Scientific Theory: An explanation based on evidence of why.
○​ Ex: Atomic Theory
●​ Independent Variable
○​ What is being purposefully changed
○​ What is being tested
■​ The “Cause”
●​ Dependent Variable
○​ What is being measured
■​ The “effect”
Metric System
●​ The basic unit of length in the metric system is the meter and is represented by a lowercase
m.
●​ Metric Units
●​ 1 kilometer (Km) = 1000 meters
●​ 1 Meter= 100 centimeters (cm)
●​ 1 Meter - 1000 millimeters (mm)
Metric Mass
●​ Mass refers to the amount of matter in an object. The base unit of mass in the metric system
is the kilogram and is represented by kg
●​ Metric Units
●​ 1 Kilogram (Kg) = 1000 grams (g)
●​ 1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams (mg)
Metric Volume
●​ Volume is the amount of space an object takes up. The base unit of volume in the
metric system is the liter and is represented by L.
●​ Metric Units
●​ 1 liter (L) = 1000 milliliters (mL)
●​ 1 milliliter (mL) - 1 cm3 (or cc)= 1 gram
Meniscus
●​ The curve in the upper surface of a liquid close to the surface of the container or another
object, produced by surface tension
 Describing Motion
●​ Motion: change in position relative to a reference point- when an object changes its
position, dependent on the reference point.
●​ Reference point: an object that appears to stay in place, that seems not to be moving.
●​ Speed: (s) the distance an object travels per unit of time.
●​ Average speed: total distance traveled divided by total time traveled.
●​ Instantaneous speed: the speed at any given point- shows up on your speedometer.
●​ Distance: how far an object has moved.
●​ Displacement: distance and direction of an object’s change in position from the starting to
the ending point.
●​ Velocity: the speed of an object and the direction of its motion.
●​ Slope: the steepness of a line on a distance vs time graph. This means that, therefore, on a
distance vs. time graph, the slope equals speed.
●​ Speed = miles/hour (mph), meters/s (m/s), kilometers/minute (km/min)
●​ Distance = miles (mi), meters (m), kilometers (km)
●​ Time = hours (h), seconds (s), minutes (m)
●​ d= speed x time
●​ T = distance/speed
●​ S = distance/time
Acceleration
●​ Acceleration: rate of change of velocity over time. An object accelerates when it speeds up,
slows down, or changes direction.
Velocity
●​ Measured in mi/h2, m/s2, km/h2, etc. Or ni/h/h, m/s/s, km/h/h.
●​ Velocity: speed with a direction. When you see speed in a physics problem, you can use it as
a velocity.
Types
●​ Positive acceleration is when an object speeds up.
●​ Negative acceleration is when an object slows down.
●​ A = vf-vi/t
●​ A = acceleration
●​ Vf - final velocity (velocity at the end)
●​ Vi - initial velocity (velocity at the beginning)
●​ t= time
●​ A distance-time graph tells us how far an object has moved with time.
●​ The steeper the graph, the faster the motion.
●​ A horizontal line means the object is not changing its position - it is not moving or at rest.
 Comparing Graphs
●​ Distance/Time Graphs vs. Speed/Time
●​ Time is always plotted on the x-axis (Bottom of the graph)
●​ Distance is plotted on the y-axis. The higher up the graph, the further from the start.
●​ A distance-time graph tells us how far an object has moved with time.
●​ The steeper the graph, the faster the motion.
Speed/Time Graphs
●​ Speed-Time graphs are also called Velocity-Time graphs. Speed-Time graphs
look much like Distance-Time graphs. Be sure to read the labels!!
●​ Time is plotted on the x-axis. Seed or velocity is plotted on the y-axis
●​ A speed-time graph shows us how the speed of a moving object changes with
time.
●​ The steeper the graph, the greater the acceleration.
●​ A horizontal line means the object is moving at a constant speed.
●​ A downward sloping line means the object is slowing down.
 Forces
●​ Force: Push or pull one object exerts on another.
○​ Measured in Newtons (N)
○​ Forces can cause a change in an object’s motion
○​ More than one force can act on an object at one time
●​ Net Force: The total sum of forces when two or more forces act on an object
●​ Balanced Forces: forces that are equal in size and opposite in direction
○​ Does not cause a change in motion because the net force on the object is 0.
●​ Unbalanced Forces: forces that are not equal in size and opposite in direction
○​ Net force causes the object to move in the direction of the force.
What Kinds of forces change an object’s motion?
●​ Friction: resistance to motion when two objects are in contact.
●​ Air resistance: the resistance an object feels while travelling through the air.
●​ Gravity: the attraction two objects have on one another.
2 Factors of Friction
●​ The rougher the surface, the greater the friction
●​ The greater the force, the greater the friction
“Friction in the air” Air resistance (drag)
●​ Determined by:
○​ Speed: More speed = more resistance
○​ Size: Larger object = more resistance
○​ Shape: Wider Shape = more resistance
Normal Force:
●​ The force that surfaces exert to prevent solid objects from passing through them.
●​ Surfaces only exert a normal force if something is in contact with them.
●​ Weight = mass x gravity (9.8 m/s)
Types of Friction
●​ Static Friction: Force between two surfaces that are NOT moving past each other
●​ Sliding Friction: Force between two surfaces that are sliding past each other.
●​ Rolling friction: The Force between a rolling object and the surface it rolls on.
●​ Kinetic Friction: Friction between moving surfaces.
Gravity
●​ The attraction of Earth pulls objects down
●​ This force causes all falling objects to have an acceleration due to gravity of 9.8 m/s
Weight
●​ Weight: The force of gravity on an object
○​ Because it is a force, you can always calculate weight using F=ma
○​ When finding weight, acceleration due to gravity is always used = 9.8 m/s2
 Laws of Universal Gravitation
●​ Any two masses exert an attractive force on each other
○​ Depends on:
■​ Mass: the greater the mass, the greater the gravitational attraction
■​ Distance: The lower the distance, the greater the gravitational attraction
Terminal Velocity
●​ Terminal Velocity is the Maximum velocity a falling object will reach. It occurs when the
force of gravity and air resistance become balanced.
●​ Net force 0; therefore, no acceleration
●​ Regardless of mass and ignoring air resistance
Weight vs. Mass
●​ Mass: The amount of matter in an object
●​ Weight: The force of gravity on an object
○​ Meaning it can change based on location:
○​ The further from Earth you are, the lower your weight
○​ On the moon, your weight would be ⅙ of what it is now
○​ If you were on another planet, your weight would change based on the gravity of
that planet
○​ On Jupiter, your weight would be twice as much as it is now.
Newton’s 1st Law
●​ Newton’s 1st law: An object in motion will stay in motion, and an object at rest will stay at
rest unless acted upon by an unbalanced force
●​ Newton’s 1st law is also known as the law of Inertia
○​ Inertia: the tendency of an object to resist a change in motion
■​ The more mass an object has, the more inertia it has
Newton’s 2nd Law
●​ Force mass x acceleration
○​ Force is measured in N
○​ Mass is measured in Kg
○​ Acceleration is measured in m/s2
●​ When mass is in kilograms and acceleration is in m/s2, the unit of force is in newtons.
○​ If an object jas a lot of mass, you will ned a lot of force to change
○​ The greater the force, the greater the acceleration
●​ If mass remains constant, doubling the acceleration doubles the force. If force remains
constant, doubling the mass halves the acceleration
Newton’s 3rd Law
●​ Every action has its equal and opposite reaction.
 ○​ When one force acts on an object, the object exerts a force that is equal in size and
opposite in direction.
Law of Conservation of Momentum
●​ Momentum: (P) mass in motion
P=MV
●​ All moving objects have momentum
●​ Momentum is transferred between objects in a collision
●​ Momentum is never created or destroyed in a collision, it is only transferred.
 ENERGY
Energy:
●​ Energy: the ability to cause change or do work
○​ Measured in Joules (J)
○​ There are many different types of energy
●​ The combination of energy and matter makes up the universe
●​ Matter is substance, and energy is the mover of substances.
●​ Energy is nature’s way of keeping score.
Energy lets us do work
●​ Work involves a change in a system
○​ This might be changing something’s position, like moving things as you pick up a
room
○​ Other types of change would be heating or cooling a building, generating an image
on a television screen, and moving speakers back and forth to make sound
●​ Since different tasks require different amounts of work, some things require more energy
than others
●​ The work that energy allows us to do can be divided into 5 main tasks
○​ Energy produces light
○​ Energy produces heat
○​ Energy produces motion
○​ Energy produces growth
○​ Energy powers technology
Energy of Position or in storage- Potential/kinetic energy of motion
●​ Water behind a dam - flowing water
●​ Hammer overhead - falling hammer
●​ Food on the plate - food converted
●​ Roller coaster on top of a hill, not moving - Roller coaster in motion
●​ The sum of Kinetic Energy (KE) and Potential Energy (PE) is a constant
●​ Formulas for KE:
●​ KE= ½ (mv2)
●​ KE= .5 (mv2)
●​ KE (mv2)/2
●​ Potential energy: stored energy
●​ Energy that is stored and waiting to be used later.
●​ 3 types of Potential Energy:
○​ Elastic
○​ Chemical
○​ Gravitational
●​ Elastic Potential energy: energy stored in objects being compressed, stretched, or expanded
of an elastic object
○​ Examples: Bow and arrow, spring, slingshot
●​ Chemical Potentia: Energy: energy stored in chemical bonds of compounds
○​ Examples: firewood, battery, food
●​ Gravitational Potential Energy: energy stored in objects that are above Earth’s surface
○​ GPE mass x gravity x height
○​ GPE= mgh
Formulas for Potential Energy
●​ Potential Energy weight x height
●​ Weight = mass x gravity
Forms of Energy
1.​ Mechanical Energy
2.​ Thermal (heat) energy
3.​ Radiant (light and solar) (electromagnetic) Energy
4.​ Electrical Energy
5.​ Nuclear Energy
6.​ Chemical Energy
7.​ Sound Energy
●​ The source of all our energy is the sun
What is mechanical energy
●​ Energy due to an object's motion (kinetic) or position (potential)
●​ ME= PE + KE
●​ Moving objects and their positions
What is radiant energy
●​ Light and solar energy
●​ Light energy- produced by the vibrations of electrically charged particles
●​ Includes energy from Gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, infrared rays,
microwaves, and radio bands
What is Electrical Energy
●​ Energy is caused by the movement of electrons
●​ Easily transported through power lines and converted into other forms of energy.
●​ Electricity, batteries, power lines, lightning, static shock
●​ KE
What is Chemical Energy
●​ Energy that is available for release from chemical reactions
●​ PE only
●​ Match, gasoline, food, coal, wood, cells in your body
 What is Sound energy
●​ Energy that is caused by an object’s vibrations
●​ Compression of waves of air or another medium
What is Nuclear Energy
●​ Energy is stored in the center (nucleus) of an atom
●​ The sun is the most powerful type of energy
●​ Potential Energy (PE) only
What is thermal energy
●​ Thermal energy is all of the kinetic energy due to the random motion of the particles that
make up an object. It is only Kinetic Energy (KE)
●​ Molecules moving faster means more heat.
●​ The thermal energy of an object determines how active its atoms are. A hot object is one
whose atoms and molecules are excited and move rapidly. A cooler object’s molecules and
atoms will show less movement. Heat is what is being transferred. A higher temperature to a
lower temperature.
Energy conversion
●​ Energy conversion is a change from one form of energy to another.
Section Review
●​ Energy makes work
●​ Mechanical energy is made up of Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy
●​ Energy is what makes work
●​ Higher speed means more kinetic energy, and when a high-kinetic energy blob meets a
low-kinetic energy blob, it crashes.
The Law of Conservation of Energy
●​ Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it may be transformed from one form into another,
but the total amount of energy never changes.
●​ There normally is no energy conversion without some Thermal energy.
●​ Any time one form of energy is converted into another form, some of the original energy
always gets converted into thermal energy. Normally, not useful energy
●​ Perpetual motion is impossible because energy conversions always result in the production
of waste thermal energy.
●​ Solar - sunlight can be changed into electrical energy through solar cells (calculators and
houses).
●​ Water/Hydroelectric - energy due to moving water, falling water turns a turbine in a dam,
which is connected to a generator that changes kinetic energy into electrical energy.y
●​ Wind Energy - caused by the sun’s heating of Earth’s surface - the kinetic energy of wind can
turn the blades, which can be converted into electrical energy
●​ Geothermal - Geothermal energy originates from the Earth's core. This energy, in the form
of heat, is then used in various applications, such as heating, cooling, and electricity
generation.
Thermal Energy
●​ Thermal Energy: The sum of kinetic and potential energy of the particles in an object.
○​ Thermal Energy increases as mass increases
○​ Thermal energy increases as temperature increases
●​ Temperature: a measure of the average kinetic energy of a molecule or atom
Materials
●​ Conductors: Materials that allow heat to flow easily. Example- Metals, skin, curling iron,
cookie sheet, iron skillet, copper pipe, stove coil
●​ Insulators: Materials that do not allow heat to flow easily. Example- Air, wood, styrofoam,
plastic, fiberglass, flannel shirt, oven mitt, plastic spatula, fiberglass insulation, ceramic bowl
Transfer of Thermal Energy
1.​ Conduction: Transfer of energy through matter by direct contact of particles. Solids are the
best conductors of heat.
a.​ Particles are already so close together, so contact is easy
2.​ Convection: transfer of energy by the movement of heated particles - occurs in liquids and
gases
a.​ Currents move heat from warmer to cooler parts of the substance
3.​ Radiation: transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves. Occurs fastest in gases.
a.​ Can be absorbed or reflected
b.​ Can travel through space & between molecules
 Waves
●​ Wave: a rhythmic disturbance that transfers energy through matter or space. A repeating
pattern of motion that transfers energy from place to place
●​ Carries energy without carrying matter from place to place
Classifying Waves
●​ Electromagnetic Waves: Waves capable of transferring energy through a vacuum. Example:
Light waves.
●​ Mechanical Waves: waves that can only travel through a medium
○​ Medium: matter through which a wave travels; can be solid, liquid, or gas. Example:
sound and water waves
●​ Transverse: matter in the medium moves back and forth at right angles to the direction that
the wave is travelling
○​ Particle motion is perpendicular to wave motion
○​ Example: Electromagnetic waves, vibrations in string instruments, ripples on the
surface of water
●​ Longitudinal: (AKA compressional waves) matter in the medium moves back and forth in
the same direction that the wave is travelling
○​ Particle motion is parallel to wave motion
○​ Example: Sound Waves, Ultrasounds, waves made with a slinky
Labelling Parts of a Wave
●​ Crests: (AKA peak) highest points of a transverse wave
●​ Trough: the lowest points of a transverse wave
●​ Compression: where particles are pushed together in a longitudinal wave
●​ Rarefaction: where particles are spread apart in a longitudinal wave
Measuring Waves
●​ Amplitude: the amount of energy carried by a wave
●​ Wavelength: (λ) the distance between one point on a wave and the nearest point just like it.
Measured in meters.
●​ Period: (T) the amount of time it takes one wavelength to pass a point. Measured in seconds.
T=1/f
●​ Frequency: (f) the number of waves that pass through a given point in one second. Measured
in Hertz (Hz). F= 1/T
●​ Frequency and wavelength also have an inverse relationship. The higher the frequency, the
shorter the wavelength. The lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength
 Nature and Properties of Waves
Measuring Waves
●​ Wave Speed: (v) how fast the wave travels. Measured in m/s
○​ Speed is dependent on the type of wave and the properties of the medium the wave
is travelling through
●​ Mechanical Waves (like sound): must travel through particles, therefore travel fastest
through solids, then liquids, then gases
○​ Also, travel faster through warmer mediums, because particles collide more
●​ Electromagnetic Waves (like light): do not need a medium, therefore travel fastest through a
vacuum, and slowest through solids.
Wave Speed Equations
●​ The wave speed equation is v=λf
●​ v= wavespeed (m/s)
●​ λ= wavelength (m). Wavelength: length of one wave measured from peak to peak
●​ . f frequency (Hz). Frequency: the number of waves that pass a given point in a second
Period (T)
●​ The period of a wave is the time it takes for one complete cycle of a wave to pass a given
point.
●​ Formula: Time = 1/frequency -> T = 1/f. Frequency = 1/time -> F = 1/t
●​ Wave speed = wavelength x frequency. V = λ x f
●​ Frequency = wavespeed / wavelength. F = v/λ
●​ Wavelength = wavespeed / frequency. λ = v/f
Measuring Waves
●​ V Wave speed velocity measured in m/s
●​ λ= Wavelength measured in m
●​ ffFrequency measured in Hz
Behaviour of Waves
●​ Reflection: When a wave strikes an object & bounces off of it
●​ All types of waves can be reflected
●​ Echoes are reflected sound waves
Law of Reflection
●​ Law of reflection: The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection.
●​ Reflected: Wave that bounces off of surface
●​ Incident: A Wave that strikes the surface
Refraction
●​ Refraction: the bending of waves caused by a change in their speed as they move from one
medium to another
○​ The greater the change in speed, the more the wave bends
 How do prisms work?
1.​ Light waves enter a prism and slow down due to the change in medium.
2.​ This causes the waves to bend (refract) as they move through the new medium.
a.​ The different colours of light bend different amounts. Thus, the colours are
separated. This is because each colour of light is a different wavelength, thus travels
at a different speed.d
Diffraction
●​ Diffraction: When an object causes a wave to change direction and bend around it
○​ The amount of diffraction depends on:
■​ The size of the object
■​ The waves hit
■​ The wavelength of the waves
○​ Sound waves tend to diffract much better than light waves because they are much
larger.r

Absorption

Absorption: When a wave strikes Interference

an object and goes into it (it's
absorbed) Interference: When two or more waves combine to
form a new wave
Energy from the wave gets
converted to thermal energy Can be constructive ot destructrive

Example: Dark clouds are better at

absorbing light waves than light,
thus it is better
Constructive Destructive

When two or more waves add together When two or more waves subtract from one another
when they overlap

Like parts of waves must line up Opposite parts of waves must line up

Results in an increase in the amplitude of the Results in a decrease in the amplitude of the wave
wave

Electromagnetic Spectrum
●​ Electromagnetic waves: released by a vibrating electric charge, capable of transferring energy
through a vacuum
○​ Doesn’t need a medium to travel
○​ Travels at 300,000,000 m/s in a vacuum (slower with matter)
●​ Electromagnetic waves can behave as waves and particles called photons (a massive bundle of
energy)
●​ Electromagnetic waves give off energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation
●​ Visible light: ROYGBIV (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet)
●​ Radio Waves: emitted by radio stations, MRIs, RADAR, Wi-Fi, TV, and cellphones
○​ Longest wavelength with the lowest frequency
●​ Microwaves: used for cooking, Doppler Radar, and GPS
●​ Infrared waves: used in night vision goggles, remote controls, and infrared photography
●​ Visible Light waves: the only electromagnetic waves we can see; given off by the sun and
light bulbs.
○​ Different colours of light have different wavelengths. Red is long, violet is short.
●​ Ultraviolet waves: given off by the sun: used in light bulbs, to kill bacteria, and by the human
body
●​ X-Rays: used to take pictures of bones to check for breaks and fractures, also used in CT
scans.
○​ Small enough to penetrate skin cells
○​ Overexposure can cause cancer
●​ Gamma Rays: used to kill cancer cells, sterilise medical equipment, and as radioactive
tracers.
○​ Smallest wavelength with the highest frequencies
 Matter
States of matter
●​ Matter is anything that takes up space & has mass
●​ It occurs in three states
○​ Solid
○​ Liquid
○​ Gas

Solid Liquid Gas

Solids are matter with a A liquid is a matter that has a Gas is a matter that does not
definite shape and volume definite volume but no have a definite shape or
definite shape volume

The particles are in a tight, The volume of a liquid, The particles in gas are much
regular pattern however, is the same no matter farther apart than those in a
what the shape of the liquid or solid
container is

The particles are close together Particles are further apart and Gas particles move at high
and vibrate can move freely speeds in all directions

A solid does not take the shape A liquid takes the shape of a A gas does not take the shape
of a container in which it is container in which it is placed of the container, or anywhere
placed around it.

Viscosity Meniscus Vapor

A liquid's resistance to flow is The curve at a liquid's surface Matter that exists in the gas
known as the liquid’s viscosity by which one measures the state but is generally a liquid
volume or solid at room temperature is
called a vapor

The slower a liquid flows, the

higher its viscosity is

For many liquids, viscosity

increases as the liquid becomes
colder
Motion of Molecules
●​ Adding heat energy increases the motion of molecules
●​ Removing heat energy, or cooling, decreases the motion of molecules
 Volume
●​ The amount of space an object takes up. Liquid SI unit - L or mL
●​ Solids SI Unit - m3, or cm3 - calculated by V = l*w*h for regular-shaped solids. For
irregular-shaped solids, use the displacement method
●​ Displacement method - Enables you to measure the volume of your item by finding out the
volume of water the item displaces
●​ Mass: The amount of matter in an object. It does not change with location
Physical Change vs. Chemical Change
●​ Any change in matter that does not change the identity of the matter
○​ It affects the size, shape, or form of a substance, but does not affect its composition
●​ The atoms remain the same
●​ It's a change in which matter looks different but is still the same matter. Example - water to
an ice cube
●​ Keywords in physical changes - boiling, melting, freezing, cutting, grinding, pulverising,
compressing, or expanding, evaporating
●​ Density - the measure of how much matter (mass) is packed into an item or material
compared to the amount of space (volume) it takes up
○​ Formula - Density = Mass/Volume. D = M/V
○​ It is a physical property
●​ The mass of atoms, their size, and how they are arranged determine the density of a
substance.
●​ The density of water is 1
●​ An object that is denser than water will sink. An object that is not as dense as water will
float
●​ Any substance having a density less than one will float on water. Any substance having a
density greater than one will sink.
●​ Physical Property - characteristic that can be observed or measured, such as colour, state, or
hardness.
●​ Physical change - a change in the form of a substance that does not change its identity
Chemical Change
●​ Chemical Change - a change in matter in which one substance is changed into another
●​ A change that results in the formation of a new substance with different properties: colour,
hardness, or melting point
○​ Atoms are arranged or bonded differently
●​ It is an entirely different matter
●​ Keywords: burning, rotting, rusting, decomposing
●​ Chemical reaction - when one or more substances change into entirely new substances with
different properties
●​ Clues of a reaction
1.​ Production of gas
2.​ Change in temperature
3.​ Colour change
4.​ Change of odor
5.​ Change of composition
6.​ Light or heat given off
7.​ Decomposition of organic matter
8.​ Production of a precipitate
9.​ Change is difficult or impossible to reverse
Examples of physical properties
●​ Malleability: the ability of a substance to be rolled or pounded into thin sheets
●​ Ductility: the ability of a substance to be pulled into wire
●​ Thermal Conductivity: the rate at which a substance transfers heat
●​ State: physical form in which a substance exists
●​ Density: m/v
●​ Solubility: the ability of one substance to dissolve in another at a given temperature or
pressure
Examples of Chemical Properties
●​ Flammability: the ability of a new substance to burn
●​ Reactivity: the ability of two or more substances to combine and form one or more new
substances
Changes of State Terms
●​ Evaporation: the change of state from a liquid to a gas
●​ Condensation: the change of state from a gas to a liquid
●​ Sublimation: the change of state from a solid directly to a gas
●​ Exothermic: a change in which energy is removed from the substance as it changes state
●​ Endothermic: a change in which energy is gained from the substance as it changes state
 Chemistry
Gas Laws
●​ Three factors that affect gas behavior: volume, temperature, and pressure
●​ Boyle’s law: temperature remains constant, volume increases as pressure decreases. Volume
decreases as pressure increases
●​ Charles’ Law: pressure remains constant. Temperature decreases. Volume decreases.
Temperature increases. Volume increases
Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
●​ Element: a substance that cannot be separated or broken down into simpler substances by
chemical means.
●​ Compound: contains atoms of more than one type of element that are chemically bonded
(HCl, H2O, NaCl, MgCl)
●​ Mixture: composed of two or more substances that are not chemically combined. (Chex mix,
saltwater, pebbles in the sand, pizza toppings.)
●​ Solution: a mixture of 2 or more substances that are distributed evenly among each other -
same appearance and properties throughout the mixture
●​ Solute: in a solution, the substance that dissolves in the solvent (substance being dissolved)
●​ Solvent: in a solution, the substance in which the solute dissolves ( substance doing the
dissolving)
●​ Alloy: solid solution of metals or nonmetals dissolved in metals
●​ Homogeneous mixture: components are evenly spread out, appear blended or dissolved, even
distribution.
●​ Heterogeneous mixture: components are not evenly spread out, uneven distribution
Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
●​ Metals
○​ Most elements are metals
○​ The 88 elements to the left of the stair step line are metals or metal-like elements,
except Hydrogen.
○​ Good Conductors of heat and electricity
○​ They have luster (shine)
○​ They are ductile (can be stretched into wires)
○​ They are malleable (can be pounded into thin sheets)
○​ Usually solid at room temperature (Except Mercury/Hg)
○​ High melting and boiling points (Except Mercury/Hg)
○​ High densities and reflect light
○​ Metal corrodes easily
■​ This is a gradual wearing away
○​ Examples: Silver tarnishing
●​ Nonmetals
○​ Nonmetals are found on the right side of the periodic table
○​ Their characteristics are the opposite of metals
○​ Poor conductors of heat and electricity
○​ Nonmetals are not ductile or malleable
○​ Solid nonmetals are brittle and break easily
○​ Dull, not shiny, no luster, doesn’t reflect light
○​ Many nonmetals are gases
●​ Metalloids
○​ The periodic table contains a stair-step line. These elements along that line are called
metalloids.
○​ The “oid” ending to this word means “like or similar to”
○​ Elements in this group have properties of both metals and nonmetals
○​ They are solids that can be shiny or dull
○​ They can conduct heat and electricity, but not as well as metals
○​ They are still ductile and malleable
○​ They are
■​ Solids
■​ Semi-conductors
■​ Physical Properties like metals
■​ Chemical Properties like nonmetals

●​ Concentration: amount of particular substance in a given quantity of a mixture (g/mL).

Concentration = grams of solute/milliliters of solvent
●​ Solvent: the ability of one substance to dissolve in another at a given temperature and
pressure
●​ Dissolve solids faster by: Mixing (stirring or shaking), heating, and crushing.g
●​ Suspension: a mixture in which particles of a material are dispersed throughout a liquid or
gas, but are large enough that they settle out (snowglobe, salad dressing, orange juice,
milkshake, etc)
●​ Colloid: a mixture in which the particles are dispersed throughout, but are not heavy enough
to settle out.
Prefixes in covalent compounds
 Mono 1

Di 2

Tri 3

Trenta 4

Penta 5

Hexa 6
The prefixes are added in front of each element's name to tell us how many atoms are present in
the molecule
The only exception to this use of prefixes is that we never use the prefix mono if there is only
one atom of the FIRST element
What is Chromatography?
●​ Chromatography: a technique used to separate mixtures. The mixture is passed through
another substance, in this case, filter paper
Elements and Atoms
●​ Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass
●​ All matter is made of atoms
●​ Atoms are the building blocks of matter, sort of like how bricks are the building blocks of
houses.
 Development of Atomic Theory
●​ Democritus (440 BCE): came up with the word atom from the Greek word atomos (ἄτομος)
- meaning not able to be divided. He believed that atoms were uniform, solid, hard,
incompressible, and indestructible, and that they moved in infinite numbers through space
until stopped.
●​ Aristotle (320 BCE) thought that not all materials on Earth were made of atoms.
●​ John Dalton (1803): All substances are made of atoms. Atoms are small particles that cannot
be created, divided, or destroyed. Atoms of the same elements are exactly alike. Atoms join
with other atoms to make new substances.
●​ JJ Thomson (1807): Discovered positively charged (protons) and negatively charged particles
(electrons). Made the Plum-Pudding model
●​ Ernest Rutherford (1909): The Center of an atom is a tiny positively charged part called the
nucleus. The atom is mostly space, with nearly all of its mass concentrated in a tiny central
nucleus. The nucleus is positively charged and surrounded at a great distance by the
negatively charged electrons.
●​ Niels Bohr (1913): Proposed electrons move around the nucleus in certain paths or energy
levels
●​ Erwin Schrodinger/ Werner Heisenberg (Modern Atomic Theory in the 1920s): Electron
path can not be predicted, there are regions (electron clouds)

Proton Neutron Electron

Positive Neutral/No Charge Negative

Nucleus Nucleus Electron Cloud

More about Elements

●​ Elements are the building blocks of all matter.
●​ The Periodic Table is a list of all of the elements that can build matter. It’s a little like the
alphabet of Chemistry.
●​ Elements are made of Atoms. While the atoms may have different weights and organisation,
they’re all built in the same way.
●​ To make Molecules, you must have elements.

●​ Periodic Table
○​ Atomic #: Number of Protons and electrons in an atom of an element
○​ Element Symbol: An abbreviation for the element
○​ Element Name
○​ Atomic Mass: Number of protons/electrons + neutrons
 ●​ Electron Cloud: area surrounding the nucleus in which the electrons can be found
○​ Approximately 100,000 times greater in diameter than the nucleus
●​ Chemical activity: the way an atom reacts with atoms of other elements
●​ Dmitri Mendeleev: Russian chemist in 1869 developed a chart of elements based on their
properties - today it is known as the periodic table
●​ Niels Bohr (1913) developed a model showing the atomic nucleus at the center with electrons
orbiting the nucleus
●​ Gilbert Lewis: Developed a mad that only shows symbol and valence electrons
●​ Periodic Table: A table of the chemical elements in which the elements are arranged by
order of atomic number in such a way that the periodic properties (chemical periodicity) of
the elements are made clear
Niels Bohr
●​ The volume of an atom is found in the electron cloud
●​ The mass is found in the nucleus of the atom
●​ Isotope: atoms of the same element that have a different number of neutrons
Electrons have special rules
●​ Only so many electrons can be in any certain shell
●​ The electrons in the outermost shell of any element are called valence electrons
●​ Reactivity: how likely an element is to form a compound with another element based on
valence electrons
○​ Shell 1: 2
○​ Shell 2: 8
○​ Shell 3: 18 (8 for the first 20 elements)
○​ 2-8-8 rule for electrons
Valence Electrons
●​ Electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom
●​ Every atom has 1 or more valence electrons, up to 8
●​ They are the farthest from the nucleus
●​ They are the least tightly bound to the nucleus
●​ They can move from atom to atom
●​ The electrons in the outermost energy levels (farthest from the nucleus)
●​ Are the electrons that can be taken away most easily to form Chemical bonds
Group Numbers 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18

Number of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Valence
Electrons
 Lewis Dot Structure
●​ Model that only shows symbol and valence electrons - created by Gilbert Lewis
●​ Lewis also discovered the covalent bonds
The Periodic Table
●​ The periodic table is arranged in columns and rows
●​ Each column on the periodic table is called a group
●​ There are 18 groups on the periodic table
●​ Each row on the periodic table is called a period
●​ There are 7 periods on the periodic table
●​ Metals: All metals are solids at room temperature, except for Mercury, which is a liquid
●​ Many metals are lustrous and silvery in colour, ductile, malleable, conductive, and some are
magnetic.
●​ Nonmetals: Most nonmetals are gases, except for Bromine, which is a liquid, and 5
nonmetals which are solids
●​ Metalloids: All solids at room temperature. Have both properties of metals and nonmetals.
Mostly metallic in looks, but brittle and are okay conductors of heat & electricity
Group 1: Alkaline Metals (Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Cesium, Francium)
●​ This group of elements is all soft and silver-coloured solids. They are the most reactive of all
the metals because they only have one valence electron. They are all reactive with water.
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals (Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium,
Radium)
●​ These elements are also silver-coloured solids. They are also reactive with water, but less so
than Group 1 elements. They have two valence electrons.
Groups 3-12: Transition Metals
●​ These groups contain metals that have the usual properties of metals
Group 13: Boron Group (Boron, Aluminum, Gallium, Indium, Thallium, Nihonium,
Holmium, Einsteinium)
●​ One metalloid and 5 metals
●​ 3 valence electrons
●​ Reactive
●​ Shared properties: solids at room temperature
Group 14: Carbon Group (Carbon, Silicon, Germanium, Tin, Lead, Flerovium, Erbium,
Fermium)
●​ 1 nonmetal, 2 metalloids, 3 metals
●​ 4 valence electrons
●​ Reactivity varies among the elements
●​ Shared properties: solids at room temperature
 Group 15: Nitrogen Group (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth,
Moscovium, Thulium, Mendelevium)
●​ 2 nonmetals, 2 metalloids, 2 metals
●​ 5 valence electrons
●​ Reactivity varies among the elements
●​ Shared properties: solids at room temperature, except for nitrogen
Group 16: Oxygen Group (Oxygen, Sulfur, Selenium, Tellurium, Polonium, Livermorium,
Ytterbium, Nobelium)
●​ 3 nonmetals, 1 metalloid, and 1 metal
●​ 6 valence electrons
●​ Reactive
●​ Shared properties: solids at room temperature, except for oxygen
Group 17: Halogens (Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Astatine, Tennessine, Lutetium,
Lawrencium)
●​ This element group is all nonmetals and found in all 3 states. They are the most reactive of
all the elements.
Group 18: Noble Gases (Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon, Oganesson)
●​ These non-metal elements are non-reactive gases. Since they don’t form compounds, they are
left alone in chemical equations
●​ Noble gases are also described as inert gases.
 Ionic Bonding
Chemical Bonding
●​ Chemical bond: a link between atoms resulting from the mutual attraction of their nuclei
for electrons, forces that hold the atoms together
●​ Ion: An atom with an electrical charge due to having unequal numbers of electrons and
protons (Charged atom)
●​ Compound: atoms of more than 1 type of element that are chemically bonded together
●​ Chemical formula: a description of a chemical compound using symbols and numbers
●​ Crystal Lattice: a regular pattern in which a crystal is arranged - it is a repeating
3-dimensional pattern
●​ Ionic bonds: transfers of electrons
●​ Ionic compounds form so that each atom, by gaining or losing electrons, has an octet of
electrons in its highest occupied energy level (happy atom :) )
●​ Metals lose electrons to form positively-charged cations
●​ Nonmetals gain electrons to form negatively charged anions
●​ Cation: Positive - loses electrons
●​ Anion: Negative - gains electrons
●​ Electronegativity: The ability of an atom to attract an electron
●​ Ionic bonding: metal with nonmetal
●​ Metals: only a small amount of energy is needed to take electrons from metal atoms
●​ Non-metals: Energy is given off by a non-metal when it gains electrons
●​ Nonmetals negative ion ends with “ide”
○​ Oxygen = oxide
Covalent Bonds
●​ When an atom of one nonmetal shares one or more electrons with an atom of another
nonmetal sho both atoms end up with eight valence electrons
○​ H-H pair
○​ O=O double bond
○​ 3 lines denote triple bonds
●​ Covalent bonds: Chemical bond resulting from the sharing of electrons
●​ A diatomic element is a molecule composed of two of the same atom
○​ Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Fluorine, Oxygen, Iodine, Chlorine, Bromine.