1. Define an operating system and explain its primary functions.

How does it act as an In summary, an operating system is crucial for managing hardware and software interactions, 2. Differentiate various generation of OPERATING SYSTEM . • Main Feature: Graphical User Interface (GUI) introduced (using icons, windows, etc.),
intermediary between users and computer hardware? providing essential functions that enhance user experience and system efficiency. By acting as an making the OS more user-friendly.
1st Generation (1940s - 1950s):
intermediary, it simplifies the complexity of hardware management, allowing users and applications
Ans:- Definition : An operating system (OS) is a vital software component that manages computer • Processing Type: Multiprocessing and multitasking.
to operate effectively. • Technology Used: Vacuum tubes for processing.
hardware and software resources, providing a platform for applications to run. It serves as an
• Networking: Introduction of distributed systems where multiple computers can connect
interface between users and the computer hardware, enabling efficient operation and resource • Main Feature: No operating systems. Computers used machine-level programming.
over a network to share resources.
management.
• Processing Type: Batch processing (no interaction with users).
• User Interaction: Graphical interfaces (GUI) for ease of use (no need for typing commands).
Primary Functions of an Operating System
• Programming: Required machine code or assembly language.
• Examples: MS-DOS, UNIX, Windows 3.x.
1. Process Management: ○ The OS handles the creation, scheduling, and termination of processes. It
• Interaction: No user interaction during processing.
allocates CPU time and manages the execution of processes to ensure optimal performance and
responsiveness. • Examples: ENIAC, UNIVAC I, Mark I.
5th Generation (1990s - Present):
2. Memory Management: ○ The OS manages system memory, including RAM allocation for
• Technology Used: Parallel computing, multicore processors, and cloud technologies.
processes and data storage. It tracks memory usage, handles swapping between memory and disk,
2nd Generation (1950s - 1960s):
and prevents memory leaks. • Main Feature: Distributed computing for better resource sharing across computers, cloud,
• Technology Used: Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making computers smaller and more virtualization, and mobile OS.
3. File System Management: ○ The OS organizes and controls access to files on storage devices. It
reliable.
provides a structured file system that allows users and applications to create, read, write, and • Security: Focus on advanced security features like encryption and firewalls.
manage files securely. • Main Feature: Introduction of assembly language, which made programming easier.
• User Interaction: Advanced GUIs supporting touch, voice, and gesture input.
4. Device Management: ○ The OS manages hardware devices through device drivers, enabling • Processing Type: Automated batch processing continued.
• Examples: Windows 10/11, macOS, Linux distributions, Android, iOS.
communication between the hardware and software. It abstracts hardware details, simplifying
interactions for applications • Memory: Magnetic core memory introduced for faster processing.

. 5. User Interface: ○ The OS provides user interfaces, which can be graphical (GUI) or command-line • Programming: High-level programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN were
(CLI). This allows users to interact with the system easily, run applications, and manage resources introduced. Key Differentiating Factors:
. 6. Security and Access Control: ○ The OS enforces security measures, managing user authentication • Interaction: No user interaction with the OS.
and permissions. It ensures that sensitive data and resources are accessible only to authorized users. 2nd
• Examples: IBM 1401, UNIVAC II.
Feature 1st Generation Generation 3rd Generation 4th Generation 5th Generation
7. Resource Allocation: ○ The OS efficiently allocates resources, such as CPU time and memory,
Parallel
among competing processes. This management optimizes system performance and maintains Transistors, computing,
fairness. 3rd Generation (1960s - 1970s):
Technology Vacuum tubes Transistors Integrated Circuits Integrated Circuits multicore CPUs
Acting as an Intermediary: • Technology Used: Transistors (faster, smaller computers). No OS, Introduction of GUI, distributed Distributed
• Main Feature: Introduction of multiprogramming (running multiple programs in memory at machine-level assembly Multiprogramming systems, personal computing, cloud,
The operating system acts as an intermediary between users and hardware in the following ways: Main Feature programming language and time-sharing PCs mobile OS
the same time).
1. Abstraction: ○ It abstracts the complexities of hardware operations, providing a simplified Touch, voice,
interface for users and applications. Users do not need to understand hardware intricacies, enabling • Processing Type: Time-sharing (multiple users interact with the computer at once). User Command-line GUI (windows, gesture, advanced
focus on tasks. • User Interaction: Command-line interfaces (CLI) for user interaction. Interaction None None interface (CLI) icons, etc.) GUIs

2. Resource Management: ○ The OS manages hardware resources, preventing conflicts and ensuring Automated Parallel
• Resource Management: Improved resource management for better efficiency. Processing Batch batch Multiprogramming, Multiprocessing, computing, cloud,
efficient utilization. It allocates resources dynamically based on application demands.
• Examples: IBM System/360, CTSS. Type processing processing time-sharing multitasking virtualization
3. Communication: ○ The OS facilitates communication between software and hardware, translating Advanced
user commands into machine-level instructions. This allows applications to interact with hardware Improved with Better resource resource
seamlessly.
4th Generation (1970s - 1990s): Resource magnetic core Improved resource management and management,
Management Manual memory management networking cloud integration
4. Error Handling: ○ The OS monitors system operations and handles errors, ensuring stability. It
• Technology Used: Integrated circuits for better processing speed and reduced size.
manages hardware failures and resource conflicts, maintaining system integrity. ENIAC, UNIVAC IBM 1401, IBM System/360, MS-DOS, UNIX,
Examples I, Mark I UNIVAC II CTSS Windows 3.x
Conclusion

3. Identify and explain the key services provided by an operating system. How do these 4. Define system calls and discuss their role in the interaction between user programs and the 5. Discuss the foundational concepts of process scheduling. What are the primary objectives 6. AND 16 : EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT TYPE OF SCHEDULING ALGORITHM WITH THEIR ROLES .
services enhance user experience and system functionality operating system. Provide examples of common system calls. of process scheduling in operating systems? Scheduling algorithms are used by operating systems to manage the execution of processes
by allocating CPU time efficiently. These algorithms determine the order in which processes
Ans:- Operating systems provide a variety of services that enhance user experience and system System calls are predefined functions provided by the operating system that allow user programs to Foundational Concepts of Process Scheduling
are executed. The main goal is to maximize CPU utilization and ensure fairness,
functionality. Here are the key services request services from the OS kernel. They act as an interface between user-level applications and the
Process scheduling is a fundamental aspect of operating system design that determines the order responsiveness, and efficiency. Here are the different types of scheduling algorithms and their
operating system, enabling programs to perform operations that require privileged access to
: 1. User Interface: and allocation of CPU time to various processes in a system. It plays a critical role in managing how roles:
hardware and system resources.
processes are executed, particularly in a multitasking environment where multiple processes are
○ Description: The OS provides a user interface (UI), which can be graphical (GUI) or command-line 1. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)
Role of System Calls competing for CPU resources. The key components of process scheduling include:
(CLI)
• Role: Simple and straightforward, this algorithm schedules processes based on their arrival
1. Interface for User Programs: ○ System call provide a standardized way for applications to 1. Process States: ○ Processes can be in various states such as new, ready, running, waiting, and
. ○ Enhancement: A well-designed UI allows users to interact with the computer easily, improving time. The first process to arrive gets executed first.
interact with the operating system. Instead of writing low-level code to manipulate hardware terminated. Scheduling involves managing these states and determining when a process should
accessibility and productivity. Users can efficiently navigate, execute commands, and manage files
directly, programs use system calls to request services transition between them. • How it works:
and applications
2. Resource Management:
2. Scheduling Algorithms: ○ Various algorithms are used to determine the order in which processes o The processes are queued based on their arrival order.
. 2. Process Management System calls enable user programs to manage resources such as memory, files, and devices.
are executed. Common algorithms include First-Come, First-Served (FCFS), Shortest Job Next (SJN),
They abstract the complexities of hardware interactions, making it easier for developers to write o The CPU executes each process until it completes, and then moves to the next one.
: ○ Description: The OS handles the creation, scheduling, and termination of processes. It manages Round Robin (RR), and Priority Scheduling. Each algorithm has its strengths and weaknesses.
applications.
CPU allocation and facilitates multitasking 3. Security and Protection • Pros:
3. Context Switching: ○ When the CPU switches from one process to another, it must save the state
. ○ Enhancement: Efficient process management allows multiple applications to run simultaneously, : ○ By using system calls, the operating system can enforce security policies and access controls. of the current process and load the state of the next one. This context switching can introduce o Easy to implement.
improving system responsiveness and resource utilization. Users experience seamless transitions This ensures that user programs cannot directly access critical system resources without proper overhead, which scheduling algorithms need to minimize.
authorization, protecting the system's integrity o Fair in that it processes requests in the order they come in.
between tasks.
4. Process Control: 4. Ready Queue: ○ The ready queue holds processes that are ready to execute but waiting for CPU
time. The scheduler selects processes from this queue based on the chosen scheduling algorithm. • Cons:
3. Memory Management: System calls allow programs to create, terminate, and manage processes. This facilitates
multitasking and process scheduling, enabling efficient CPU usage. o Poor performance for long processes arriving before shorter ones (convoy effect).
○ Description: The OS manages system memory, including allocation and deallocation of memory for Primary Objectives of Process Scheduling
processes. It tracks memory usage and implements virtual memory techniques. Common Examples of System Calls
1. Maximize CPU Utilization: ○ The primary goal of process scheduling is to keep the CPU as busy as o Can lead to high waiting times (non-preemptive).
○ Enhancement: Effective memory management ensures that applications have sufficient memory 1.File Management possible. By efficiently managing process execution, the operating system ensures minimal idle time 2. Shortest Job First (SJF)
resources, reducing crashes and slowdowns. This improves overall system stability and performance 1. : ○ open(): Opens a file and returns a file descriptor. for the CPU.
for users. • Role: This algorithm prioritizes processes that have the shortest burst time (CPU time
2. ○ read(): Reads data from a file into a buffer. 2. Increase Throughput: ○ Throughput refers to the number of processes that complete their needed to complete).
4. File System Management: 3. ○ write(): Writes data from a buffer to a file. execution in a given time frame. An effective scheduling strategy aims to maximize throughput by
4. ○ close(): Closes an open file descriptor. ensuring that processes are executed promptly. • How it works:
○ Description: The OS organizes and manages files on storage devices, providing a structured file
system that supports file operations (creation, deletion, reading, writing). 2. Process Control: 3. Minimize Turnaround Time o The process with the shortest execution time is scheduled next.

○ Enhancement: A robust file system allows users to easily store, retrieve, and manage data. ○ fork(): Creates a new process by duplicating the current process. ○ Turnaround time is the total time taken from the submission of a process to its completion. o SJF can be either preemptive (Shortest Remaining Time First) or non-preemptive.
Features like access control and file permissions enhance security and data integrity ○ exec(): Replaces the current process image with a new process image. Scheduling aims to minimize this time, improving the overall efficiency of the system. • Pros:
. 5. Device Management: ○ wait(): Makes a process wait until one of its child processes finishes execution. 4. Reduce Waiting Time: o Minimizes the average waiting time.
○ Description: The OS manages hardware devices through device drivers, facilitating communication ○ exit(): Terminates a process and returns a status code to the operating system ○ Waiting time is the amount of time a process spends waiting in the ready queue before it gets CPU o Very efficient if the burst times of processes are known.
between applications and hardware. time. The scheduler seeks to minimize this time, thereby improving responsiveness for users and
3. Memory Management applications. • Cons:
○ Enhancement: This service ensures that devices (printers, scanners, etc.) function correctly and
efficiently. Users benefit from straightforward interaction with hardware without needing to ○ mmap(): Maps files or devices into memory for easier access. 5. Enhance Response Time o Requires knowledge of the burst time in advance, which is often difficult.
understand the underlying complexity. ○ brk(): Changes the location of the program's break (end of the process’s data segment) o Can lead to starvation of longer processes.
: ○ Particularly important for interactive systems, response time refers to the time taken from
6. Security and Access Control: submitting a request until the first response is produced. Scheduling aims to provide quick responses
4. Networking: 3. Round Robin (RR)
to user inputs, enhancing the user experience.
○ Description: The OS implements security measures, managing user authentication, permissions, ○ socket(): Creates a new socket for network communication • Role: Round Robin scheduling is designed to ensure fairness in time-sharing systems. It
and access to resources. 6. Fairness:
allocates a fixed time quantum to each process in the ready queue.
○ bind(): Binds a socket to an address and port number.
• How it works:

o Each process is assigned a time slice (quantum). 7. Identify and explain the key scheduling criteria: CPU utilization, throughput, turnaround 1. Performance Measurement: 8. Explain the SJF scheduling algorithm. How does it optimize turnaround time, and what
time, waiting time, and response time. Why are these criteria important for evaluating challenges does it present in practice?
o If the process doesn’t finish within its time slice, it is placed at the end of the queue. ○ These criteria provide measurable metrics for assessing the performance of scheduling algorithms.
scheduling algorithms?
Evaluating CPU utilization, throughput, turnaround time, waiting time, and response time allows Definition: Shortest Job First (SJF) is a scheduling algorithm that selects the process with the smallest
o If the process completes, it leaves the queue.
Key Scheduling CRITERIA i developers to identify the most effective algorithms for specific scenarios. execution time to run next. It can be either preemptive or non-preemptive. In non-preemptive SJF,
• Pros: once a process starts executing, it runs to completion. In preemptive SJF (often called Shortest
In the realm of operating systems, the performance of scheduling algorithms is assessed using 2. User Experience:
Remaining Time First, SRTF), if a new process arrives with a shorter execution time than the currently
o Fair, with each process getting an equal share of CPU time. several key criteria. These criteria are crucial for evaluating how effectively an operating system
○ Metrics like response time and turnaround time are directly tied to user satisfaction. Algorithms running process, the CPU will preempt the current process.
manages processes and allocates CPU time. Here are the primary scheduling criteria:
o Prevents starvation. that prioritize fast responses and reduced turnaround times lead to improved user interactions,
How SJF Optimizes Turnaround TimE
1. CPU Utilization making systems feel more responsive and efficient.
• Cons: 1. Minimizing Average Waiting Time:
● Definition: CPU utilization is the percentage of time the CPU is actively executing processes 3. Resource Optimization:
o The performance depends on the time quantum. Too large, it behaves like FCFS; too compared to the total time it could potentially be working. ○ SJF prioritizes shorter processes, which typically leads to a reduction in the overall waiting time for
small, it causes overhead due to frequent context switching. ○ CPU utilization and throughput are critical for maximizing the use of system resources. Effective
processes in the queue. By executing shorter jobs first, longer jobs are not delayed as much, and
● Importance: High CPU utilization indicates efficient resource usage, as it means the CPU is busy scheduling algorithms help ensure that the CPU is actively engaged in processing tasks, thereby
4. Priority Scheduling shorter jobs complete quickly, allowing for a faster turnaround of subsequent jobs.
executing tasks rather than being idle. This is essential for maximizing performance, especially in enhancing overall system performance.
• Role: In this algorithm, processes are assigned priorities, and the CPU is given to the process systems with high workloads, where it’s critical to keep the CPU engaged. 2. Reduced Turnaround Time:
4. Bottleneck Identification: ○ Analyzing waiting time and turnaround time helps identify bottlenecks
with the highest priority. 2. Throughput in the scheduling process. Understanding where delays occur can lead to refinements in scheduling ○ Turnaround time is the total time taken from the submission of a process to its completion. Since
• How it works: strategies, ultimately improving overall system performance. SJF completes shorter jobs first, it generally results in a lower average turnaround time compared to
● Definition: Throughput refers to the number of processes that are completed in a given time
other scheduling algorithms like First-Come, First-Served (FCFS).
o Processes are assigned a priority number, and the one with the highest priority (or period, typically measured in processes per second.
lowest numerical value if higher priority is indicated by a smaller number) gets 3. Efficient Resource Utilization: ○ By minimizing the waiting time for processes, SJF can lead to more
● Importance: A higher throughput signifies that the system can process more tasks in a shorter 5. Balancing Trade-offs:
executed first. efficient CPU utilization, as the system can quickly switch between processes without long delays.
amount of time. This is especially important in batch processing systems where many tasks need to
○ Different scheduling algorithms may perform well in some criteria while lagging in others.
o It can be preemptive or non-preemptive. be executed, as it enhances overall system productivity. Challenges of SJF in Practice
Understanding these trade-offs enables system designers to select or develop algorithms that best
• Pros: 3. Turnaround Time suit the needs of specific applications, balancing the priorities between throughput, response time, 1. Knowledge of Process Duration: ○ One of the biggest challenges with SJF is the need to know the
and other factors. execution time of processes in advance. In many real-world scenarios, accurately predicting the
o Suitable for real-time systems where critical processes must be executed first. ● Definition: Turnaround time is the total time taken from the submission of a process to its
duration of a process can be difficult, leading to inefficiencies.
completion. It includes waiting time, execution time, and any time spent on I/O operations. Conclusion In summary, the key scheduling criteria—CPU utilization, throughput, turnaround time,
• Cons: waiting time, and response time—are essential for evaluating the effectiveness of scheduling 2. Starvation: ○ SJF can lead to starvation for longer processes. If there are always shorter processes
● Importance: Minimizing turnaround time improves efficiency and user satisfaction, particularly in
o Can lead to starvation (low-priority processes may never execute). algorithms in operating systems. These criteria help measure performance, enhance user experience, arriving, long processes may never get executed. This can be particularly problematic in
batch systems where users expect quick feedback after submitting jobs. Efficient scheduling can
optimize resource usage, identify bottlenecks, and balance trade-offs. environments with a mix of short and long tasks.
o Difficult to assign priorities accurately. significantly reduce this time, leading to faster results.
3. Complexity in Implementation: ○ Implementing SJF requires maintaining a list of processes sorted
5. Multilevel Queue Scheduling 4. Waiting Time
by their estimated execution times. This can introduce overhead, particularly in systems where
● Definition: Waiting time is the total time a process spends in the ready queue waiting for CPU processes frequently enter and exit the queue.
• Role: This algorithm divides the ready queue into multiple queues, each with its own
scheduling algorithm. time, excluding its execution time
4. Difficulty in Preemption: ○ In the preemptive version of SJF (SRTF), the frequent context switching
. ● Importance: Reducing waiting time is crucial for r enhancing system responsiveness. High waiting required to manage process execution can lead to performance overhead, especially if the system is
• How it works:
times can lead to delays and affect user experience negatively, especially in interactive applications heavily loaded.
o Processes are categorized into different queues based on priority, type (interactive or where prompt execution is expected.
5. Not Suitable for Time-Sharing Systems: ○ In interactive or time-sharing systems, SJF may not be
batch), or other factors.
5. Response Time suitable because it can lead to significant delays for user-interactive processes that are longer in
o Each queue has its own scheduling algorithm (e.g., FCFS for one queue, RR for duration.
another). ● Definition: Response time is the time interval from when a request is submitted until the first
response is produced. This metric is particularly relevant for interactive systems. Conclusion In summary, the Shortest Job First (SJF) scheduling algorithm optimizes turnaround time
• Pros: by prioritizing shorter processes, which minimizes average waiting time and improves system
● Importance: Minimizing response time is essential for user satisfaction, as users expect quick efficiency. However, it presents challenges such as the need for accurate knowledge of process
o Suitable for mixed workloads (interactive and batch). feedback from applications. A low response time contributes to a smoother and more interactive durations, the risk of starvation for longer processes, and complexity in implementation.
user experience.
o Allows different scheduling strategies for different types of processes.
Importance of These Criteria for Evaluating Scheduling Algorithms

9. Explain contiguous memory allocation and its significance. What are the key differences 10. COMPARE BETWEEN LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL ADDRESS. • Physical addresses are used by the hardware to locate and access actual data in RAM. After 11. EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF COMPANSION MEMORY MANAGEMENT
between fixed and variable partitioning? the MMU translates a logical address to a physical one, the system can use the physical
1. Logical Address (Virtual Address) • Definition:
address to read or write data from/to the memory.
Contiguous memory allocation is a memory management technique where each process is assigned Compaction is a memory management technique used to reduce external fragmentation by
Definition:
a single continuous block of memory in the system’s physical memory (RAM). In this scheme, the Generated By: rearranging the processes in memory so that free blocks are consolidated into a single large
entire memory allocated to a process resides in a single, unbroken block, and all the addresses used • A logical address is an address generated by the CPU during program execution. It represents contiguous block.
• The MMU generates physical addresses by translating logical addresses during memory
by the process are within that block. a location in the virtual address space of a process, which is separate from the actual
access, using data from page tables or segment tables that the operating system maintains.
physical memory.
Significance of Contiguous Memory Allocation:
Visibility: How Compaction Helps in Reducing Fragmentation
Role in Memory Management:
1. Simplicity: ○ The scheme is simple to implement because processes only need a single start
• Not visible to the user or the process. The process only works with logical addresses. The 1. Combining Free Space:
address and a length to define the memory block allocated to them. • Logical addresses are used by processes to reference memory locations, as if they have their
physical address is abstracted and managed by the operating system and hardware.
own private memory space. This isolation is a core feature of virtual memory. o External fragmentation happens when free memory is scattered across different
2. Fast Access: ○ Since all the memory for a process is in a contiguous block, accessing memory is
• The user or the program does not directly interact with or see the physical addresses. locations in small blocks.
straightforward, without needing complex address translation mechanisms like in paging. • The operating system and hardware (via the MMU) translate these logical addresses into
physical addresses so that actual memory access can occur. Translation: o Compaction moves active processes closer together, pushing the free blocks to one
3. Efficient for Small Systems: ○ It works efficiently for systems with small memory and fewer
side.
processes, where memory fragmentation or multitasking demands are less of a concern Generated By: • The MMU uses a page table (in paging systems) or segment table (in segmentation systems)
to translate logical addresses into physical addresses. When a program accesses a memory o This consolidates free space into larger contiguous blocks, reducing external
However, contiguous memory allocation also has drawbacks, such as inefficient memory usage due • CPU: When a process runs, the CPU generates logical addresses as it executes instructions
location, the MMU performs this translation dynamically. fragmentation.
to fragmentation, both internal fragmentation (when allocated memory is larger than needed) and (e.g., fetching data or accessing variables).
external fragmentation (when free memory blocks are scattered but not usable by processes). Example: 2. Memory Allocation:
Visibility:
Types of Contiguous Memory Allocation: • After translation by the MMU, a logical address like 0x4000 might be mapped to a physical o After compaction, there’s a larger contiguous block of free memory available.
• Logical addresses are visible to the user/process but inaccessible to the program's context
address like 0xA000 in the system’s actual RAM.
Fixed and Variable Partitioning since they don't directly map to physical memory. Programs work with logical addresses, but o Large processes that previously couldn’t be allocated due to fragmentation can now
actual memory is accessed using physical addresses. Aspect Logical Address Physical Address be assigned to this larger block.
There are two key approaches to contiguous memory allocation: fixed partitioning and variable
partitioning. Translation: Address generated by the CPU during Actual address in main 3. Improved System Performance:
Definition program execution. memory (RAM).
1. Fixed Partitioning: In fixed partitioning, memory is divided into a set of fixed-size partitions at the • Logical addresses are translated into physical addresses by the Memory Management Unit o Reduces the likelihood of memory allocation failures due to external fragmentation.
system startup. Each partition can hold exactly one process, and the size of the partition remains the (MMU), using a page table or segment table. Used by hardware to
same throughout the system’s operation. access actual memory o Increases memory utilization, allowing the system to support more or larger
o Paging: Logical memory is divided into pages, and physical memory is divided into Role Used by programs to reference memory. locations. processes efficiently.
Characteristics: frames. The MMU maps pages to frames. Generated by MMU
● Predefined Partition Sizes: The number and size of partitions are decided at the beginning, and o Segmentation: Logical memory is divided into segments (code, data, stack), and each during address
they do not change dynamically. Generated By CPU (in the context of program execution). translation. Challenges of Compaction
segment is mapped to a physical location.
Not visible to the 1. High Overhead:
● One Process per Partition: Each partition can only accommodate one process, regardless of Example: Visible to the program/process, but not program, managed by
whether the process needs the entire partition or not. Visibility directly mapped to physical memory. OS/hardware. o Process Relocation: Active processes need to be moved, which involves copying data
• In a virtual memory system, a process might reference a logical address 0x4000. This logical
from one part of memory to another.
Advantages: address is used by the program, but the MMU will translate it to a physical address like Directly used by
0xA000 in the actual RAM. Requires translation by the MMU to a hardware to access o CPU and Memory Load: The process of relocating memory blocks can increase CPU
● Simple Implementation: Since partition sizes are fixed, managing the memory is relatively easy, and
Translation physical address. memory. usage and cause temporary performance slowdowns.
allocating memory to processes is quick.
Part of virtual memory, which is managed Part of physical memory
2. Dynamic Address Relocation:
● Low Overhead: No need for dynamic memory management, making it suitable for simple systems. 2. Physical Address Memory Space by the operating system. (RAM).
Disadvantages: The hardware uses o Logical to Physical Address Translation: After moving processes, all references (such
Definition:
● Internal Fragmentation: If a process is smaller than the partition, the unused memory inside the The CPU and the process interact with physical addresses to as pointers) within the process must be updated to reflect the new physical
• A physical address is the actual address in main memory (RAM). This address is used by the Uses logical addresses to access memory. access actual memory. addresses.
partition is wasted, leading to inefficient memory use.
system's hardware, specifically the memory controller, to access data stored in physical A program might use a logical address The MMU translates it to o Consistency and Integrity: Incorrectly updating memory references can lead to
● Limited Number of Processes: The number of processes that can run simultaneously is limited to memory. Example like 0x1000 to reference a variable. a physical address, errors and inconsistencies, affecting the integrity of processes.
the number of partitions.
Role in Memory Management:
3. Not Suitable for Real-Time Systems:
 12. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON PAGING . 13. EVALUATE HOW THE PAGES ARE ALLOCATED IN THE PAGING SYSTEM . 14. CATEGORIZE THE LAYERED, MONOLITHIC AND MICROKERNAL STRUCTURE OF 15. COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM .

Paging is a memory management technique that helps eliminate external OPERATING SYSTEM .
Page Allocation in a Paging System In a paging system, memory is divided into fixed-size blocks called
fragmentation by dividing both processes' memory and physical memory into fixed-
pages in the logical address space and corresponding page frames in the physical address space. Aspect Layered Structure Monolithic Structure Microkernel Structure Batch Time-Sharing Real-Time
size blocks called pages and page frames, respectively. This method allows for non-
Pages are allocated to processes dynamically as needed. The system allocates free page frames to Entire OS is a single Operating Operating Distributed Operating
contiguous memory allocation, where pages of a process can be scattered across
processes and maps these frames to the logical pages of the process using a page table. The OS is organized into program running in a OS has a small core Criteria System System Operating System System (RTOS)
physical memory.
following steps outline how pages are allocated: distinct layers, each single address space (microkernel) that Designed to
Key Components of Paging: providing specific with all services provides only essential
Page Allocation in a Paging System Allocates CPU time Manages a group process tasks
services to the layer operating in kernel services. Other services
1. Pages: Fixed-size chunks into which a process's memory is divided (typically 4 KB to 8 KB). Description above it. mode. run in user mode. to multiple users, of independent with strict
1. Process Division into Pages: providing the computers, timing
Low: Everything is High: Individual services
2. Page Frames: Fixed-size blocks of physical memory that correspond to pages. High: Each layer can tightly coupled in a can be added, modified, Processes jobs in illusion of appearing as a constraints,
o The process is divided into fixed-size chunks called pages (e.g., 4 KB or 8 KB).
be developed, tested, single address space, or replaced batches without simultaneous single system to often for critical
3. Page Table: A structure that maps logical addresses (pages) to physical addresses (page
2. Identifying Free Page Frames: and modified which reduces independently of the Description user interaction. access. the user. systems.
frames). Modularity independently. modularity. microkernel.
No direct Immediate
o The operating system maintains a list of free page frames in physical memory.
Paging Process: Lower: Additional High: Direct function interaction; jobs Users can interact Users and systems interaction with
context switching and calls within the kernel Lower: Frequent context User
o When a process requires memory, free page frames are allocated. are processed with the system interact across real-time
• Logical Address Translation: When a process requests memory, the CPU generates a logical data passing between result in faster switching between user
layers cause execution with less and kernel mode Interaction sequentially. simultaneously. multiple machines. constraints.
address. The logical address consists of two parts: 3. Updating the Page Table:
Performance performance overhead. overhead. introduces latency. Tasks are
• ■ Page Number (p): Identifies which page the requested data resides in. o The page table tracks the mapping between the logical pages and corresponding Simple: More complex: prioritized
physical page frames. Communication Communication requires Jobs are Time slices are Tasks are based on
• ■ Offset (d): Identifies the exact location within that page. More complex: between components is inter-process processed in a allocated to each distributed across timing needs;
4. Logical to Physical Address Translation: Communication Requires passing data direct and efficient communication (IPC) batch sequence, user, switching machines, with immediate
• 2. Page Table Lookup: ○ The page number is used as an index to look up the corresponding Between through multiple since they share the between user-space
page frame in the page table. The page table then maps this page number to the frame o Logical addresses are translated into physical addresses by looking up the page Task with no dynamic rapidly between load balancing and responses are
Components layers. same address space. services and the kernel.
number in physical memory. table. Scheduling scheduling. users. resource sharing. required.
High: Each layer High: Failures in user-
operates Low: A bug in one part mode services don’t Moderate High performance,
• 3. Physical Address Calculation: ○ Once the page frame is identified, the offset (d) is added to o The page number is used to find the corresponding frame number, and the offset independently, so of the kernel can crash crash the entire system Not real-time, performance, with utilizing multiple Very high, as
the base address of the page frame to compute the actual physical address in memory. determines the exact location. failures in one layer the entire system due to since most services run suitable for switching between machines for tasks must
Stability don’t affect others. shared address space. outside the kernel. large-scale data users impacting resource meet strict
• 4. Memory Access: ○ The operating system then accesses the data at the calculated physical 5. Demand Paging (Virtual Memory):
address, allowing the process to execute High: Services are Performance processing. speed. management. deadlines.
o Pages are loaded into physical memory only when required (on-demand), with less- High: Each layer is Low: Services are isolated from each other
isolated from others, tightly coupled, and and run in user mode, Resources are
• Benefits of Paging: used pages stored in secondary storage.
making debugging changes can affect the reducing the risk of Fixed resource allocated
1. Eliminates External Fragmentation: Since pages can be placed anywhere in memory, there's Isolation easier. whole system. system-wide failures. allocation, no Dynamic resource Resources are dynamically
no need for large contiguous blocks of memory, effectively preventing external Low: Tight coupling High: Individual services Resource dynamic allocation among distributed across based on real-
fragmentation. Hardware Support for Efficient Paging High: Changes in one makes debugging and can be updated or Management changes. multiple users. various machines. time priorities.
Ease of layer typically don't maintenance more replaced without
1. Page Table: Embedded
2. Efficient Memory Utilization: Paging enables better use of available physical memory by Maintenance affect others. difficult. affecting the kernel.
systems
filling scattered page frames as they become available. o High: Designing a
A structure storing mappings between logical pages and physical page frames. Large-scale data Cloud computing, (medical
well-structured layered High: Requires
3. Dynamic Process Growth: Processes can grow dynamically without needing a large processing (e.g., Multi-user web servers, devices,
2. Memory Management Unit (MMU): system is complex and Moderate: Simpler managing complex inter-
contiguous block of memory, as new page frames can be allocated as needed. may lead to design but more process communication payroll, environments (e.g., databases, automotive),
o Translates logical addresses to physical addresses using the page table. Complexity of inefficiencies if done difficult to manage as between user and kernel Use Case statistical university systems, networked robotics, flight
4. Virtual Memory Support: Paging allows processes to execute even if the required memory Design poorly. the OS grows. spaces. Examples analysis). online gaming). applications. control.
exceeds physical RAM by swapping pages between RAM and disk. 3. Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB):
High: A failure in one Can be less
o Caches frequently accessed page table entries to speed up address translation. user-mode service efficient due to the Extremely
Challenges: High: Faults in one Low: A fault in one part doesn’t affect the
Efficient for tasks overhead of Very efficient in efficient in
4. Protection Bits: layer don’t affect other of the kernel affects the microkernel or other
1. Page Table Overhead: Maintaining a page table for each process consumes memory,
Fault Isolation layers. whole system. services. with no user managing multiple utilizing resources handling time-
especially for large processes. o Each page table entry includes protection bits specifying the allowed access (e.g., Efficiency interaction. users. across machines. critical tasks.
read-only, read-write) for each page.
Summary:

17. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN PREEMPTIVE AND NON PREEMPTIVE SC 18. EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF MEMORY MANAGEMENT IN THE 19 .EXPLAIN THE INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FRAGMENTATION . 20. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON MEMORY MANAGEMENT .
HEDULING. OPERATING SYSTEM . Virtual Memory and Its Purpose
Internal and External Fragmentation

Preemptive Scheduling Non-Preemptive Scheduling 1. Internal Fragmentation Definition:

Memory management is the process by which an operating system (OS)
The operating system can forcibly Once a process is allocated CPU time, it • Virtual memory is a memory management technique that allows a computer to use hard disk
interrupt a running process to allocate runs to completion or until it voluntarily controls and organizes computer memory. It makes sure that programs o Definition: Occurs when a process is allocated more memory than it needs, leading
space to simulate additional RAM. It creates an abstraction of a larger memory space than
to wasted space within the allocated memory block.
Definition CPU time to another process. yields control. have enough memory to run and that the system uses memory efficiently. physically available by using disk storage as an extension of RAM.
Process
Processes can be interrupted and
resumed later, allowing for more
Processes are not interrupted, and they
continue running until they finish or yield
Why Memory Management is Important o Cause: Happens in fixed-size memory allocation schemes, where the allocated
memory block is larger than the process’s requirement.
Interruptions dynamic CPU allocation. the CPU voluntarily. 1. Efficient Use of Memory: Memory is a limited resource, so
Minimal context switching, only occurring managing it well helps avoid wasting space and ensures that o Example: If a system allocates 4 MB blocks and a process only needs 2.5 MB, the Purpose of Virtual Memory:
Context Frequent context switching may occur, when a process voluntarily yields or remaining 1.5 MB is wasted.
Switching leading to higher overhead. completes. programs run smoothly. 1. Address Space Isolation:

More complex to implement as the OS Simpler to implement, as the OS does not 2. Process Isolation: The OS keeps each program's memory separate, o Impact: o Each process runs in its own isolated virtual address space, preventing interference
must handle saving and restoring process need to manage process interruption and preventing one from interfering with another. This helps keep the ▪ Wastes memory within allocated blocks. from other processes.
Complexity states during interruptions. state saving.
system stable and secure. o Enhances system security and stability.
High responsiveness, as the system can ▪ Reduces the number of processes that can be handled by the system.
quickly allocate CPU to higher-priority Lower responsiveness, especially if a long- 3. Running Multiple Programs: Memory management lets the OS run
2. External Fragmentation 2. Memory Management:
Responsiveness or time-sensitive tasks. running process monopolizes the CPU. many programs at the same time by giving each one the memory it
More fair, as lower-priority processes
are still given time on the CPU,
Can lead to unfairness, as long-running
processes may block others, potentially
needs. o Definition: Occurs when free memory is scattered in small, non-contiguous blocks, o Allows systems to run larger or multiple applications simultaneously, even when
physical RAM is limited.
Fairness preventing starvation. causing starvation of lower-priority tasks. 4. Memory Protection: It ensures that one program cannot access or preventing the allocation of larger memory chunks.
Potentially less efficient due to the More efficient in terms of throughput, as change another program's memory, protecting both the system and o Cause: Arises in systems with dynamic memory allocation, where processes are o Essential for multitasking environments.
overhead of frequent context switching the process can run to completion without
Efficiency and managing interruptions. interruptions. the data. loaded and removed, causing memory fragmentation. 3. Efficient Use of Memory:
Reduced risk of starvation, as the High risk of starvation for low-priority 5. Better Performance: Good memory management makes the system o Example: If free memory is scattered in 2 MB, 3 MB, and 5 MB blocks, a 6 MB o Only necessary parts of a program are loaded into physical memory, reducing the
scheduler can preempt processes that are processes if higher-priority processes run faster by reducing unnecessary memory use and optimizing CPU and process cannot be allocated, even though total free memory is 10 MB. overall memory footprint.
Starvation hogging CPU time. continuously.
Real-time systems, interactive Batch processing systems, simple
I/O operations. o Impact: o Uses techniques like paging or segmentation for efficient memory usage.
applications, multi-user systems, systems, or systems with limited resources 6. Virtual Memory: The OS can give the illusion of more memory by ▪ Prevents allocation of large memory blocks. 4. Simplified Memory Allocation:
Use Case where responsiveness and fairness are where process management overhead using disk space to act as additional RAM, letting larger programs or
Scenarios crucial. needs to be minimized. ▪ Reduces the system's ability to support large applications or many processes.
more programs run simultaneously. o Programs can use more memory than physically available, as the OS handles
Key Tasks of Memory Management Impact on System Performance memory allocation and swapping between RAM and disk storage.
Summary 1. Memory Allocation: The OS allocates memory to programs when • Wasted Memory: Internal fragmentation wastes memory inside blocks, while external
they need it, making sure each one gets enough to run. fragmentation results in unusable scattered free space.
• Preemptive Scheduling is suitable for systems requiring high Enhancements to Operating System Capabilities:
2. Memory Deallocation: When a program finishes or stops, the OS •
responsiveness and fairness, such as real-time Reduced Throughput: Fragmentation limits the number of processes that can be loaded, 1. Increased Application Capacity:
frees up its memory so that it can be used by other programs. reducing multitasking efficiency.
systems or interactive applications. However, it can incur higher
3. Tracking Memory Usage: The OS keeps track of which parts of •
o Enables the OS to run larger applications or more applications simultaneously than
overhead due to frequent context switching and can be more Memory Allocation Failures: External fragmentation may prevent allocation of memory even would be possible with only physical RAM.
memory are in use and by which programs, ensuring that no memory if there’s enough free space.
complex to implement.
is wasted. •
2. Memory Protection:
• Non-Preemptive Scheduling is more efficient in terms of CPU Decreased Performance: Increased management time for fragmentation reduces system
4. Swapping and Paging: performance. o Prevents one process from accessing another process's memory, enhancing security
utilization and simpler to implement, but it can cause poor
o Swapping: The OS can move programs between RAM and disk and system stability.
responsiveness and starvation of lower-priority processes. It is Solutions
storage to make space in RAM for new programs. 3. Dynamic Loading:
typically used in batch processing systems or simpler environments • Compaction: The OS can move processes around to reduce external fragmentation by
where performance overhead is a concern. combining free memory blocks. o Loads parts of applications, such as libraries, only when needed, optimizing memory
usage and improving performance.

21. EXPLAIN THE ROUND ROBIN SCHEDULING ALGORITHM. 22. EXPLAIN THE Multiprocessor Scheduling IN DETAIL . 23. EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF MUTUAL EXCLUSION (MUTEX) 24. DEFINE WHAT IS PROCESS IN THE CONTEXT OF OPERATING SYESTEM

Round Robin (RR) Scheduling Algorithm Multiprocessor scheduling refers to how tasks are managed and assigned to multiple processors in a Concept of Mutual Exclusion: Definition of a Process in Operating Systems:
computer system with more than one CPU. It ensures that all processors work efficiently, dividing the
Definition: Round Robin (RR) is a scheduling algorithm used in time-sharing systems. It allocates a • Definition: Ensures that multiple processes or threads do not simultaneously execute critical • Process: A process is an instance of a program that is being executed by the operating
workload in such a way that maximizes system performance.
fixed amount of time (called a time quantum) to each process in the ready queue. Once a process’s sections of code that access shared resources. system. It includes the program code, the current state of execution (e.g., program counter,
time quantum expires, it’s moved to the back of the queue, and the next process gets its turn. registers), and the resources needed for execution (e.g., memory, files).
• Purpose: Maintains data consistency and prevents race conditions.
Types of Multiprocessor Systems:
Key Characteristics:
Key Features of Round Robin: 1. Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP): Key Components of a Process:
• Exclusive Access: Only one process/thread can access the critical section at a time.
1. Time Quantum: o All processors have equal access to memory and resources. 1. Process ID (PID): A unique identifier assigned by the OS to track and manage each process.
• Prevention of Conflicts: Stops concurrent modification of shared resources, avoiding data
o Each process gets a small, equal time slice to run. If the process doesn't finish within o All processors share the load and can execute tasks independently. corruption. 2. Program Counter: A register that tracks the next instruction to be executed in the process.
this time, it moves to the back of the queue.
2. Asymmetric Multiprocessing (AMP): • Coordination Among Processes: Processes must coordinate to access shared resources to 3. Process State: Represents the current status of the process (e.g., running, waiting, or
2. Circular Queue: ensure correctness. terminated).
o One main processor controls the system, and other processors only execute tasks
o Processes are managed in a circular manner, ensuring fairness by giving each process given by the main one. 4. Memory Management: Includes the allocated memory space, such as the stack, heap, and
a turn to use the CPU. data segments.
3. Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA): Mechanisms for Achieving Mutual Exclusion:
3. Preemptive: 5. Resource Management: Covers resources like open files and I/O devices used by the process.
o Each processor has its local memory, but can also access memory from other 1. Locks:
o The algorithm allows processes to be interrupted and switched, so no process can processors. Access to local memory is faster.
o Mutex (Mutual Exclusion): Only one thread can access the critical section at a time.
monopolize the CPU.
Others must wait until it's released. Differences Between a Process and a Program:

Challenges in Multiprocessor Scheduling: o Spinlocks: A thread repeatedly checks if the lock is available. Efficient for short waits 1. Definition:
Fairness: but wastes CPU time for long waits.
1. Load Balancing: o Program: A static collection of instructions and data stored on disk.
1. Equal CPU Time: 2. Semaphores:
o Distributing tasks evenly across processors is key. If one processor is overloaded o Process: A dynamic, executing instance of a program, including its state and
o Each process gets an equal chance to run, promoting fairness. while others are idle, performance will suffer. o Binary Semaphore: Like a mutex, it allows only one process to access a critical resources.
section at a time.
2. No Starvation: 2. Synchronization: 2. Lifecycle:
o Counting Semaphore: Allows multiple processes to access a limited number of
o Every process eventually gets its turn, preventing any process from being blocked o Processes may need to share data between processors, which can create delays or o Program: Exists as long as it is stored on disk, whether running or not.
resources concurrently.
indefinitely. conflicts. Proper synchronization is required.
o Process: Has a lifecycle, which includes creation, execution, waiting, and
3. Monitors:
3. Processor Affinity: termination.
o Higher-level synchronization construct combining locks and condition variables.
Response Time: o Processes may perform better if they run on the same processor repeatedly (to take 3. Resources:
advantage of the cache). But, it must still be balanced to avoid overloading a single o Ensures only one thread can execute a procedure at a time, with condition variables
1. Faster Responses: o Program: Does not require system resources until it starts execution.
processor. allowing threads to wait for certain conditions.
o Round Robin improves the responsiveness of the system, especially for interactive o Process: Actively uses system resources like CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
4. Data Sharing and Memory Access: 4. Message Passing:
applications, by quickly switching between processes.
4. Multiplicity:
o Managing how multiple processors access shared data without causing conflicts is o Instead of shared memory, processes communicate through message passing.
2. Short Time Slices:
another challenge. o Program: A single program can create multiple processes (e.g., opening multiple
o Helps synchronize and control access to shared resources without traditional mutual
o Short time quanta help to give regular CPU access to processes, making the system instances of a text editor).
exclusion mechanisms.
more responsive.
o Process: Each process has its own independent execution context, even if originating
Types of Scheduling Methods: 5. Transactional Memory:
from the same program.
1. Static Scheduling: o Treats a block of code as a transaction that executes in isolation.
Challenges:
o Scheduling decisions are made ahead of time (before the program starts running). o Ensures mutual exclusion by rolling back or delaying conflicting transactions.
1. Overhead from Context Switching: Conclusion: