Medieval Indian History (8th–18th Century) – SSC

CGL Notes
I. Early Medieval Period (c. 8th–12th Century CE)

Political Landscape after the Gupta Decline

• After the fall of the Gupta Empire (~6th–7th century CE), India saw political fragmentation.

• Several regional kingdoms emerged and competed for dominance.

• The 8th century marked the rise of three major dynasties in northern and central India:

o Gurjara-Pratiharas – Based in Malwa and Gangetic plains.

o Palas – Dominated Bengal, strong patrons of Buddhism and Nalanda University.

o Rashtrakutas – Controlled the Deccan region, capital at Manyakheta.

• In South India, the Chola dynasty rose to prominence (9th–13th century CE), building a
maritime empire extending to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

• Hinduism gained strength, while Buddhism declined significantly in northern India.

Tripartite Struggle (c. 785–816 CE)

A power struggle for control over the strategically important city of Kannauj among three dynasties:

1. Gurjara-Pratiharas

o Key ruler: Nagabhata II – captured Kannauj (816 CE).

o Later ruler: Mihira Bhoja – expanded influence.

2. Palas

o Notable king: Dharmapala – initially took control of Kannauj.

o Also ruled by Devapala, a strong ruler.

3. Rashtrakutas

o Kings like Dhruva and Govinda III invaded north India.

o Participated in the struggle but failed to hold Kannauj long-term.

Outcome:

• No single dynasty maintained permanent control.

• The struggle weakened all three, preventing any pan-Indian empire from emerging.
 Prominent Rajput Clans

Rajput clans began ruling small kingdoms across North and Central India. Key dynasties:

1. Chahamanas (Chauhans) – Based in Ajmer.

o Famous ruler: Prithviraj Chauhan – defeated Ghori in 1191 (1st Battle of Tarain), but
lost in 1192.

2. Paramaras of Malwa

o Raja Bhoja (c.1010–1055) – a legendary scholar-king, patron of learning.

3. Chandellas of Bundelkhand

o Built the Khajuraho Temples (e.g., by King Yasovarman).

4. Solankis (Chaulukyas) of Gujarat

o Key rulers: Mulraj I, Bhima I.

5. Tomaras of Delhi

o Anangpal Tomar – credited with founding Delhi.

6. Other Clans:

o Gahadavalas of Kannauj, Kalachuris, Gahadavala Dhanga in Bundelkhand, etc.

Note:

• These clans often fought amongst themselves, making them vulnerable to foreign invasions.

South Indian Kingdoms

Key Southern Dynasties:

1. Pallavas (Tamil Nadu)

o Capital: Kanchipuram.

o Key rulers:

▪ Mahendravarman I

▪ Narasimhavarman I – defeated Pulakeshin II, patron of rock-cut temples.

2. Cholas (Tamil Nadu)

o Capital: Thanjavur.

o Major kings:

▪ Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) – built Brihadeswara Temple at Tanjore.

▪ Rajendra I (1012–1044 CE) – led successful naval expeditions to Southeast

Asia.
 3. Chalukyas

o Early Chalukyas (Badami) – Pulakeshin II defeated Harshavardhana.

o Later Western Chalukyas – e.g., Tailapa II.

o Eastern Chalukyas – ruled Vengi.

4. Rashtrakutas (Deccan)

o Capital: Manyakheta.

o Founder: Dantidurga.

o Great ruler: Amoghavarsha I – author of Kavirajamarga.

Contribution:

• Built grand temples, supported art, literature, and had agrarian economies.

Initial Muslim Invasions

1. Arab Invasion of Sindh (711–712 CE)

• Muhammad bin Qasim, an Arab general under the Umayyads, invaded and conquered
Sindh.

• Defeated Raja Dahir, marking the beginning of Muslim rule in parts of India.

2. Turkic Invasions (10th–12th centuries CE)

• Mahmud of Ghazni (r. 998–1030 CE):

o Raided India 17 times (1000–1027 CE).

o Attacked temples at Mathura, Somnath (1025 CE).

o Gained the title "Idol Breaker".

• Muhammad Ghori (Ghurid dynasty):

o First Battle of Tarain (1191 CE) – defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan.

o Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE) – returned and defeated Chauhan.

Impact:

• Ghori’s victory in 1192 CE paved the way for the Delhi Sultanate, marking a new phase of
Islamic rule in India.
 II. Delhi Sultanate (c. 1206–1526 CE)

Overview

The Delhi Sultanate was a major Muslim kingdom that ruled large parts of northern India from the
early 13th to mid-16th century.
It comprised five dynasties, each playing a role in consolidating and expanding Islamic rule in India.

The Five Dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate

Dynasty Duration Key Rulers Key Contributions

Qutb-ud-din Aibak Aibak began Qutb Minar, Iltutmish consolidated

Mamluk 1206–
(founder), Iltutmish, Razia the empire and introduced silver Tanka coin,
(Slave) 1290
Sultana, Balban Balban enforced a strong central authority.

1290– Alauddin repelled Mongols, introduced market

Khilji Jalaluddin, Alauddin Khilji
1320 & tax reforms, and expanded into Deccan.

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, Muhammad's ambitious policies (failed

1320–
Tughlaq Muhammad bin Tughlaq, currency, capital shift); Firoz focused on public
1413
Firoz Shah Tughlaq works.

1414– Khizr Khan (founder), Weak rulers; power mostly symbolic under
Sayyid
1451 Muhammad Shah Timur’s influence.

1451– Bahlul Lodi, Sikandar Lodi, Last Afghan dynasty; defeated by Babur in 1526
Lodi
1526 Ibrahim Lodi at First Battle of Panipat, ending the Sultanate.

Administration under the Sultanate

• Central Structure:

o Sultan = supreme authority

o Key ministers:

▪ Wazir – Finance

▪ Diwan-i-Ariz – Military affairs

▪ Qazi – Justice

▪ Mir Saman – Royal household

▪ Ariz-ul-Mulk – Administrative officer

• Iqta System:

o Empire divided into Iqtas (land grants).

 o Governed by Muqtis/Walis who:

▪ Collected land revenue

▪ Maintained law & order

▪ Paid tribute to Sultan’s treasury

• Reforms by Alauddin Khilji:

o Price control, fixed wages

o Land tax based on measurement

o Restricted hoarding and black marketing

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq:

o Improved revenue assessment

o Brought more structure to taxation

• Village Level:

o Run by zamindars and local chieftains

o Collected taxes and provided troops when needed

Socio-Economic Conditions

• Agrarian Society:

o Majority were peasants

o Taxes:

▪ Kharaj (land tax on non-Muslims and Muslims)

▪ Jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims)

• Trade and Crafts:

o Growth in cotton textiles, carpets, chintz

o Cities like Delhi, Agra, Cambay (Khambhat) became trade hubs

o Internal and external trade with Central Asia

• Social Hierarchy & Slavery:

o Slavery common — war captives often enslaved

o Some became nobles or commanders (e.g., Malik Kafur)

• Problems Faced:

o Frequent famines

o Mongol invasions
 o Revolts due to heavy taxation

Indo-Islamic Art, Architecture, and Literature

Architecture:

• Blend of Persian-Islamic and Indian styles

• Features: Arches, domes, minarets, calligraphy, geometric patterns

Key Monuments:

Monument Patron Notes

Started by Aibak, completed by Part of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque

Qutb Minar
Iltutmish complex

Alai Darwaza Alauddin Khilji Noted for true arch and dome

Tughlaqabad
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Defensive military fort
Fort

Lodi Tombs Lodi Dynasty Found in Lodi Gardens, Delhi

Literature & Culture:

• Persian – the official court language

• Amir Khusrau:

o Disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya

o Wrote Persian poetry, Hindi verses, and developed early qawwali

• Ziyauddin Barani:

o Historian, author of Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi

• Emphasis on historical chronicles, biographies, and Sufi literature

Summary Points for Quick Revision

• Five dynasties ruled between 1206–1526 CE, ending with Ibrahim Lodi’s defeat by Babur.

• Iqta system was the core of revenue and military management.

• Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq were the most impactful rulers (for good or
bad).

• Trade, crafts, and urbanization grew, but heavy taxation and Mongol raids disrupted
stability.

• Indo-Islamic architecture and literature flourished, setting the stage for Mughal culture.
 III. Religious & Cultural Movements

A. The Bhakti Movement

What Was It?

A devotional (bhakti-based) spiritual movement that emphasized:

• Personal devotion to a deity (mostly Vishnu or Shiva)

• Emotional connection over ritualism

• Social equality — rejection of caste hierarchies

• Use of regional languages (not Sanskrit)

Geographical Spread & Timeline

Time
Region Major Themes
Period

South India (Tamil Nadu,

7th–12th c. Early bhakti – intense personal devotion
Karnataka)

15th–17th Emphasis on harmony, unity, and vernacular

North India
c. preaching

Key Saints & Poets

Name Region Deity/Belief Contribution

Tamil
Alvars Vaishnavite Composed Tamil hymns praising Vishnu
Nadu

Tamil
Nayanars Shaivite Devoted to Shiva; used poetry for worship
Nadu

Basava Karnataka Shaivism (Veerashaivism) Rejected caste, promoted equality (12th c.)

North
Ramananda Vaishnavism Guru to Kabir; promoted bhakti in Hindi belt
India

Syncretic (Hindu-Muslim
Kabir Banaras Denounced rituals, caste; composed in dohas
fusion)

Monotheism (Sikhism
Guru Nanak Punjab Preached unity of God, service (sewa)
founder)
Name Region Deity/Belief Contribution

Mirabai Rajasthan Devotee of Krishna Royal poet-saint; bhajans in Rajasthani

Surdas Braj region Krishna devotion Wrote Sursagar, inspired by childhood leelas

Authored Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi

Tulsidas Awadh Rama devotion
(vernacular Ramayana)

Teachings & Impact

• Bhakti over Brahminical rituals

• Equality of all castes and genders

• Rejection of religious orthodoxy

• Spread vernacular literature (bhajans, dohas, kirtans)

• Strengthened a broader, inclusive Hindu identity

B. The Sufi Movement

What Was It?

An Islamic mystical movement rooted in personal devotion to God, inner purity, love, and service —
often blending with local spiritual traditions.

Major Sufi Orders in India

Order Region Key Figures

Chishti Delhi, Ajmer Moinuddin Chishti, Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, Nizamuddin Auliya

Suhrawardi Multan, Sindh Bahauddin Zakariya

Qadiri Punjab, Delhi Shah Niyaz, Miyan Mir

Naqshbandi Delhi Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Orthodox, conservative stance)

Key Saints & Contributions

Saint Location Contributions

Khwaja Moinuddin Founded the Chishti order in India; Ajmer Dargah; emphasized
Ajmer
Chishti (d.1236) charity & inclusion
Saint Location Contributions

Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki Delhi Successor to Moinuddin; spiritual leader in Delhi

Nizamuddin Auliya Most famous Chishti saint; ran khanqahs; deeply loved by
Delhi
(1238–1325) commoners

Fariduddin Ganj Shakar

Punjab Early Punjabi Sufi; merged Islam with Punjabi folklore
(1173–1266)

Amir Khusrau (1253– Disciple of Nizamuddin; poet, musician; pioneer of Qawwali,

Delhi
1325) Hindavi poetry, and Persian-Hindi fusion

Practices & Influence

• Emphasis on love of God, meditation, music (sama/qawwali)

• Khanqahs: Open hospices where people of all faiths were welcomed

• Blended Persian/Islamic elements with Indian styles

• Helped popularize Islam among masses, especially in rural India

• Shared spiritual space with Bhakti movement — both influenced each other

Summary for Quick Revision

• Bhakti: Hindu movement → Personal devotion, no caste, vernacular languages

• Sufi: Islamic mysticism → Inner purity, music, spiritual tolerance

• Common Ground: Both stood against orthodoxy, promoted love, devotion, inclusiveness

• Legacy: Growth of regional literature, broader religious identities, foundations for later
syncretic traditions
 IV. Provincial Kingdoms (c. 14th–16th Centuries)

Background Context

After the decline of central authority of the Delhi Sultanate (post-14th century), regional powers
emerged across India. These independent sultanates and Rajput states shaped the political
landscape prior to Mughal expansion.

A. Northern & Western India

1. Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576)

• Dynasties: Ilyas Shahi and Hussain Shahi

• Capital(s): Pandua (earlier), then Gaur

• Famous Rulers:

o Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah: Founder

o Alauddin Hussain Shah: Patron of arts and literature

• Architecture: Adina Mosque (largest in India at the time)

• Fact: Flourished in trade and Persian culture.

2. Jaunpur Sultanate (1394–1479)

• Founded by: Malik Sarwar (a former slave and Sharqi dynasty founder)

• Region: Eastern Uttar Pradesh

• Culture: Known as the “Shiraz of India” due to literary patronage

• Architectural style: Sharqi architecture (Atala Mosque)

• Annexed by: Lodis in 1479

3. Malwa Sultanate (c. 1401–1562)

• Founder: Dilawar Khan Ghori (former Delhi vassal)

• Capital: Mandu

• Famous Ruler: Hoshang Shah – built grand fortifications in Mandu

• Monuments: Jahaz Mahal, Hindola Mahal

• Annexed by: Mughal Emperor Akbar (1562)

4. Gujarat Sultanate (1407–1573)

• Founder: Muzaffar Shah I

• Capital: Ahmedabad (founded by Ahmed Shah)

• Achievements: Flourished trade via ports like Cambay; cultural hub

• Architecture: Sidi Saiyyed Mosque (known for intricate jali work)

• Annexed by: Akbar (1573)

5. Kashmir (14th Century Onwards)

• Shah Mir Dynasty: Established Muslim rule by replacing Buddhist rulers

• Famous Ruler: Zain-ul-Abidin (“Budshah”) – patron of art, literature, and religious tolerance

• Culture: Persian language & Sufi influence flourished

6. Mewar (Rajput Kingdom, Rajasthan)

• Capital: Udaipur

• Key Rulers:

o Rana Kumbha (r.1433–1468): Military campaigns, built Kumbhalgarh Fort

o Rana Sanga (r.1509–1528): United Rajput forces against Babur

• Major Battle: Battle of Khanwa (1527) – Defeated by Babur

• Legacy: Symbol of Rajput resistance and valor

B. Deccan Sultanates (c. Late 15th–16th Century)

Origin

• Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1527): Founded by Ala-ud-din Bahman Shah

• Fragmented into five Deccan Sultanates after its decline.

The Five Deccan Sultanates

Sultanate Dynasty Capital Notable Rulers & Contributions

Yusuf Adil Shah (founder); Ibrahim Adil Shah II (patron of

Bijapur Adil Shahi Bijapur
art, music, literature)

Nizam
Ahmednagar Ahmednagar Strong resistance to Mughals under Chand Bibi
Shahi
Sultanate Dynasty Capital Notable Rulers & Contributions

Mohammed Quli Qutb Shah founded Hyderabad; built

Golconda Qutb Shahi Hyderabad
Golconda Fort

Berar Imad Shahi Ellichpur Short-lived, later absorbed by Ahmadnagar

Barid
Bidar Bidar Cultural center with Persian influence
Shahi

Features & Impact

• Rich Deccani culture: fusion of Persian, Turkish, and South Indian traditions

• Built forts, palaces, and mosques (e.g., Gol Gumbaz in Bijapur)

• Constant conflict with Vijayanagara Empire and among themselves

• Set the political stage for later Mughal conquest in the South

Quick Revision Table

Region Kingdom Key Feature

Bengal Ilyas Shahi, Hussain Shahi Adina Mosque, Persian culture

Jaunpur Sharqi Literary hub

Malwa Ghori, Hoshang Shah Mandu fort, architecture

Gujarat Muzaffar Shah Trade, Ahmedabad

Kashmir Shah Mir Zain-ul-Abidin’s tolerance

Mewar Rana Kumbha, Rana Sanga Rajput resistance

Deccan 5 Sultanates Cultural fusion, Golconda Fort, Chand Bibi

 V. Vijayanagara & Bahmani Kingdoms (c. 14th–16th
Centuries)

1. Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1565)

Founding & Rise

• Founded by: Harihara I and Bukka Raya I (ex-servants of Kampili kingdom)

• Founded in: 1336 CE

• Capital: Vijayanagara (modern-day Hampi, Karnataka)

• Purpose: To resist Muslim invasions in the South and revive Hindu polity

Important Rulers

Ruler Contributions

Devaraya II (early
Strengthened military; encouraged irrigation and literature
15th c.)

Krishna Deva Raya Golden age: Expanded empire, foreign trade (esp. with Portuguese), patron
(r.1509–1529) of art and Telugu literature (wrote Amuktamalyada)

Administration & Economy

• Feudal system: Nayankara system – Military chiefs (nayaks) given land grants in exchange
for service

• Revenue: Based on agriculture, supported by massive irrigation projects (tanks, canals)

• Trade: Spices, textiles, and horses via Arabian Sea; foreign trade with Portuguese, Arabs

Art & Architecture

• Style: Dravidian temple architecture

• Famous Monuments (Hampi):

o Virupaksha Temple

o Vittala Temple (known for Stone Chariot & Musical Pillars)

• Literature: Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu, and Tamil were patronized

Decline
 • Battle of Talikota (1565):

o Rama Raya (Krishna Deva Raya’s successor) was killed

o Confederacy of Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, etc.) defeated

Vijayanagara

o Result: Capital plundered, empire disintegrated

2. Bahmani Kingdom (1347–1527)

Founding & Background

• Founded by: Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (aka Hasan Gangu) in 1347 CE

• First capital: Gulbarga (renamed Ahsanabad)

• Later capital: Bidar (shifted by Ahmad Shah II)

Important Rulers

Ruler Contributions

Muhammad Shah II Expanded territory; fought Vijayanagara

Firoz Shah Bahmani (r.1397– Known for reforms, cultural growth, and Indo-Persian synthesis;
1422) patron of learning

Culture & Architecture

• Patrons of: Persian language, Islamic learning, architecture

• Key contributions:

o Charminar (Gulbarga)

o Bidriware (metal art from Bidar)

o Madrasas and public works

Conflicts with Vijayanagara

• Continuous military rivalry with Vijayanagara Empire

• Control over Raichur Doab (fertile territory) shifted back and forth

Decline
 • Internal strife and factionalism between Deccani nobles (locals) and Afaqi nobles
(foreigners)

• Led to fragmentation into 5 Deccan Sultanates:

o Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Berar, Bidar (c. 1518–1527)

Quick Comparison Table

Feature Vijayanagara Empire Bahmani Kingdom

Founder Harihara & Bukka (1336) Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (1347)

Capital Hampi (Vijayanagara) Gulbarga → Bidar

Culture Dravidian temples, Hindu revival Indo-Persian culture, Islamic architecture

Economy Agriculture + Trade (cotton, spices) Agriculture + Trade, Persian artisanship

Rivalry Constant conflict over Deccan region Frequent wars with Vijayanagara

Decline Battle of Talikota (1565) Broke into 5 Sultanates (1518–1527)