Basics of mechanical behavior of materials

Material responds to applied load or force!

Deformation: Materials changes shape elastic or plastic

➢ Strength: Material withstand against applied forces
without fracture
=>Tensile and compressive strength are resistance to
pulling and squeezing forces respectively,
shear strength (resistance to twisting or sliding forces).
➢ Stiffness: Material's resistance to elastic deformation.
➢ Ductility: Material's ability to be drawn into a wire or
plastic deformation before fracture.

➢ Hardness: Material's resistance to localize plastic deformation, such as indentation

=> Important to select materials to ensure safety and reliability 1

 What is stress?
Internal forces:
When a force is applied to a material>>internal forces develop within the material to
resist the change>>Known as stress or restoring force
Stress (σ) is calculated as force (F) divided by the area (A)
σ = F/A (N/m²)

Types of stress:
❖ Tensile stress>>Stretch or
Cross-section area i.e plane

elongated or shorten. Force

perpendicular to material’s
cross-sectional area.
❖ Shear stress>>Deform or
slide. Force acts parallel to a
material’s cross-sectional
surface area Tensile>>tensile strain (length) Shear>>shear strain(angle)
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 Elastic deformation
➢ Young’s modulus (E) is a material property
is independent of geometry.
Most structural metals having Young’s moduli
between 100 and 200 GPa.

Materials possessing structural anisotropy =>Make different Young’s directions.

➢ Shear modulus or rigidity modulus,
𝜏
Measures material’s response to shear stress. 𝐺 =
𝜎ℎ 𝛾
Bulk modulus, 𝐾 =
∆
σₕ = hydrostatic stress
Δ = volumetric strain
Relationship Between E, G, and 𝝂
For isotropic materials: E = 2G(1 + 𝜈)
𝝂 = Poisson’s ratio
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 Stress in heterostructure
Lattice mismatch:

SEM image

Film growth failure!!

Tensile strain Compressive strain

Strain between substrate and film:

𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 − 𝑎𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚 Crack generate to fit
𝜀= into the substrate
𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒

=> Design preferable material system is important 4

 Deformation: strength and ductility
➢ The onset stress limit for plastic deformation to occur is called the yield strength 𝝈𝒚
Proof stress, where material exhibits 0.2% plastic deformation

➢ Ultimate tensile strength (𝝈𝐮 )

is the maximum stress that
a material can withstand
before breaking.

➢ Ductility is the measure of the degree of plastic deformation sustained at fracture.

=>Expressed either percent elongation (%EL) or reduction in area (%RA).

=>Tensile test allows us to measure the above mechanical properties

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 Material failure
Tribology is interacting surfaces in relative motion (Adhesion, wear, hardness,
friction, erosion, lubrication and friction). => Prescribes for improvements
Wear: The process leading to loss of material is known as "wear“

1. Direct contact >>deformation 2. Between hard rough and soft

material transfer between surfaces surfaces=>hard protuberances

2*. Caused particle=>Extremely short

sliding motion within a short time interval.

Rubbing between surfaces over time

Surface fatigue =>Failure
=>We are interested in the failure mechanism of materials 6
 Creep in materials
What is Creep? Typical Creep Behavior:

=> Creep is dangerous and make cause unanticipated failure!!

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Necessity of Creep study

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Example of creep

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Detail of creep mechanisms(1)

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11
 Detail of creep mechanisms(2)
Three stages:
I. Primary or transient; II. Secondary, constant rate, III. Tertiary
Stage II, creep rate ε is constant
εa> εb> εc as a consequence of the relationship σa >σb >σc. This creep rate is also
known as the minimum creep rate, because it corresponds to the inflection point of the
curve.
Stage III there acceleration in the creep rate, leading to eventual rupture of the
specimen.

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 Fundamental Mechanisms for Creep
➢The rate-controlling mechanism depends: I. On stress level; II. Temperature
➢The creep boundary mechanisms in which grain boundaries (grain size), and
lattice mechanisms

Therefore, For T > 0.5 Tmelting, the mechanisms responsible for creep can be
conveniently described as a function of the applied stress.

=> Ratio between activation energy for

secondary creep and activation energy for
bulk diffusion as a function of temperature 13
 Diffusion
Concept of Diffusion: Atomic inter-diffusion and factors:
➢ Mass-transport differs from bulk to small scale
➢ Diffusions and corresponding reactions can alter
>>Higher concentration to lower
Crack
nucleate?

=> Grain boundary

starting point

>>Changes the regime in nano-scale

Microscope
image

Does vacancy diffuse from one grain to another under load or stress? 14
 Diffusion mechanism (1)

Nabarro and Herring:

Operates at high temperatures and low
applied stresses
➢ It involves flux of vacancies inside a grain
evenly distributed atoms and vacancies
➢ Vacancies move compressive sides,
while atoms tensile ends
=>This leads to grain elongation and
overall plastic strain.
Elongation along
tensile direction
(tensile stress i.e
pulling or stretching)

Flow of vacancies=> Increase length of the specimen within grain

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 Diffusion mechanism (2)
Nabarro and Herring expression:
➢ They connect the vacancy flux to the strain rate.=> ‘‘source” boundaries had a
concentration of vacancies equal to C0 + C; sink boundaries a concentration C0.

(1)

(2)

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 Diffusion mechanism (3)

(3)

(4)

(5)

We know, steady-state creep rate as a function of the applied stress, temperature, and
grain size:
(6)

Where, A a dimensionless constant, G shear modulus, b Burgers vector, k Boltzmann’s

constant, T absolute temperature, σ applied stress p inverse grain-size exponent, n
stress exponent, and R gas constant 17
 Diffusion mechanism (3)

(6)

In the format of (6):

(7)

NH denotes Nabarro-Herring, and Ω=0.7b3 ; b is burger vector

Coble proposed the second mechanism explaining diffusion creep is based on diffusion
in the grain boundaries =>>NEXT

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 Diffusion mechanism (4)

Coble diffusion along grain boundaries:

➢Vacancies diffuse along grain boundaries, not grain interiors

Coble creep leads to the relationship:

(8)
generates shear

Ac :30-50, δ the effective width of the grain boundary for

diffusion, and Dgb diffusion coefficient.
The strain rate proportional to d−2 for Nabarro-Herring d−3
for Coble creep.

=>This enables to differentiate between the two mechanisms

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 Solution to Nabarro-Henning and Coble creep

Solution:
➢Increase the size of grains
➢Fabricating directional
solidification
=> Eliminate virtually all grain
boundaries perpendicular and
inclined to the tensile axis

Nabarro-Herring =>
from inside the grain Coble => vacancies
interior to boundary migrate in the grain
boundary 20
 Dislocation
Dislocation is a linear crystallographic defect within a crystal structure =>Disrupts
regular arrangement of atoms. It's a one-dimensional irregularity

Edge dislocation: Screw dislocation:

b ⊥ dislocation line or tangent vector b II dislocation line or tangent vector

Start

Finish

Burger’s
vector
Tangent
vector

𝒃
What is burger’s vector and how to draw the burgers circuit?
=>Lattice displacement density(m-2) and direction of dislocation

=>Play crucial role in plastic deformation of materials

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 Dislocation creep
Harper and Dorn cases: Climb site
➢They observed it at high temperatures and low stresses
➢ The creep rates 1,000 times greater than Nabarro-Herring
=>The creep occurred exclusively by dislocation climb Climb site

Mechanism:
I. Once a row of vacancies join dislocation line, the line is effectively translated upward
=>The dislocation moves perpendicular to the Burgers vector during climb
Opposite occurs as well:
=>Vacancies move away from the dislocation line and moves down

Compressive tensile
stress stress downward

upward

The grain size to be large enough (>400 μm); Nabarro—Herring,Coble creep dominate.
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 Dislocation (viscous glide) creep
Viscous glide is a plastic deformation mechanism of crystalline materials =>Dislocations
move through the crystal lattice by gliding, and overcoming obstacles

Dislocation climb and glide

Influencing factors
❖ Temperature increases diffusion rate
=>Increases dislocation viscous glide
❖ Higher stress =>higher viscous glide
❖ Solute atoms, precipitates, microstructural
=>Mobility changes of dislocations
Solute atom drag

𝑛
𝑄
𝜀ሶ = 𝐴𝜎 exp(− )
𝑅𝑇
𝜀ሶ = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ;𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡; 𝜎 = applied stress
Q = Activation energy; T = Absolute temperature
R = Gas constant; n = stress exponent (3 − 7)
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 Creep induced fracture(1)

Cavities
(Void and crack)

➢ Fracture by nucleation and growth of voids at the grain boundaries

➢ At low and moderate temperatures metals usually fail by trans-granular void
formation,
➢ At high temperatures, after creep and super-plastic forming, inter-granular cavities
start forming; they subsequently grow and coalesce, leading to a fracture
morphology 24
 Creep induced fracture(2)
Void and crack at grain boundaries?
➢ Impurity at grain boundary results in
different composition (Tm)gb < (Tm)=>Leads to
a selective weakening of the boundaries
➢ Interaction of grain-boundary sliding with
geometrical (compatibility) constraints
=>Step formation at boundary
➢Higher stresses dislocation gliding and slip
bands at boundary concentrate
=> Opening up of wedges.
➢Combined effect of stress concentrations
and diffusion coefficients =>Multiple line
defect in a plane
=> Void growth at grain boundaries

=>Void and crack are the sources of failure 25

Metallurgical factors affecting creep

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 Precipitation hardening improve creep failure
Solution treatment: Heated below melting temperature=>homogeneous solid solution
Quenching: The dissolved elements (like Cu in Al matrix) don’t come out of solution=>
supersaturated solid solution=>The precipitates are trapped
Aging: Heated at lower temperature (aging)=> Solute atoms (e.g., Cu in Al) to slowly
come out of solution and form tiny solid particles (precipitates).=>Blocks dislocation

Precipitation
take place

https://www.tuofa-cncmachining.com

Hardening increase durability=> Improve creep failure 27

 Plasticity and super-plasticity
Plastic deformation: strength and ductility

Super-plasticity

Superplasticity is a phenomenon wherein materials exhibit extremely high ductility under

specific conditions =>Undergo extensive deformation without necking or breaking

>>Industry sometime requires super-plastic materials

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 Example of super-plasticity
(a) Plastic deformation in tension with
formation and inhibition of necking
Because of:
Temperature; Strain Rate; Grain Size

Enhance plasticity in tension:

The specimen is being deformed,
in tension, at a velocity v. The
length increases from L0 to L1 and
then to L2. At L2, necking starts. If
the material has a high value of
strain-rate sensitivity
=>>Localized strengthening effect

Stress engineering-strain curves

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 Conditions
Conditions for super-plasticity:
Temperature:
The material needs to be at a high temperature, greater than half of its melting point.
=>This elevated temperature facilitates the movement of atoms within the material.
Strain Rate:
The rate at which the material is deformed must be within a specific range.
=>Too high or too low a strain rate led to premature failure or reduced ductility.
Grain Size:
The material generally needs to have a very fine grain structure, often achieved through
specific processing techniques like thermomechanical treatment. Fine grains allow for
more grain boundary sliding, which is a key deformation mechanism in superplasticity.

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Chapter 4 Fatigue

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 Fatigue fundamentals
Fatigue refers to the progressive and localized structural damage under cyclic
loading.

Key Concepts of Fatigue

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Engineering consideration of fatigue

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 Cyclic Behaviour of Fatigue
1. Suitable for elastic stress and strain
1. Stress-Life (S-N ) =>Cannot separate crack initiation and
propagation.
2. Strain-Life (ε-N)
Ideal for high cycle fatigue (HCF).
3. Fracture Mechanics

Strain-Life (ε-N):
Similar to S-N behaviour. Both elastic and plastic
strain=> Cannot separate crack initiation and
propagation.

Fracture Mechanics :
Deals with cracks propagation. Cracks nucleate
due to inclusions of particles, scratches or steps

=>Slip steps interact with them and produce intrusions and extrusions cracks channels
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 Stress Vs number of cycles curve

Factors Affecting the S-N

S-N fatigue curve Curve:
➢ Material Properties: Different
materials have different fatigue limits
and behaviors under cyclic loading.

➢ Surface Finish: Rough surfaces may

have lower fatigue strength due to
higher stress concentrations.
➢ Temperature: Elevated temperatures
Mechanism: can reduce the material's fatigue
strength.
➢ Crack initiation ➢ Environment: Corrosion or other
➢ Crack propagation environmental factors can accelerate
fatigue failure.
➢ Final failure
➢ Load type: Whether the loading is
purely tensile, compressive, or a
combination, affects fatigue behavior.

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 Fracture Mechanics Approach
The cyclic stress intensity factor is the crack driver to estimate life for propagating a
crack from an initial size to larger size or failure.

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