Tourism Management Perspectives 46 (2023) 101089

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tourism Management Perspectives

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tmp

Revealing cooperative behaviour arrangements within hotel

marketing consortia
Sofia Almeida a, *, Paulo Sousa Morgado b, Carlos Costa c, José Manuel Simões d, Cláudia Seabra e
a
Faculty Social Sciences and Technology, Universidade Europeia and Centro de Estudos Geográficos do Instituto de Geografia e Ordenamento do Território da
Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Laura Ayres, nº 4. 1600-510 Lisboa Portugal
b
Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning (IGOT) of the Universidade de Lisboa, Edifício IGOT – Rua Branca Edmée Marques, 1600-276 Lisboa, Portugal
c
School of Economics, Management, Industrial Engineering and Tourism (DEGEIT), Universidade de Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro,
Portugal
d
Centro de Estudos Geográficos do Instituto de Geografia e Ordenamento do Território da Universidade de Lisboa, Edifício IGOT – Rua Branca Edmée Marques, 1600-
276 Lisboa, Portugal
e
Faculty of Arts & Humanities, University of Coimbra and CEGOT – Centre of Studies in Geography and Spatial Planning, 3004-530 Coimbra, Portugal

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The purpose of this paper is to examine how hotel marketing consortia (HMC) manage cooperation among their
Cooperation members. This research aims to uncover processes of HMC networking. To achieve the research goals, an
Cooperative behaviour exploratory interview was addressed. After this, a questionnaire was applied to four- and five-star hotel managers
Hotel marketing consortium
in Portugal. Data was subsequently analysed for social network analysis. The results show that direct contact
Social network analysis
Tacit knowledge
among HMC members occurs annually, during specific events. In consortia, cooperative behaviour relates to
explicit knowledge sharing experiences and market trends among members are similar in national and international consortia. The
original contribution of the study is twofold: firstly, by identifying cooperative behaviours in HMC, and secondly,
by focusing on the role of HMC in networking as an important business model in the hotel sector. Results will
contribute to an understanding of the management perspective on HMC, which could be useful for assisting
managers’ decisions and strategies.

1. Introduction tourism companies are repositioning themselves in the market, espe­

cially small and medium-sized companies (SMEs) (Emami, Welsh,
On the 11th of March 2020, World Health Organization (WHO) Davari, & Rezazadeh, 2022).
characterized COVID-19 as a pandemic (World Health Organization, This research focuses on the cooperation practices in hotel marketing
2021). This pandemic had a huge impact on people’s social lives. It consortia (HMC) as types of network arrangements (Almeida, 2022;
highlighted the loneliness of people and caused stagnation of the Roper, 1995). Cooperation is analysed as a dynamic resource to develop
economy, since many industries were literally at a standstill. At the same knowledge sharing, that allows the organizations’ performance and
time, this pandemic highlighted human values such as inter-aid, soli­ consequently its competitiveness to be improved (Sigala & Chalkiti,
darity, and the creation of alliances between people and organizations. 2015). It also contributes to the transformation of employees’ knowl­
More than ever, business models appealing to cooperation and sharing edge into organizational knowledge (Shamim, Cang, & Yu, 2019), which
gained more visibility. This, therefore, is the main reason to study HMC, is critically important as employees can, at any time, leave the company
a network umbrella brand, which helps independent hotels to gain more and take their creative and knowledge resources away with them. For
international visibility and increase the sales of room nights. These some industries, this is a critical issue, but it is especially important in
strategies imply the creation of synergies, sharing of resources and the hospitality industry, since there is high employee turnover (Duarte,
common gains. This is the motto of this research, to take advantage of an Gomes, & Neves, 2015). Likewise, the rationale of this study is the
event with tremendous impacts on society, on the crisis generated assumption that HMC is crucial as a business model confirming its
around the pandemic (Tzimpilis, 2021) and the understanding of how importance in the hotel sector, since innovation and information are

* Corresponding author at: Universidade Europeia, Faculty of Social Sciences and Technology - Campus Lispolis, Rua Laura Ayres, n◦ 4, Lote 17, 1600-510,
Telheiras, Lisboa, Portugal.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Almeida).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2023.101089
Received 13 July 2022; Received in revised form 31 January 2023; Accepted 31 January 2023
Available online 17 February 2023
2211-9736/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
S. Almeida et al. Tourism Management Perspectives 46 (2023) 101089

continuously and rapidly changing, therefore the need to understand (Almeida, Costa, & Simões, 2022). This business model has gained
how knowledge dynamics are happening inside HMC is of paramount importance over time. Other HMC appeared and asserted themselves
importance. through new hotel concepts such as: Relaís & Chateaux, Great Hotels of
To the authors’ knowledge, no studies exist that analyse HMC as the World, Small Luxury Hotels, ARTEH – Hotels and Resorts, Preferred
networks or attempt to evaluate cooperation among their members by Hotels and Design Hotels) (Almeida, Costa, & Simões, 2022). HMC
measuring tacit and explicit knowledge sharing. Thus, the research gained power in specific periods of history, namely after profound
question is: How do HMC manage cooperation among their members? economic crises. People are aware of changes and new challenges, and
Accordingly, the main goal of this study is to uncover processes of HMC business models based on alliances are a great opportunity in those
networking by i) measuring the frequency of communication among periods (Beirman, 2003).
members; ii) analysing cooperation dynamics among members through The HMC concept emerged from the marketing consortium, a
knowledge sharing; iii) verifying the existence of explicit knowledge- concept frequently used by other authors such as Kotler, Bowen,
sharing behaviours in national and international HMCs; and iv) identi­ Makens, and Baloglu (2014), Pizam & Holcomb (2008), and Ayazlar
fying the perception of flow of tacit or explicit knowledge inside HMCs. (2016), just to mention a few. However, the interpretation of the
concept in academia is different from the reality of practitioners
2. Literature review (Almeida, Spyriadis, et al., 2022). A homonymic concept emerged from
professionals working in the hotel sector – soft brand, with the same
According to Ivanova and Rahimi (2016, p. 16), “a hotel chain is a meaning as HMC. “The term ‘soft brand’ was first used by Slattery in
group of hotels, or any accommodation establishments, sharing a com­ 1991 to characterize the branding strategies of large hotel chains, for
mon brand and similar concept, implementing at least one centralized which it is difficult to guarantee a consistent brand to all their proper­
function, in order to reach a better market position and improve the ties” (Pizam & Holcomb, p. 258, 2008).
performance of all properties. The hotel chain utilizes equity and/or ‘Soft branding’ is the branding strategy used by independent hotel
non-equity modes for their growth and operate on local, regional, na­ chains so that their affiliated hotels can maintain their uniqueness, but
tional and/or international level”. Jafari (2000), in his definition, states also obtain immediate positioning and credibility through the affilia­
that a hotel chain is a unit, while Peng, Zhao and Mattila (2015) defines tion. Soft brands deepen relationships with their customers and allow
a boundary as ‘two or more units’; Bhatia (2006) defines the minimum them to conquer new markets through their brand’s global distribution
number of three hotels to be considered as a hotel chain. Although the systems, providing other marketing services to hotels that are part of
hotel chain is a business model which implies ownership and exploita­ larger and more standardized hotel groups (Pizam & Holcomb, 2008).
tion of the brand, the sector also considers other business models as The use of the term ‘soft brand’ contrasts with the ‘hard brand’ which
affiliation. Within this, the hotel marketing consortium is one of the refers to hotel chains whose products and services are standardized and
most used types of affiliation in the hotel sector (Almeida, Spyriadis, more consistent (Pizam & Holcomb, 2008), In the context of academia,
Costa, Simões, & Campos, 2022). Holverson and Revaz (2006) researched hard and soft branding choices
and European independent hoteliers’ perceptions. Ivanova, Petrov, and
2.1. Hotel marketing consortia (HMC) as networks Ivanov (2021) worked on the rise of soft brands as a competitive
advantage, as hotel chain traditional model had to adapt and create new
For Jafari (2000) “A consortium is an organization of individual concepts and tools to succeed in the market. Later, Isenberg (2016), in
trading units which combine for a common commercial purpose such as the context of practitioners, used the term soft brand as an attempt to
joint marketing services and purchasing. Such organizations are not create big hotel collections such as Leading Hotels of the World and
limited to the tourism industry; there are consortia of grocery retailers, Preferred Hotels and Resorts, among others. The main strategy of these
accounts, solicitors, and builders, as well as hotels and travel agents” (p. chains is to offer different experiences to their guests, concerning
104). Hotel consortia are a well-established feature of international decoration, architecture, exquisite service, and design. So, the concepts
operations in the USA. Consortia are the best form of contractual are similar. However, while the concept of HMC is used by academics
agreement for independent hotels (Byrne, 1993) as a combination of (Almeida, Costa, & Simões, 2022, Almeida, Spyriadis, et al., 2022;
companies can satisfy common needs and fulfil common goals (Knowles, Almeida, 2022; Ayazlar, 2016; Holloway & Humphreys, 2012; Jafari,
1996). In fact, an HMC as a hotel organization combines resources to 2000; Kotler et al., 2014; Knowles, 1996; Litteljohn, 1982; Pizam &
establish joint purchase/exchange agreements and the operation of Holcomb, 2008; Pickering, Greenwood, & Hunt, 1971; Roper, 1995;
marketing services (Litteljohn, 1982); the hotel members share re­ Slattery, Roper, & Boer, 1985), other researchers also choose to employ
sources, business costs, economies of scale and help each other, without the term soft brand such as the practitioners in the hotel market (Hol­
losing their operations (Ayazlar, 2016). The most important benefit of verson & Revaz, 2006; Ivanova et al., 2021; Isenberg Sullivan, 2016;
HMCs is the opportunity to share resources. Especially for small and Kapichin (2020); Love, 2021; Samkange et al., 2021; Slattery, 1991;
independent hotels with limited resources, which frequently depend on Sullivan, 2016).
the ‘goodwill’ of their partners – suppliers and guests – collaboration can HMC cooperatively explore promotion, which is critical to nurture
serve as an ultimate force to survive in the market and partnerships can feelings of belonging to a brand. According to Kotler et al. (2014), the
be a competitive factor (Almeida, 2022). promotion of an umbrella brand includes the presence at national and
Marketing consortia have been widely studied in several sectors; international tourism fairs, such as ITB in Berlin or World Travel Market
however, in tourism there is much to be done. Despite some attempts to in London. Hotel members share the same stand (physical space) and
identify the different types of affiliation and the factors that affect the trade contacts with travel agents and tour operators (networking). These
choice of affiliation via managers’ perceptions (Almeida, Costa, & assignments facilitate mutual support built on dynamic relations be­
Simões, 2022). and the description of the different services provided to tween hotels, stimulated by the participation in tourism fairs and pro­
the HMC members (Almeida, Campos, Costa, & Simões, 2021), few duction of promotional material such as directories, flyers, books and
studies have been carried out on HMCs. websites, also sales calls organization with different travel agents
This type of affiliation in the tourism sector has existed since 1928, (Holverson & Revaz, 2006; Ingram & Roberts, 2000; Knowles, 1996;
the year of the birth of Leading Hotels of the World (LHW). LHW was Quintas, 2006; Uzzi, 1997).
founded as a boutique referral association by a small group of European To conclude, HMC is an alliance for hotels that operates indepen­
and Egyptian hoteliers. The 38 initial members believed in the impor­ dently and seeks affiliation with a centralized organization to take
tance of establishing direct contact with travellers and distribution advantage of economies of scale. They share business costs, jointly carry
channels, particularly the travel agencies for the North American market out marketing activities and gain greater visibility in the market,

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without losing total control over their operations (Byrne, 1993; Pizam & expertise, skills and acquired competences (Podolny & Page, 1998).
Holcomb, 2008; Roper, 1995; Slattery et al., 1985). In addition to the Knowledge has been studied from different perspectives and is consid­
marketing component, the services offered by the consortia can include ered a valuable intangible resource which contributes to the creation of
employee training; the management of distribution channels, specif­ a company’s competitive advantage (Grant, 1996). As stated by Scott,
ically: sales representatives offices; organization of sales calls with travel Baggio, and Cooper (2008), “Polanyi in Polanyi, 1966 provided possibly
agents and representation in international tourism fairs; other global the most useful classification, distinguishing between two types of
reservation systems; a directory with the presence of all members’ press knowledge, tacit and explicit” (p. 41). The first type is more difficult to
offices; organization of press trips; loyalty programmes; marketing in­ code and convey includes an employee’s experience, the degree of
telligence in research; environmental sustainability programmes; expertise in a given area task, problem-solving, and application of
corporate partnerships; brand awareness; technology; channel man­ essential skills (Scott et al., 2008). Face-to-face interaction is pivotal for
agers; a revenue management system; a global distribution system; an sharing tacit knowledge and its success, with the willingness and ability
internet distribution system; training management products; and quality of individuals to share what they know and use what they learn (Lin,
assurance (Almeida, 2022; Byrne, 1993). 2007). Difficulties stemming from the sharing of tacit knowledge
include the willingness of co-workers to share and/or use this type of
2.2. Conceptualizing cooperation and cooperative behaviour knowledge, the limited awareness of the tacit knowledge that each in­
dividual possesses, and the difficulty of applying this knowledge in other
Cooperation has been a topic of research in several academic fields, contexts (Holste & Fields, 2010). However, these barriers can be over­
such as: social ecology on organizational environments (Astley & Fom­ come through relationships of trust between individuals in the process of
brun, 1983); research and development (Blanchot & Fort, 2007); knowledge sharing (Powell, 2003). By contrast, explicit knowledge re­
tourism (Bramwell & Lane, 2003; Costa & Lima, 2018; Jesus & Franco, fers to procedures, formal language, technical manuals, and information
2016); and hospitality (Elbanna, 2016; Lynch, 2000; Fiore, Galati, systems promoting the sharing of explicit knowledge among employees.
Gołębiewski, & Drejerska, 2020). Cooperation refers to the links that This latter knowledge is easier to share and includes exchange of data­
bring organizations together, thereby enhancing their ability to compete bases, reports, and data statistics on the hotel market, as well as sharing
in the marketplace (Lynch & Morrison, 2007). Concerning cooperative of training manuals with summaries of actions and good business
marketing groups, they are composed by independent businesses that practices (Scott et al., 2008; Wang & Wang, 2012). Also, the sharing of
recognize the advantages of developing markets jointly rather than in knowledge, including equality between work colleagues, interdepen­
isolation (Palmer, 2002). The cleavage ‘cooperate – go it alone’ is found dence of tasks, organizational commitment, and participative
in game theory and the prisoner’s dilemma (Kadushin, 2012). The case decision-making are features of cooperation and knowledge sharing
illustrates the paradox which emerges from decision-making based on (Lin, 2007).
self-interest (Blanchot & Fort, 2007), thus providing support for coop­ Overall, cooperation and knowledge sharing seem pivotal to com­
erative behaviour. The existence of cooperation inside networks allows panies’ processes of development and growth. However, to understand
the appearance of cooperative behaviour among their members, mean­ and measure how companies evolve, there is a need for analysis of the
ing that partners accept a certain degree of obligation – and, therefore, type of relationships built up and their strengths and weaknesses (Lin,
give a certain degree of assurance – on their future conduct, i.e., a type of 2007).
commitment, although there is no guarantee that the agreement will be
respected (Blanchot & Fort, 2007; Nguyen, Diane and Newsome, 2020). 3. Research methodology
Cooperative theory has been used to postulate the primacy of
stakeholders, such as members and the management board and their In order to address the research objectives, an exploratory interview
positioning in the processes of negotiation (Iliopoulos & Valentinov, was carried out with eight hotel managers in order to understand
2018). One of the advantages of a cooperative system is the power of its whether they were familiarized with the terminology of the main con­
members to negotiate and bargain better conditions. However, cooper­ cepts used in this research as shown in Appendix A. Based on the
ative systems also have disadvantages since when the purposes of the outcome of the interviews and on the literature review, a survey was
business are not aligned with those of the members, it may result in designed, as shown in Appendix B. From a database of 688 four- and
apathy or cynicism, with members losing interest and ceasing their five-star hotels in Portugal, 57 managers members of the seven HMC
participation (Birchall & Ketilson, 2009). with a presence in Portugal were chosen. Meanwhile 57 email addresses
were confirmed by phone. To manage the information, two software
2.3. Knowledge sharing as a cooperation construct packages, SPSS and UCINET, were used. The first was employed to
analyse the quantitative information collected by the survey. The second
Knowledge is defined as the sharing of information and relevant is a social network software to present the network outputs. The
experiences in organizations, allowing an increase in resources within a research design is presented in Fig. 1.
company and a reduction in time lost in trial and error (Luo, 2007).
Knowledge is a fluid mix, where experience, values, contextual infor­ 3.1. Social network framework
mation, and the insights of specialists who formulate a model to evaluate
and incorporate new experiences and information are merged and Social network analysis is applied to this research in order to observe
applied to the minds of connoisseurs (Davenport & Prusak, 1998). The members’ different cooperation behaviours inside consortia and also,
knowledge development process is crucial, specifically in strategic alli­ the type of content transacted. Cooperation is analysed as a multidi­
ances, where transparency and reciprocity are important for the devel­ mensional construct including tacit knowledge, explicit knowledge, and
opment of knowledge, unlike ‘power’, ‘opportunism’ and of promotion activities. Consortia will be analysed as a network and their
‘asymmetrical learning strategies’, which are barriers in the trans­ members as nodes. Relationships and content transactions are linkages
mission of knowledge (Larsson, Bengtsson, Henriksson, & Sparks, 1998). and represented by arrows.
So, knowledge sharing is considered a precious intangible resource that A social network is “a specific set of linkages among a defined set of
contributes to the creation of a company’s competitive advantage persons, with the additional property that the characteristics of these
(Grant, 1996). linkages as a whole may be used to interpret the social behaviour of the
Knowledge is considered as an organizational asset (Cross & Cum­ persons involved” (Mitchell, 1969, p. 2). According to Scott and Laws
mings, 2004; Saqib, Mohammed Din, & Baluch, 2017). Simultaneously, (2013), social network analysis has been used in studies of kinship
it is the cause and the outcome of interactions and sharing of ideas, structure, social mobility, science citations, contacts among members of

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Fig. 1. Research Design.

(Source. Own elaboration)

deviant groups, corporate power, international trade exploitation, class platforms); iv) being an exclusive supplier of global distribution system
structure, and many other areas. Regarding the type of content trans­ (GDS) code (Consortia should have this GDS system to their members);
acted in networks, Scott et al. (2008) claims that in a relationship it is the and v) being represented in Portuguese territory (despite the fact that
exchange produced when two actors are connected, e.g., two employees there are more consortia around the world, the researchers choose these
of a company exchange information or affection (friendship) with each seven because of the presence of Portuguese hotel members). They all
other. There are different types of exchange, namely, power or influ­ operate an online reservation centre and provide a global distribution
ence, information, resources, products, or services. In interpersonal re­ system (GDS), a computerized network system operated by a company
lationships, Burt (2003) suggests the study of dimensions such as that enables transactions between travel industry service providers.
strength of bonds, frequency of contact, and role in the relationships. These HMCs have been previously identified by the Computerized
Strength of relationships refers to the intensity of a relationship: a Corporate Rate Association (CCRA) list, which indicates the GDS codes
relationship in which a large number of resources are exchanged is often and identifies the suppliers (Table 1). This information was later
stronger than a relationship in which the exchange of goods and infor­ confirmed on the HMC websites.
mation is scarce (Freeman, 2004). Network relations also vary across the
time dimension, e.g., contact frequency (Burt, 2003) or intensity, and 4. Instruments
number of contacts in a unit of time; reciprocity is the degree to which
individuals report the same intensities or similarities between them for a 4.1. The exploratory interviews
content type. The most frequent way of analysing the position of an actor
in a network is through centrality measures (the node at the centre of the Interviewees were managers pertaining to two independent hotels,
network demonstrates the structural importance or the prominence of three small hotel chains and two large hotel chains. The seven re­
an actor) (Freeman, 2004). The most central players are in the most spondents are members of the international consortia operating in
advantageous position. The greater the number of nodes, the greater Portugal, ARTEH – Hotels and Resorts. Interviews included a set of
access to resources, knowledge and learning opportunities. Centrality questions to apply to experts to assess the clarity of the questions and the
means power. Then, those concepts are applied to HMC as social net­ use of technical language and to provide experts with the opportunity to
works to analyse the relations between members (nodes) and the exis­ contribute important information to the survey. Topics addressed in the
tence of cooperation between them (frequency of contact in promotional interviews were: hotel marketing consortium, knowledge sharing, tacit
activities) through the exchange of type of content, tacit and explicit and explicit knowledge. The duration of interviews varied between one
knowledge. and two hours. The conditions under which the interviews were con­
ducted took into account the following procedures: i) each of the in­
terviews was recorded with the consent of the interviewees; ii) the
3.2. Participants
interviewer asked open questions to assess the interviewees’ sensitivity
and the level of knowledge about the subject under discussion; and iii)
In this study, one of the samples encompasses the seven international
the interviews were transcribed, and content analysed. Their feedback
HMC operating in Portugal according to Table 1. These consortia were
provided insights to the design of the questionnaire applied in this study.
identified according to the following inclusion criteria: i) mentioned in
Following, Table 2 presents the profile of respondents hotels.
the international literature at least once in the last seven years (this
criterion shows the accuracy of these seven consortia and also its interest
for researchers); ii) citation in the semi-structured interviews with the 4.2. The survey
specialists (consortia were named by experts, which reflects the
importance of these seven); iii) having a central reservation system The survey was designed specifically for this research aiming to
(CRS) platform (this is also common to HMC and other reservations identify connections among HMC members, in the thematic fields of
intensity of communication and the existence of cooperation. To mea­
sure intensity of communication among members in HMC, respondents
Table 1
Marketing consortia and GDS code supply. were asked about the frequency of contact with other hotel managers
(Burt, 2003), according to a scale (from daily contact = 1 to annual
Hotel marketing Consortium Acronyms
contact = 6) Fig. 2, item a).
ARTEH – Hotels and Resorts ARTEH The cooperation constructed was analysed through promotion and
Design Hotels DH
knowledge sharing dimensions. To analyse the existence of cooperation
Great Hotels of the world GHOW
Leading Hotels of the world LHW and cooperative behaviours, the construct ‘Cooperation’ was created,
Preferred Hotels PREFERRED and it was measured through the following dimensions: promotion, tacit
Relais and Chateaux R&C and explicit knowledge sharing. Promotion was described by contact in
Small Luxury Hotels SLH national and international fairs and sales calls (Holverson & Revaz,
Source: Adapted from CCRA Index 2006; Kotler et al., 2014; Quintas, 2006). Exploratory interviews results
The profile of hotels respondents is described on Table 2. contributed to the elaboration of these dimensions and corroborated the

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Table 2 5. Data collection

Profile of respondent hotels.
Stars % 5.1. Interviews and surveys
4 stars 59.6
5 stars 40.4 The results of the exploratory interviews and the literature review
gave rise to the survey. An exploratory work was carried out with seven
Environment %
semi-structured interviews to assist in producing the survey for the
Mountain 5 study. After the selection of the seven HMC, 61 four- and five-star hotels
Rural 21
(members of these consortia) were contacted by phone. As the hotel
Sea 28
Urban 32 units belong to multiple consortia, it was made clear that participants
Mountain 14 would answer to the study’s questions using the consortium that pro­
Market Segment %
vides the GDS code as a reference. The survey was sent via email using
the SurveyMonkey platform. As the surveys were being received, tele­
Corporate 1.8
phone calls were made to address the last question to the managers,
Romantic Escapes 5.3
Family 21.1 ensuring clear interpretation. Overall, replies from 57 hotels were
Luxury 57.7 validated. Data collection period was from September 2018 to March
Other 14 2019.
Hotel Marketing Consortium N The outputs produced an Excel table comprising a set of rows and
ARTEH – Hotels and Resort 10
columns (where the nodes are represented), using the binary code 1
Design Hotels 11 (existence of relations) and 0 (absence of relations). Subsequently, this
Great Hotels of the World 6 table was submitted into the NetDraw 2.111 software, a Windows pro­
Leading Hotels of the World 8 gram used to visualize social network data. This software integrated in
Preferred Hotels 3
the UCINET program, which allows access to the information contained
Relais and Chateaux 5
Small Luxury Hotels 14 in the table but transformed into the re-designed layout.

idea that, in the context of the labour market, hotel directors and 5.2. Social networking analysis
commercial directors talk about and discuss issues related to hotel op­
erations. It was identified as the need to know the opinion of a colleague To analyse and illustrate relations between members in different
who inspires confidence to explore new markets, the opinion on a new dimensions (promotion, tacit and explicit knowledge), network graphics
international tourism fair, the discussion of an overbooking situation were created. The information collected from the first-dimension fre­
and even the reputation or performance of a potential consortium. Tacit quency of contact (Jesus & Franco, 2016) between hotel managers was
knowledge corresponds to the variable: ‘sharing of experiences, market added to NetDraw and transformed into a network graphic which shows
trends and exchange of ideas about the sector’ (Davenport & Prusak, variation of intensity according to the frequency of contacts. Each
1998; Holste & Fields, 2010; Koutoulas, 2016; Lin, 2007; Luo, 2007; response level is represented using a weighted line that evaluates the
Polanyi, 1966; Scott et al., 2008). Explicit knowledge was evaluated thickness of the bonds, represented by the arrows (from daily contact,
through the variable: ‘sharing of reports and official documents and joint thin line, to a thick line, annual contact). In order to assess the second
training’ (Grant, 1996; Koutoulas, 2016; Luo, 2007; Polanyi, 1966; Scott dimension, cooperation (construct based on the analysis of promotion
et al., 2008; Wang & Wang, 2012). plus tacit and explicit knowledge), three networks’ graphics were
To analyse cooperation, three columns were created as presented in extracted, one per dimension and made the comparison the number of
Fig. 2 – b) joint promotion, c) explicit knowledge; d) tacit knowledge. nodes and arrows.
The social network analysis was carried out in the UCINET program, To access the third-dimension explicit knowledge sharing, seven
where four matrices were built for each of the variables that make up the network graphics were extracted. Cohesion and centrality measures
structure of this question, Fig. 2, items b), c) and d). were computed to evaluate performance of hotels within the seven
networks. The number of arcs allows measurement of the connectivity of

Fig. 2. Layout of the last question of the survey

about: frequency and cooperation.
a) Frequency of contacts.
b) Joint promotion (national, international fairs and
sales calls).
c) Explicit knowledge (sharing of official reports and
documents; joint training).
d) Tacit knowledge (sharing experiences; market
trends and exchange of ideas about the sector).
Source. Own elaboration.

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the network. Centrality measures the relationship between actors and 6.3. Explicit knowledge sharing in national and international consortia
degree of centrality calculates the number of nodes adjacent to a given
actor (Borgatti, Everett, & Johnson, 2018). The third objective was to ascertain whether more explicit knowl­
edge sharing behaviours exist in national or international HMCs. To
6. Results achieve this objective, knowledge sharing was analysed in the national
consortia, ARTEH – Hotels and Resorts, compared with the performance
6.1. Communication practices of six other international consortia. To analyse explicit knowledge
sharing behaviours in national and international consortia, consortium
Social network analysis was done on communication practices via graphics on ‘explicit knowledge sharing’ were examined. This variable
the frequency of contact among members. The frequency of contact was analysed to explore differences between the national consortium
graphic presents 57 nodes and 419 connections. However, to facilitate and international consortia. The graphic shows that the national ARTEH
the interpretation of the various levels of frequency of contact, the au­ – Hotels and Resorts consortium has 10 nodes, seven of which are
thors created a network graphic for each level of contact frequency to disconnected (Table 4).
observe the different thicknesses of the arcs between the 57 nodes in The consortium with the largest number of nodes is the Small Luxury
greater detail. Table 3 shows data on the contact frequency of the six Hotels (SLH) (14) and it is also the consortium with the most arcs (29)
networks. The most frequent contact frequencies identified by the hotel regarding the flow of explicit knowledge sharing (reports, official doc­
managers are annual contact (106 arcs) and semi-annual contact (105 uments, and training) as shown in Fig. 3.
arcs). The smallest number of nodes is observed in the Preferred Hotels
consortium (3) and there is no perception of its members about explicit
6.2. Cooperation dynamics within consortia sharing of knowledge in the network.
The analysis of the national consortium shows that ARTEH is one of
Another objective of this research is to analyse cooperation dynamics the networks with the lowest densities (0.033). Density shows the po­
among members. Cooperation was operationalized through three di­ tential of the network, presenting the number of effective arcs over the
mensions, promotion, explicit and tacit knowledge. Results on the number of possible arcs the network could have. The density of this
contacts between members in tourism fairs and sales calls (promotion) consortium is lower than other international consortia, SLH (0.159),
show that hotels with the highest indegree (receiving most arcs) are the LHW (0.089), Design Hotels (0.036), R & C (0.4) and Great Hotels of the
Pousada de Lisboa, the Yeatman Hotel in Porto and the Pousada Cida­ World (GHOW) (0.1). The results show that there is no perception of
dela de Cascais. Hotels with the highest outdegree (emitting most arcs) greater sharing of reports and training actions among the member hotels
are the Pestana Palácio do Freixo and the Hotel Teatro, both located in of the Portuguese consortium relative to hotels in the international
Porto, indicating that these hotel managers had the most frequent con­ consortia. So, regarding the flow of explicit knowledge sharing, the
tact with other hotel managers at tourism fairs. consortium with greatest perception of sharing of reports and official
The promotion network presents 189 arcs and 57 nodes, of which only documents and training is Small Luxury Hotels. Considering the 57 four-
49 are connected, with eight disconnected nodes showing that they do and five-star hotels in Portugal, members of seven international con­
not register any contact with other hotels at fairs and sales calls. The sortia, there is no ‘perception of preferences’ about the national con­
graphic that measures sharing of explicit knowledge presents 57 nodes, of sortium (ARTEH) when comparing with international HMC.
which only 47 are connected. These results represent members’ per­
ceptions about the exchange of reports, official documents, and training 7. Greater fluidity of tacit or explicit knowledge inside networks
actions with the other members. The explicit knowledge network has 140
arcs. Of the seven-network graphics analysed, this one has the lowest The fourth objective intends to identify if there is more perception of
density (0.043) and the largest number of disconnected nodes. 57 nodes tacit or explicit knowledge flowing inside networks. To achieve this
are presented, and all are connected. This graphic presents the highest objective, a comparison was made between the networks to measures
density (with most effective arcs existing over the number of possible tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. The network that analyses the
arcs) of all the networks under analysis (0.091). So, when comparing the sharing of tacit knowledge has 57 nodes and all are connected, with no
number of arcs of the three graphics, that with most arcs is in the var­ disconnected nodes. The network in which there is the sharing of ex­
iable ‘tacit knowledge’ (292 arcs with no disconnected nodes). The periences, market trends and the exchange of ideas about the sector flow
network in which the sharing of experiences, market trends and the has 292 arcs, presenting the highest density (existence of more effective
exchange of ideas about the sector flow presents the highest density arcs over the number of possible arcs) of all the networks under analysis
(existence of more effective arcs over the number of possible arcs) of all (0.091). The network that assesses the sharing of explicit knowledge has
the networks under analysis (0.091). 57 nodes, of which only 47 are connected, with 10 nodes that do not
perceive the exchange of reports, official documents, and training ac­
tions with the remaining nodes. The network has 140 arcs and of the
seven networks analysed, it is the one with the lowest density (0.043)

Table 3
Table 4
Contact frequency.
Sharing explicit knowledge in all the marketing consortia.
Frequency Number of Greater indegree Greater outdegree
Consortium Number Number Disconnected Arcs Density
arcs
(Receive more (Send more of nodes of arcs Nodes potential
contacts) contacts)
ARTEH 10 3 7 90 0.33
Daily contact 63 Pousada de Lisboa Hotel Pestana Palace SLH 14 29 1 182 0.159
Pousada Mosteiro do Pousada Palácio do LHW 8 5 3 56 0.089
Weekly contact 28
Guimarães Freixo Design
11 9 2 110 0.036
Monthly Pousada Mosteiro do Pousada Cidadela de Hotels
15
contact Amares Cascais Relais and
5 8 0 20 0.4
Semi-annual Chateaux
105 Hotel Teatro Bairro Alto
contact Preferred 3 0 3 6 0
Annual contact 106 Fortaleza do Guincho Palácio Estoril hotel GHW 6 0 3 30 0.1

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S. Almeida et al. Tourism Management Perspectives 46 (2023) 101089

Fig. 3. SLH Consortia network on explicit knowledge sharing.

Revealing cooperative behaviour arrangements within.
hotel marketing consortia.
(Source. Output from UCINET 6 software)

and has the highest number of disconnected nodes. So, the more ‘con­ Burk, Stattin, and Kerr (2012) argues that the probability, contact fre­
nected’ network is tacit knowledge. quency, and strength of social ties decline with distance, by which it
could probably be said that distance increases the frequency of contact.
8. Discussion Our results are in line with the results of Vernon, Essex, Pinder, and
Curry (2005) and Timur and Getz (2008), who stated that networks
Research on HMC is still scarce and more needs to be known on promote improvements and the spread of information, strengthening
cooperative behaviour in the hotel sector. HMC are gaining importance connections that contribute to more sustainable tourism development.
as business model (Almeida, 2022) and organizational work structures Sharing data and information increases the feeling of belonging and
(Almeida, Spyriadis, et al., 2022; Kotler et al., 2014; Roper, 1995). strengthens members’ relations.
HMCs are networks and important structures in the hotel sector, since Another interesting result is the fact that Small Luxury Hotels is the
they play a role as a communication and distribution channel and target consortium with the greatest perception of explicit knowledge, through
small and independent hotels, which lack a strong branding strategy the perception of sharing reports and official documents and training.
(Almeida, Costa, Simões and Carvalho, 2020a). Prior research on This means that this consortium’s members have the clear perception
cooperation in tourism has focused on the potential benefits and prob­ that their HMC board transmits useful data to their members, through
lems of collaboration and partnerships in this field (Bramwell & Lane, emails, newsletters, and reports, among others. The layout of this
2003). Partnerships promote learning about work processes, skills, and particular network allows us to conclude that Pousadas form a smaller
business potential of partners, and develop group interaction and cluster inside the network and received several arcs from other hotels;
negotiating skills that contribute to its success (Bramwell & Lane, 2003), this may show the power and influence of Pousadas in the SLH consortia.
although the benefits of a belonging to a HMC go beyond partnerships. Regarding the sharing of explicit knowledge in national and interna­
The results of this study corroborate that knowledge (and learning tional consortia, the results do not show different perceptions related to
skills) is an important cooperation resource (Conner & Prahalad, 1996) this issue. Members do not have the perception of having more training
withing these networks. The results obtained show that there is a actions or dossiers or other information shared by a national either than
perception of cooperative behaviours within consortia, although in an international consortium. These findings do not corroborate the
some networks the existence of nodes without arrows shows us that opinion of Bramwell and Lane (2003), who highlight the existence of
hotels do not perceive any relation with others. So, in those cases, net­ inequalities in power issues, conflicts, and representations as disad­
works are more disconnected. Identifying those weaknesses and pre­ vantages of and barriers to cooperation networks in tourism. It is
paring a solution could represent an important task for managers. possible to infer that those HMC’s members do not perceive the sharing
Considering communication practices in frequency of contact, our of experiences, debating ideas, or having training actions inside national
results showed the most prevalent contact frequency identified by hotel than international networks. International CEOs should pay attention to
managers is annual contact. Perhaps the main reason is related to fact these results. Some conflicts may be happening in their networks and
that they are all present in the same region. Hotels considered in this members are not willing to collaborate with each other, so they do not
study are in different parts of the country and hotel managers stated debate and do not share market experiences. Or simply, consortia do not
meeting others in international events only once a year. Jesus and organize sufficient or adequate moments to promote experiences and
Franco (2016) also analysed the frequency of contact among their exchanges between their members. This is an important opportunity for
member networks; despite their population consisting of 24 members international consortia CEOs to keep up the good work and maintain this
(four cases) most contacts established by the interviewees occurred healthy relation with their members but acts as cautionary information
consistently, several times a year. In an exception, Preciado, Snijders, for the ARTEH – Hotels and Resorts CEO, who has to develop and to

7
S. Almeida et al. Tourism Management Perspectives 46 (2023) 101089

boost relations with members to be more competitive. between Russia and Ukraine is having a strong impact in the world so­
This is also important because, according to Wang and Wang (2012), ciety and economy. These two disruptive events are causing: i) hu­
explicit knowledge is usually more systematic and inherent to speed of manitarian crises with no precedents, ii) a profound economic crisis
innovation and financial performance. Therefore, CEOs must improve caused by unemployment due to the pandemic and inflation because of
the fluidity of this type of knowledge inside their networks, transmitted the war, iii) an energy crisis that is impacting all industries and partic­
through written documents and databases (Polanyi, 1966). ularly the tourism activity (Plzáková & Smeral, 2022). This current
The last results about tacit knowledge show us that there are bigger situation will once again appeal to humanity’s solidarity and mostly the
perceptions of tacit knowledge than explicit knowledge inside the seven creativity of all stakeholders in businesses of all sectors, especially in
HMCs. As stated by Polanyi (1966), tacit knowledge is related to tourism (Gunter, Smeral, & Zekan, 2022).
knowledge sharing through experiences. This type of knowledge In the tourism sector, 90% of the business scenario in Europe is made
generally leads partners to become closer when in learning and building up of small and medium-sized players that are more vulnerable in pe­
processes and relates to the quality of innovation and operational per­ riods of crises (Hamdouch, Demaziere, & Banovac, 2017). In these
formance (Lane & Lubatkin, 1998; Wang & Wang, 2012). This means difficult times, network business models such as the hotel marketing
that members perceive better the exchange of experiences and the consortia have a unique opportunity to open borders and help small
debate of ideas about the hotel sector with colleagues than the exchange hotels with scarce resources and providing them with tools, so that they
of more tangible information such as receiving reports, official docu­ can have opportunities similar to large companies (Almeida, 2022b).
ments and training, typical resources shared in a hotel consortium. So, This represents a concerted opportunity for HMC to grow, through the
CEOs should identify a competitive advantage, as once their members growth of members and an increase in the quality of service provided,
better perceive the existence of tacit knowledge, this means that they are both from a perspective of B2C, to the final customer, or in a B2B
more available to improve their operational performance and develop perspective, to its hotel members (Almeida, 2022). The biggest chal­
innovation environment. Polanyi (1966) associated new technologies lenge that SMEs face is their ability to survive (Alnoor, 2020) and
with tacit knowledge, which can lead to a unique advantage to those knowledge management could certainly make a difference.
HMCs and improve the exchange of tacit knowledge. Scott et al. (2008) This is the first time, to our knowledge, that a study has analysed the
stated that 90% of organization knowledge assets are tacit, and what is existence of tacit and explicit knowledge inside an HMC, analysing this
more, this type of knowledge is often ignored. Our results corroborate cooperation dynamic through social network analysis. The results of this
these results, as our respondents perceive more sharing of tacit than research are important for HMC dynamics and their relationship with
explicit knowledge. This means that members perceive better the ex­ hotel members. The first results show that the majority of hotel decision
change of experiences and the debate of ideas about the hotel sector with makers have the perception that their physical contact with other con­
colleagues than the exchange of more tangible information such as sortium members happens once a year. This coincides with the organi­
receiving reports, official documents and training, typical resources zation of consortia annual meetings, which happens (in a large number
shared in a hotel consortium. It is possible to extrapolate that this kind of of cases) at the same time as the main international tourism fairs.
networks have more potential for innovation and to increase their Cooperative behaviours among members should be further stimu­
operational performance (Wang & Wang, 2012). lated. This research showed that one way to achieve higher relational
Consortia should improve the dissemination of explicit knowledge by dynamics within consortia is to increase opportunities for interaction,
creating more training actions and disseminating more information. particularly by creating more get-together moments (particularly face-
Seminars or reports are examples of sustained action to achieve long- to-face) e.g., joint discussion on HMC future strategy. Moreover, this
term success for consortia. As for the dissemination of tacit knowl­ research enlightens managers about the role of HMC in the process of
edge, consortia should promote the exchange of experiences and the dissemination and development of organizational culture, which is
debate of ideas about the hotel sector with colleagues rather than the crucial to overall and department-based success.
exchange of more tangible information such as receiving reports, official Moreover, these results were collected before the COVID-19
documents and training, typical resources shared in a hotel consortium. pandemic. This crisis helped to underline the importance of physical
This is an identified gap, as it is important for consortia managers to presence. Moments of getting together like participating in tourism fairs
become aware of this situation and change it in the future. The solution and annual conferences organized by HMCs have gained new impor­
can be found in the organization of more training actions for their tance. In addition to highlighting the face-to-face and physical compo­
members, sending more information and data about the sector, like nent (on standby because of the COVID-19 crisis), other procedures must
statistics and trend reports to their members. This could be useful in­ be taken into account for five-star hotels. One example is the research by
formation in the decision-making process. Another important implica­ Salem, Elkhwesky, and Ramkissoon (2022), who described the initia­
tion is that consortia should help their members to achieve common tives, practices, and responses of the Egyptian government during the
goals (annual meetings organization) and to behave autonomously and COVID-19 global health pandemic.
independently by providing them with the conditions and tools to ach­ Considering contributions, this study presents important theoretical
ieve individual business goals (organization of training actions). and also managerial implications. Regarding the theoretical, it is the
Finally, our research findings corroborate Wong, Tjosvold, and Liu first attempted comparison between HMC in the dimensions of cooper­
(2009) study, and are a contribution to the theory of small groups and ation by analysing knowledge sharing practices. Secondly, this research
cooperative behaviour through agreement on common objectives, thus operationalized the construct of cooperation through the promotion and
helping members to understand group potential dynamics. Employees knowledge sharing dimensions, operationalized by the variables previ­
with cooperative objectives develop a greater interest in helping col­ ously identified in the literature review. Thirdly, the results are also
leagues, and encouragement for interaction provides constructive re­ expected to expand the body of knowledge concerning the fields of
lationships and increases productivity within groups (Hill, Hwang, & cooperation, knowledge sharing and tourism-related businesses.
Kim, 1990). Teams have the potential to innovate (Wang & Wang, 2012; As managerial contributions, the results may stimulate small inde­
Wong et al., 2009), but also face barriers and obstacles in knowledge pendent hotels to join consortia arrangements, as those networks
dissemination, often frustrating work achievements (Larsson et al., assumedly bring added value to smaller organizations. Examination of
1998). perceptions about this network model helps reinforce relations among
members and expand them to an international scenario. Without being
9. Conclusion part a renowned HMC or other umbrella brand, it is not easy for small
independent hotels to aim for international positioning or to capture
After a pandemic that is severely affecting humankind, the war international audiences in distant destinations, because of their scarce

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sity Press. Social Networks. Annual Review of Anthropology, 3, 279-299. Sofia Almeida, Sofia holds a PhD in Tourism from the Institute
of Geography and Spatial Planning (IGOT) at the University of
Nunkoo, R., & Ramkissoon, H. (2016). Stakeholders’ views of enclave tourism: A
grounded theory approach. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 40(5), Lisbon, and a degree in Business Communication. Currently,
557–558. she is Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Tourism and Hos­
Palmer, A. (2002). Cooperative marketing associations: An investigation into the causes pitality (FTH), Universidade Europeia, in the current units of
of effectiveness. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 10(2), 135–156. tourism and hospitality marketing, Digital comunication &
Social Media, Digital Marketing and Events Management. Sofia
Peng, J., Zhao, X., & Mattila, A. S. (2015). Improving service management in budget
hotels. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 49, 139–148. worked for fifteen years as a Marketing Director at the hotel
Pickering, J. F., Greenwood, J. A., & Hunt, D. (1971). The small firm in the hotel and marketing consortium, ARTEH® Hotels & Resorts, an indepen­
catering industry. London: HMSO. dent hotel chain with international representation. Her
Pizam, A., & Holcomb, J. (Eds.). (2008). International dictionary of hospitality management. research focuses on the areas of hotel management, networks,
coopetition, hotel marketing consortia, tourism marketing, hotel
Oxford: Routledge.
Plzáková, L., & Smeral, E. (2022). COVID-19 pandemic, the war in Ukraine and looming branding and digital marketing. Sofia is a research member of
the Centre for Geographical Studies, IGOT, Universidade de Lisboa.
risks for tourism’s recovery. Tourism Economics, 0(0), 1–6.
Podolny, J. M., & Page, K. L. (1998). Network forms of organization. Annual Review of
Sociology, 24(1), 57–76. Paulo Sousa Morgado, Paulo Sousa Morgado is a GIScientist. Paulo holds a PhD in
Powell, W. (2003). Neither market nor hierarchy. Network forms of a organization: ." In Regional and Urban Planning (Geocomputation) from IGOT-ULisboa. Paulo is currently an
L. L. Cummings and B. M. Staw (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, 12: 237- Assistant Professor at the Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning of the University de
249. Lisboa and a researcher at centre of Geographical Studies, where he also coordinates a
Polanyi, M. (1966). The logic of tacit inference. Philosophy, 41(155), 1–18. GeoModLAB). Paulo was a visiting researcher at CASA of the University College London
Preciado, P., Snijders, T. A., Burk, W. J., Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2012). Does proximity and a Visiting Scholar at University of Cambridge. His research areas are centred in the
matter? Social Neworks, 34(1), 18–31. field of Theoretical and Quantitative Geography, Paulo has published several articles in
Quintas, M. (2006). Organização e Gestão Hoteleira (Vol. 2). Lisboa: OtelTur. international peer-review journals, 4 books chapters and 6 books.
Ramkissoon, H. (2020). Perceived social impacts of tourism and quality-of-life: A new
conceptual model. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/
09669582.2020.1858091 Carlos Costa, Full Professor. Head of the Department of Economics, Management and
Ramkissoon, H., Mavondo, F., & Sowamber, V. (2020). Corporate social responsibility at Industrial Engineering of the University of Aveiro and Editor of the Journal of Tourism &
LUX* resorts and hotels: Satisfaction and loyalty implications for employee and Development (Revista de Turismo e Desenvolvimento). Carlos holds a PhD and MSc on
customer social responsibility. Sustainability, 12(22), 9745. Tourism Management (University of Surrey, UK), and a BSc on Urban and Regional
Roper, A. (1995). The emergence of hotel consortia as transorganizational forms. Planning (University of Aveiro, Portugal). Carlos is the leader of the Tourism Research Unit
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 7(1), 4–9. and of the PhD Tourism Programme of the University of Aveiro. He is also Scientific
Salem, I. E., Elkhwesky, Z., & Ramkissoon, H. (2022). A content analysis for governments Coordinator of the “idtour-unique solutions” (tourism spin-off company of the University
and hotels’ response to COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt. Tourism and Hospitality of Aveiro), a private sector company located in the University, responsible for the trans­
Research, 22(1), 42–59. ference of knowledge and innovation to the tourism sector. Carlos is involved in a number
Samkange, et al. (2021). Innovative and sustainable food production and food of national and international tourism projects.
consumption entrepreneurship: A conceptual recipe for delivering development
success in South Africa. Sustainability, 13(19), 11049. José Manuel Simões, President of IGOT – Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning –
Saqib, M., Mohammed Din, Z., & Baluch, N. H. (2017). The impact of knowledge Universidade de Lisboa. Full Professor at IGOT-University of Lisbon (since 2006). Scien­
management on organizational performance in today’s economy. South East Asia tific Coordinator of PhD on Tourism of IGOT-University of Lisbon (since 2010). Scientific
Journal of Contemporary Business, Economics and Law, 12(3), 25–33. Coordinator of TERRITUR: unit for Tourism, Culture and Territory Studies at Centre for
Scott, N., Baggio, R., & Cooper, C. (2008). Network analysis and tourism: From theory to Geographical Studies - IGOT- University of Lisbon (since 2008). Member of the Executive
practice. Clevedon: Channel View Publications. Board of IUPEA - International Urban Planning and Environment Association (since 2014).
Scott, N., & Laws, E. (2013). Advances in service networks research. In N. Scott, & Author of numerous papers and headed several research and consultancy projects on
E. Laws (Eds.), Advances in service network analysis (pp. 7–18). London: Routledge. regional/local development and tourism strategic planning.
Seabra, C., Almeida, S., & Reis, M. (2022). Quality-of-life perception among young
residents and visitors: The impact of COVID-19. Sustainability, 14, 16177.
Shamim, S., Cang, S., & Yu, H. (2019). Impact of knowledge-oriented leadership on Cláudia Seabra, Cláudia Seabra is a Professor at the Faculty of Arts & Humanities at the
knowledge management behaviour through employee work attitudes. The University of Coimbra, Portugal, where she coordinates the Ph.D. in Tourism, Territory,
International Journal of Human Resource Management, 30(16), 2387–2417. and Heritage. She has a Ph.D. in Tourism and a Post-PhD in Economic and Social Geog­
raphy. Some of her studies have been published in the Journal of Business Research,

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S. Almeida et al. Tourism Management Perspectives 46 (2023) 101089

Tourism Management, Annals of Tourism Research, International Journal of Tourism CEGOT -Geography and Spatial Planning Research Centre; and collaborates with CISeD-
Cities, European Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Management, ANATOLIA, Research Center in Digital Services. Her research interests are safety, terrorism, risk in
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, among others. She is affiliated with the tourism.

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