week 2-3

Each community is formed by the activity of language.

-Leonard Bloomfield

Language

Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (2003, p.699)

-​ Language is “a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of
conventionalized or signs, sounds, gestures, or marks having understood meanings.”

Steven Pinker’s The Language Instinct (1994)

-​ Language is a complex, specialized skill, which develops in the child spontaneously,
without conscious effort or formal instruction, is deployed without awareness of its
underlying logic, is qualitatively the same in every individual, and is distinct from more
general abilities to process information or behave intelligently.

Language Subfields of Research and Inquiry

1.​ … is systematic phonetics; phonology; morphology; syntax;

discourse analysis; lexical analysis

2.​ … uses arbitrary symbols semiotics; semantics; philosophy & history of

language; psycholinguistics

3.​ … uses symbols that are primarily phonetics; phonology; writing systems;
vocal but may also be visual orthography; non-verbal communication

4.​ … uses symbols that have semantics; pragmatics; sociolinguistics;

conventionalized meanings psycholinguistics; cognitive linguistics

5.​ … is used for communication sentence processing; pragmatics;

sociolinguistics; psycholinguistics; cognitive
linguistics

6.​ … operates in a speech community sociolinguistics; sociocultural analysis; or

culture pragmatics; dialectology; bilingualism

7.​ … is essentially to humans but not innateness; genetics; neurolinguistics; animal

limited to humans communication

8.​ … has universal characteristics universal grammar; innateness; emergentism;

neurolinguistics; cross cultural analysis

Language in Learning and Teaching

Learning
✓ … is acquiring knowledge of a subject or a skill by study, experience or instruction.
✓ … a change in an individual caused by experience.
Teaching
✓ … showing or helping someone to learn how to do something, providing with knowledge,
causing them to know or understand.
✓ … is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling a person to learn, and setting the condition for
learning.

Learning is …
1. acquisition or “adding”
2. the retention of information or skills
3. the involvement of storage systems, memory, and cognitive organizations
4. the application of active, conscious focus, and subconscious attention
5. relatively permanent but subject to forgetting
6. the result of practice, perhaps reinforced practice
7. a change in behavior

General Functions of Language

Interpersonal
-​ This fulfills the human needs to exchange experiences since humans are social beings.
-​ It is interpersonal when the communication uses grammatical preferences that enable
them to perform their interpersonal relations.
“Let us talk.” ​ ​ “Come with me”
-​ Language is used to interact, establish, and maintain a relationship, influence behavior,
express a point of view, or elicit others’ point of view.

Informative
-​ The language function is informative if it does not confirm or reject positions.
-​ It is informative when language is used to inform or to give further emphasis to the
known information.
“Humans are capable of love.”
-​ Informative language is often seen in analytical reports, arguments, and directions, or
most everyday speeches.

Performative
-​ When language is used to do things or perform or report an action, the language
function is performative.
I do.
I accept.
I apologize.
I promise.
-​ The performative function of language holds power that can guarantee the deed or
performance of an act.
Halliday’s Functions of Language

Ideational Function
-​ An ideational function involves the natural world and human consciousness.
-​ This is concerned with creating and maintaining a notion of experience, which is both
experiential and logical.
-​ Halliday noted that through interactions, humans make meaning from their experiences.

Interpersonal Function
-​ An interpersonal function is about a world of working together.
-​ This function seeks to create and uphold social relationships.
-​ This includes sentences and grammatical choices that allow a person to enact
interpersonal relations.

Textual Function
-​ The ideational and interpersonal functions are intricately structured.
-​ Textual function comprises all the grammatical systems needed to create relevance to
context, through which “language creates a semiotic world of its own.”
Tab 21
by Michael Halliday in his Systemic
Functional Linguistics (SFL)
framework.

1. Ideational Function — Language as a tool to represent

experience
What it means:

This function is about how we use language to talk about the world, both external (things,
actions, events, etc.) and internal (thoughts, feelings, perceptions).

●​ It helps us express who is doing what to whom, when, where, why, and how.​

●​ It includes experiential meanings (content of what we are saying) and logical relations
(like cause-effect, time, comparison).​

Example:

“The cat chased the mouse under the table.”

●​ This sentence represents an experience — a cat (participant) did something (chased —

process) to the mouse (another participant), and it happened somewhere (under the
table — circumstance).​

●​ We can also express thoughts or feelings:​

“I think it will rain.”​

This is about internal consciousness (thinking, predicting).

Summary:

The ideational function helps us construct a mental model of reality using language.
In the framework of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), the ideational
function of language, according to Halliday, refers to how we use language to
represent and understand our experiences and the world around us. It's
essentially the "content function" of language, focusing on what we are
talking about. This function is realized through the concept of transitivity,
which analyzes the relationships between entities, actions, and processes in
a text.

2. Interpersonal Function — Language as interaction

What it means:

This function is about how we use language to interact with others — to express attitudes,
give commands, ask questions, and build relationships.

●​ It’s how we show emotion, attitude, authority, and social roles.​

●​ It shapes how we relate to others when we speak or write.​

Example:

“Could you please close the window?” (polite request)​

“Shut the window now!” (command)​
“You did a great job.” (compliment)

These sentences are not just about facts, but about interacting — being polite, giving orders, or
praising someone.

Another example:

“I think we should go now.”​

This expresses opinion and invites agreement — it’s interactive.

Summary:
The interpersonal function helps us negotiate relationships, influence others, and express
ourselves socially.

3. Textual Function — Language as structured message

What it means:

This function is about how language is organized into coherent and cohesive texts — how we
make sure our messages make sense in a given context.

●​ It involves grammar choices like theme (what comes first), cohesion (linking ideas),
and information structure.​

●​ It allows us to connect ideational and interpersonal meanings smoothly.​

Example:

“First, we went to the park. Then, we had lunch. After that, we saw a movie.”

This is a textual structure that organizes a sequence of events clearly.

Another example:

“However, he didn’t agree.”​

The word “however” helps link this idea to what came before.

Textual function makes the sentence flow naturally and fit the situation or purpose —
whether it's a conversation, a report, or a poem.

Summary:

The textual function helps us organize language effectively so that it’s understandable and fits
its context.

Putting It All Together:

Let’s take this sentence:

“Frankly, I believe the government should act now.”

 ●​ Ideational: It’s about someone (I) having a belief about something (the government
should act).​

●​ Interpersonal: It shows attitude and engages the reader/listener (e.g., “Frankly”

expresses opinion, “I believe” softens the statement).​

●​ Textual: The sentence is structured to highlight opinion first (“Frankly”) and flows
logically.

General Functions of Language

1. Interpersonal Function — Language for social

connection
Meaning:

This function is about how we use language to connect with others, build relationships, and
interact socially. Since humans are social beings, we naturally use language to share
thoughts, feelings, and intentions, and to influence others.

Key Features:

●​ Includes commands, requests, invitations, opinions, or emotional expressions.​

●​ Involves tone, formality, and grammatical choices that reflect relationships (e.g., polite
vs. informal).​

Examples:

●​ “Let us talk.” — An invitation to communicate (cooperative tone).​

●​ “Come with me.” — A directive or request (possibly friendly or urgent).​

●​ “I think that’s a bad idea.” — Sharing a personal opinion.​

●​ “You look great today.” — Building social rapport through a compliment.​

Summary:

Language is interpersonal when it’s used to engage with people, express feelings, or
negotiate relationships. It’s not just about facts; it’s about how we relate to others.

2. Informative Function — Language for sharing

knowledge
Meaning:

The informative function is when language is used to communicate facts, explain ideas, or
describe something. It focuses on giving information, not persuading or performing an
action.

Key Features:

●​ Typically neutral in tone.​

●​ Does not demand agreement or action.​

●​ Often used in education, reporting, instructions, or factual conversation.​

Examples:

●​ “Humans are capable of love.” — A general truth or observation.​

●​ “Water boils at 100°C.” — A scientific fact.​

●​ “The capital of Japan is Tokyo.” — Straightforward information.​

●​ “The instructions are on the back of the box.” — Practical direction.​

Summary:

Informative language is used to inform, explain, or describe, not to engage emotionally or

perform an act.
3. Performative Function — Language that does
something
Meaning:

This function refers to language that performs an action just by being spoken or written.
These are often official, ceremonial, or socially significant utterances where saying =
doing.

Key Features:

●​ Usually in formal or institutional settings (legal, religious, social rituals).​

●​ The speaker must have authority for it to be effective (e.g., a judge, priest, or official).​

Examples:

●​ “I do.” — In a wedding ceremony, it makes the marriage official.​

●​ “I apologize.” — A formal expression of regret; saying it is the act.​

●​ “I promise to return the book.” — A commitment is made simply by saying it.​

●​ “I declare the meeting open.” — The act (opening the meeting) is done through the
words.​

Summary:

Performative language is when words are actions, not just descriptions. Saying something
makes it happen, under the right circumstances.

⚖️ How They Compare:

Function Purpose Example Effect
Interpersona Build relationships, “Let’s talk.” Social connection,
l interact influence

Informative Share knowledge or “Water boils at 100°C.” Provides information,

facts explanation

Performativ Perform an act via “I now pronounce you Action completed by

e words married.” speaking
week 4
q Structural Linguistics

○​ Structuralism: A theoretical framework in psychology, anthropology, linguistics,

and philosophy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.​

○​ Ferdinand de Saussure’s Structural Linguistics:​

■​ Saussure is known as the “Father of Modern Linguistics.”

■​ Cours de Linguistique Générale was published in 1916.
○​ Structural Linguistics:​

■​ It is the idea that language is a system of contrast and equivalents.

■​ Language consists of strings and linguistic objects (phonemes,
morphemes, etc.).
○​ Key Ideas of Structural Linguistics:
A.​ Contrast and Equivalents

Contrasts

●​ Language operates through a system of differences.

●​ The value or meaning of a linguistic unit (like a sound, word, or phrase) is defined not by
what it is, but by how it contrasts with other units.
○​ Example: The word cat means what it does because it contrasts with words like
bat, cap, and cut — the differences in sounds create meaning.
○​ In phonology, the sounds /p/ and /b/ are meaningful because they contrast (e.g.,
pat vs. bat).

Equivalents

●​ Language also functions through equivalences or patterns of similarity.

●​ Equivalence shows how certain elements can be grouped together because they serve
the same function or fit into the same structural pattern.
○​ Example: In the sentence structure "The cat sleeps", the word cat could be
replaced by dog, boy, or bird — they are equivalent because they occupy the
same grammatical slot (a noun).
○​ In phonology, different allophones of a phoneme are considered equivalent
within a language system.

🔎 Saussure’s Core Idea

Language is a system of signs where meaning arises from:

1.​ Contrast – Differences between elements (what a word is not).

2.​ Equivalence – Similarities or shared functions among elements (how a word can be
substituted or grouped).

B.​ SIGNIFIER AND SIGNIFIED​

■​ The relationship between signifier and signified is arbitrary.

C.​ PAROLE AND LANGUE

PAROLE:​
Parole is the physical manifestation of speech, where through individual use of
language (langue), each person creates a particular style that characterizes it in
the process of communication in a society.​
(What the individual speaks)
-​ Personal, your approach​
 LANGUE:​
Langue is a complete system of linguistic signs that allows for the configuration
and determination of grammar, phonology, and vocabulary. This system is
conventionalized according to the communicative needs of a society.​
(What is shared by the community)
-​ Jargon, academic standing, language used in a society

D.​ SYNCHRONY AND DIACHRONY

SYNCHRONY DIACHRONY

The study of a language at a specific point in time The study of how a language changes
(usually the present, but it can be any moment in over time.
history).

Structure and function of a language as a system Evolution of phonetics, syntax,

at a given moment, without considering historical morphology, and semantics across
changes. different periods.

Analyzing the grammar, phonetics, and Studying how Latin evolved into the
vocabulary of modern English as it is spoken Romance languages (French, Spanish,
today, without looking at how it evolved. Italian, etc.).
 E.​ PARADIGM AND SYNTAGMS

Paradigm - vertical axis

-​ Can replace each other as long as grammatically consistent

Syntagm - horizontal
-​ How words combine to form meaningful expression
2. Behaviorism

What is Behaviorism?​
• Behaviorism is a psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors
over internal mental processes.​
• It posits that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment.​
• Behavior is learned through interactions with the environment via two main types of
conditioning:

1.​ Classical Conditioning

2.​ Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning

Before Conditioning

●​ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) → Unconditioned Response (USR)

After Conditioning

●​ Neutral Stimulus → Conditioned Stimulus (CS) = Conditioned Response (CR)

Example 1: Dog and Food (Pavlov's Experiment)

Before Conditioning:
 ●​ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Food (because it naturally triggers a response)
●​ Unconditioned Response (USR): Salivation (the automatic/ natural response to UCS -
food)

After Conditioning:

●​ Neutral Stimulus: Bell (the bell initially has no effect on salivation)

-​ Initially has no response
●​ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Bell (after pairing with food several times, the bell begins
to trigger salivation)
-​ Triggers a response
●​ Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation (now the bell alone causes salivation)
-​ Learned response to the conditioned stimulus

Operant Conditioning

●​ Operant Conditioning - B.F. Skinner (based on Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect)

Example 1: Training a Dog to Sit

Before Conditioning:

●​ Behavior: Dog sits (this may happen naturally, without reinforcement)

●​ Consequence: No reward (there's no reinforcement to encourage sitting)

After Conditioning:

●​ Behavior: Dog sits on command

●​ Consequence: Positive Reinforcement (giving the dog a treat after sitting)
●​ Result: The dog is more likely to sit when asked, because the behavior is now
reinforced by the treat.

Process

1.​ Shaping – gradually reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired
behavior
2.​ Extinction – reinforcement stops, behavior gradually disappears
3.​ Generalization – behavior extends to similar situations
4.​ Discrimination – learn to respond only in specific conditions
●​
a.​ Reinforcement or punishment
●​ Reinforcement is a response or consequence that causes a behavior to occur
with greater frequency.
-​ Introduced to increase a behavior
●​ Punishment is a response or consequence that causes a behavior to occur with
less frequency.
 -​ Introduced to decrease a beahvior
b.​ Positive or negative

-Positive means adding a new stimulus.

-Negative means removing an old stimulus

●​ Positive Punishment: Adding something unpleasant to reduce a behavior (e.g., extra

chores for misbehavior).
●​ Negative Punishment: Removing something pleasant to reduce a behavior (e.g., taking
away a phone for breaking curfew).
●​ Positive Reinforcement: Adding something pleasant to increase a behavior (e.g.,
giving a treat for following a command).
●​ Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to increase a behavior (e.g.,
stopping extra work for turning in homework on time).

3-4. Generative Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology

1. Generative Linguistics

●​ A theoretical framework explaining how humans generate and understand language.

●​ Focuses on innate cognitive mechanisms for language production and
comprehension.
●​ Assumes humans have a set of innate linguistic rules and principles for language
use.
●​ Uses formal grammars to describe these rules (e.g., Chomsky’s
transformational-generative grammar).

2. Cognitive Psychology

●​ A broader field that studies human information processing and decision-making.

●​ Includes research on:
○​ Memory
○​ Attention
○​ Perception
○​ Reasoning
○​ Problem-solving
●​ In the context of language, it studies:
○​ How people acquire, store, and retrieve linguistic information.
○​ How language is used for communication.
3. Relationship and Overlap

●​ Both fields aim to explain how humans use language.

●​ Generative linguistics → Focuses on underlying cognitive rules/mechanisms.
●​ Cognitive psychology → Takes a broader, more holistic approach to language use in
different contexts.
●​ Together, they enhance understanding of human language processing and brain
mechanisms.

Table: Comparison of Generative Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology

Aspect Generative Linguistics Cognitive Psychology

Focus Innate cognitive mechanisms Broader study of human

underlying language production and information processing and
comprehension decision-making

Key Humans have an innate set of linguistic Language use involves memory,
Assumption rules and principles attention, reasoning, and
problem-solving

Methodology Formal grammars (e.g., Chomsky’s Experiments and observational

transformational-generative grammar) studies on cognitive processes

Goal Explain how humans generate and Explain how humans acquire,
understand language store, and use language

Approach Focused on internal cognitive Holistic approach to cognitive

structures for language processes involved in language
use
Contribution Understanding of syntax, grammar, Understanding of memory,
and language structure retrieval, and language use in
context

Three Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition

Two Branches of Constructivism:

1.​ Cognitive Constructivism – emphasis is placed on the importance of learners

constructing their own representation of reality.
○​ “Learners must individually discover and transform complex information if they
are to make it their own, [suggesting] a more active role for their students in their
own learning than is typical in many classrooms” (Slavin, 2003, pp. 257-258).
○​ For Piaget, “Learning is a developmental process that involves change,
self-generation, and construction, each building on prior learning experiences”
(Kaufman, 2004, p. 304).

-​ Innate, prior learning experience

Two Branches of Constructivism:

2.​ Social Constructivism – emphasizes the importance of social interaction and

cooperative learning in ultimate attainment.
○​ Spivey (1997, p. 24) noted that constructivist research tends to focus on
“individuals engaged in social practices on … on a collaborative group, [or] on a
global community.”
○​ Lev Vygotsky (1978), advocated the view that “children’s thinking and
meaning-making is socially constructed and emerges out of their social
interactions with their environment.”​
▪ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): the distance between learners’
existing developmental state and their potential development.

-​ MKO - more knowledgeable others

-​ Scaffolding
-​ Involved other people
week 4 annotation
1. Structural Linguistics Overview

Structural linguistics is based on the idea that language is a structured system of signs, where
the meaning of each element comes from its relationship to other elements in the system. This
theory was heavily influenced by Ferdinand de Saussure, who argued that language is a
system of differences rather than a set of independent terms.

Contrast
●​ Definition: Contrast refers to the way linguistic elements gain meaning by being
different from other elements within the system.
●​ The meaning of a linguistic unit (like a sound, word, or grammatical structure) is
established negatively — by what it is not.

🔎 Example:
●​ The English phonemes /p/ and /b/ are meaningful because they contrast with each other:
○​ "pat" vs. "bat" → The difference between /p/ and /b/ creates a contrast that
signals a difference in meaning.

In Saussurean terms, this reflects the idea that signs function through a system of oppositions
— we know what /p/ is because it is not /b/.

✅ Key Point:
●​ Contrast operates at different levels:
○​ Phonological: /p/ vs. /b/
○​ Lexical: "cat" vs. "bat"
○​ Grammatical: "walk" vs. "walks"

Equivalence
●​ Definition: Equivalence refers to the grouping of linguistic elements that are treated as
functionally or structurally similar within a language system.
●​ It highlights how different elements can be substituted for each other within the same
structural context without breaking the grammatical or communicative function.

🔎 Example:
 ●​ In the sentence structure:​
"She ___ the cake."​
The following verbs are equivalent because they fit grammatically into the same slot:​

○​ "bakes"
○​ "eats"
○​ "sees"
●​ In phonology, allophones (variants of a phoneme) are considered equivalent:​

○​ The /t/ in "top" vs. the /t/ in "butter" (flap [ɾ]) are different sounds but considered
equivalent because they are variations of the same underlying phoneme.

✅ Key Point:
●​ Equivalence shows how language groups elements into classes:
○​ Phonological: [p] and [ph] as allophones of /p/
○​ Morphological: walk, walks, walked as forms of the same verb
○​ Syntactic: nouns and pronouns being equivalent in subject position

How They Work Together

1.​ Contrast defines how signs are distinct from one another.
2.​ Equivalence defines how signs can substitute for each other within the same structural
pattern.

🌟 Example Combining Both:

●​ "bat" vs. "pat" — Contrast between /b/ and /p/ at the phonemic level.
●​ "She eats cake" vs. "He eats cake" — "She" and "He" are equivalent as subjects in the
syntactic structure.

🧠 Summary:
Concept Definition Example

Contrast Elements differ and define meaning /b/ vs. /p/ → bat vs. pat
through opposition

Equivalenc Elements are grouped into functional Nouns ("she"/"he") can replace each
e categories and patterns other in the same slot
Contrast creates meaning through difference, while equivalence creates structure through
similarity.

Classical Conditioning:

A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus
to produce a conditioned response. This process occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired
together, leading to a learned reaction to the previously neutral stimulus.

Operant Conditioning:

A type of learning in which behavior is shaped by its consequences, such as reinforcement or

punishment. It involves voluntary behaviors that are either strengthened or weakened
depending on whether the consequence is positive or negative.

Classical Conditioning:

●​ Definition: Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus

becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to produce a conditioned
response (CR).
●​ Key Concept: It focuses on associative learning, where two stimuli are linked together
to produce a new learned response.
●​ Pioneers: Ivan Pavlov is most famous for his work in classical conditioning, especially
his experiments with dogs, where he paired a neutral stimulus (like a bell) with an
unconditioned stimulus (food) to create a conditioned response (salivation).
●​ Example: A dog salivates when it hears a bell because it associates the sound of the
bell with being fed. Initially, the bell (neutral stimulus) doesn't trigger salivation, but after
pairing it with food (unconditioned stimulus), the bell alone can cause the dog to salivate
(conditioned response).
●​ Process:
○​ Before Conditioning: UCS (food) → UCR (salivation)
○​ During Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus (bell) + UCS (food) → UCR (salivation)
○​ After Conditioning: CS (bell) → CR (salivation)
Operant Conditioning:

●​ Definition: Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is influenced by

its consequences (reinforcements or punishments).
●​ Key Concept: It involves voluntary behavior and focuses on how consequences
(reinforcements or punishments) shape future behavior.
●​ Pioneers: B.F. Skinner is the most well-known figure in operant conditioning, particularly
through his work with reinforcement schedules and the "Skinner Box," which involved
rats pressing levers to receive rewards.
●​ Example: A rat learns to press a lever to receive food (positive reinforcement), or a child
may stop whining after being given a treat to stop the behavior (negative reinforcement).
●​ Process:
○​ Positive Reinforcement: Giving a reward (like food or praise) to increase the
likelihood of a behavior.
○​ Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant (like stopping loud
noise) to increase the likelihood of a behavior.
○​ Punishment: Adding an unpleasant consequence or removing a pleasant one to
decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Key Differences:

1.​ Type of Behavior:​

○​ Classical: Involves involuntary behaviors (reflexes).

○​ Operant: Involves voluntary behaviors.
2.​ Learning Process:​

○​ Classical: Associating two stimuli together (stimulus-stimulus).

○​ Operant: Associating behavior with consequences (behavior-consequence).
3.​ Focus:​

○​ Classical: Focuses on the association between stimuli.

○​ Operant: Focuses on the consequences of behaviors.
4.​ Timing of Stimuli and Responses:​

○​ Classical: The neutral stimulus (e.g., bell) comes before the unconditioned
stimulus (e.g., food).
○​ Operant: The consequence follows the behavior (e.g., receiving a reward after
performing an action).
Classical Conditioning

Example 1: Dog and Food (Pavlov's Experiment)

Before Conditioning:

●​ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Food (because it naturally triggers a response)

●​ Unconditioned Response (USR): Salivation (the automatic response to food)

After Conditioning:

●​ Neutral Stimulus: Bell (the bell initially has no effect on salivation)

●​ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Bell (after pairing with food several times, the bell begins
to trigger salivation)
●​ Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation (now the bell alone causes salivation)

Example 2: Little Albert Experiment (John B. Watson)

Before Conditioning:

●​ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Loud Noise (naturally causes fear)

●​ Unconditioned Response (USR): Fear (the automatic response to the loud noise)

After Conditioning:

●​ Neutral Stimulus: White Rat (initially, the rat does not cause fear)
●​ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): White Rat (after pairing with the loud noise, the rat causes
fear)
●​ Conditioned Response (CR): Fear (the child now becomes fearful of the white rat
alone)

Example 3: Fear of the Dentist

Before Conditioning:

●​ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Painful dental procedure (naturally causes discomfort

or fear)
 ●​ Unconditioned Response (USR): Fear (automatic emotional response to pain)

After Conditioning:

●​ Neutral Stimulus: Dentist's office (initially no fear response)

●​ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Dentist's office (after several painful procedures, the
environment alone causes fear)
●​ Conditioned Response (CR): Fear (feeling anxious or fearful when approaching the
dentist’s office)

Operant
Example 1: Training a Dog to Sit

Before Conditioning:

●​ Behavior: Dog sits (this may happen naturally, without reinforcement)

●​ Consequence: No reward (there's no reinforcement to encourage sitting)

After Conditioning:

●​ Behavior: Dog sits on command

●​ Consequence: Positive Reinforcement (giving the dog a treat after sitting)
●​ Result: The dog is more likely to sit when asked, because the behavior is now
reinforced by the treat.

Example 2: Child Cleaning Their Room

Before Conditioning:

●​ Behavior: Child cleans their room (perhaps out of routine or without any rewards)
●​ Consequence: No reinforcement (no specific reward is given for cleaning the room)

After Conditioning:

●​ Behavior: Child cleans their room when asked

●​ Consequence: Positive Reinforcement (the child receives praise or allowance as a
reward)
●​ Result: The child is more likely to clean their room in the future, because they associate
it with receiving praise or a reward.
Example 3: Student Studying for a Test

Before Conditioning:

●​ Behavior: Student studies (they may do it for personal reasons or because of a sense of
responsibility)
●​ Consequence: No reinforcement (there is no immediate reward for studying)

After Conditioning:

●​ Behavior: Student studies consistently

●​ Consequence: Positive Reinforcement (the student gets a good grade or praise for their
performance)
●​ Result: The student is more likely to study regularly in the future because they associate
studying with the positive outcome of good grades.

Example 4: Employee Completing Work Tasks

Before Conditioning:

●​ Behavior: Employee works (sometimes performs well, sometimes doesn't)

●​ Consequence: No clear reinforcement for good performance

After Conditioning:

●​ Behavior: Employee completes work tasks on time and to a high standard

●​ Consequence: Positive Reinforcement (employee receives a bonus or promotion as a
reward)
●​ Result: The employee is more likely to complete tasks well in the future due to the
positive reinforcement (reward) tied to good performance.

Example 5: Teenager Driving Carefully

Before Conditioning:

●​ Behavior: Teenager drives (may drive carelessly or cautiously without any

reinforcement)
●​ Consequence: No reinforcement (no specific reward or punishment linked to their
behavior)

After Conditioning:
 ●​ Behavior: Teenager drives carefully and follows traffic laws
●​ Consequence: Negative Reinforcement (parent removes a curfew or provides more
freedom when the teen drives safely)
●​ Result: The teenager is more likely to drive safely in the future to avoid the negative
consequence of a curfew or restrictions.

Example 6: Teacher Giving a Student a Time-Out

Before Conditioning:

●​ Behavior: Child misbehaves in class (no specific consequence in place)

●​ Consequence: No punishment or reinforcement to stop misbehavior

After Conditioning:

●​ Behavior: Child misbehaves

●​ Consequence: Negative Punishment (the teacher gives the child a time-out)
●​ Result: The child is less likely to misbehave in the future because they associate
misbehavior with the consequence of being removed from the activity.

Positive Punishment
Definition:​
Positive punishment involves adding an unpleasant stimulus following a behavior to decrease
the likelihood of that behavior happening again. The goal is to discourage the behavior by
introducing something undesirable.

Example:

●​ Scenario: A child talks back to their parents.

●​ Punishment: The parent gives the child extra chores to do.
●​ Result: The child is less likely to talk back in the future, as the addition of chores is an
unpleasant consequence.

Explanation: The child’s misbehavior (talking back) led to the addition of an unpleasant
consequence (extra chores), which decreases the likelihood of them engaging in the behavior
again.
Negative Punishment
Definition:​
Negative punishment involves removing a desirable stimulus following a behavior to decrease
the likelihood of that behavior happening again. The goal is to decrease the behavior by taking
away something positive.

Example:

●​ Scenario: A teenager stays out past their curfew.

●​ Punishment: The parent takes away the teenager’s phone for a week.
●​ Result: The teenager is less likely to stay out late in the future, as the removal of the
phone is an unpleasant consequence.

Explanation: The teenager’s behavior (breaking curfew) led to the removal of a desirable
stimulus (phone), which decreases the chance of repeating the behavior in the future.

Positive Reinforcement
Definition:​
Positive reinforcement involves adding a pleasant stimulus following a behavior to increase the
likelihood of that behavior happening again. The goal is to encourage the behavior by offering
something enjoyable or rewarding.

Example:

●​ Scenario: A dog sits on command.

●​ Reinforcement: The dog is given a treat.
●​ Result: The dog is more likely to sit on command in the future because the treat
reinforces the behavior.

Explanation: The dog’s behavior (sitting on command) is followed by the addition of a positive
stimulus (a treat), which strengthens the likelihood that the dog will repeat the behavior in the
future.

Negative Reinforcement
Definition:​
Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus following a behavior to
increase the likelihood of that behavior happening again. The goal is to encourage the behavior
by taking away something undesirable.

Example:

●​ Scenario: A student turns in their homework on time.

●​ Reinforcement: The teacher stops giving the student extra work (which was an
unpleasant consequence for late homework).
●​ Result: The student is more likely to turn in homework on time in the future because the
removal of extra work is reinforcing the behavior of completing homework promptly.

Explanation: The student’s behavior (turning in homework on time) leads to the removal of an
undesirable stimulus (extra work), which makes it more likely that the student will engage in this
behavior again.

Summary of Differences:

●​ Positive Punishment: Adding something unpleasant to reduce a behavior (e.g., extra

chores for misbehavior).
●​ Negative Punishment: Removing something pleasant to reduce a behavior (e.g., taking
away a phone for breaking curfew).
●​ Positive Reinforcement: Adding something pleasant to increase a behavior (e.g.,
giving a treat for following a command).
●​ Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to increase a behavior (e.g.,
stopping extra work for turning in homework on time).

PROCESS
1. Shaping

Definition:​
Shaping involves gradually reinforcing behaviors that are progressively closer to the desired
target behavior. It is used to teach complex behaviors that are not likely to occur spontaneously.

Example:

●​ Scenario: Teaching a dog to roll over.

1.​ Step 1: At first, you reinforce the dog for simply lying down (this is the first
approximation of the behavior).
 2.​ Step 2: Next, you reinforce the dog for rolling onto its side (closer to the desired
behavior).
3.​ Step 3: Finally, you reinforce the dog for completing the full roll over onto its
back.

Explanation: Shaping occurs because the dog is gradually reinforced for behaviors that are
closer and closer to the final behavior (rolling over). Each step brings the dog closer to
performing the desired action.

2. Extinction

Definition:​
Extinction occurs when reinforcement stops for a previously reinforced behavior, causing the
behavior to gradually disappear over time. Essentially, the behavior fades out because it is no
longer being rewarded.

Example:

●​ Scenario: A child always asks for candy at the store, and the parent usually gives it to
them.
●​ Extinction: One day, the parent stops giving candy when the child asks. Initially, the
child may keep asking, but over time, without the reinforcement (the candy), the child will
stop asking for candy.

Explanation: The behavior (asking for candy) disappears because the reinforcement (getting
candy) is no longer provided. This gradual reduction in the behavior is extinction.

3. Generalization

Definition:​
Generalization occurs when a behavior that has been reinforced in one context or situation
starts to be performed in similar situations. Essentially, the learned behavior “spreads” to
other situations that are similar to the original.

Example:

●​ Scenario: A dog is trained to sit when given the command at home.

●​ Generalization: The dog also sits when the same command is given at the park or
during a walk, even though the location is different.
Explanation: The dog’s behavior (sitting on command) has generalized to other situations
(different environments). The reinforcement (getting a treat for sitting) works in multiple settings
because the dog has learned to associate the command with the behavior, not the location.

4. Discrimination

Definition:​
Discrimination occurs when an individual learns to respond only in specific conditions or
situations. It involves distinguishing between different stimuli and responding only when the
correct or specific stimulus is present.

Example:

●​ Scenario: A dog learns to sit only when the owner says "sit" and not when another
person says the same word.
●​ Discrimination: The dog discriminates between the specific person (owner) who gives
the command and other people who might say "sit." The dog only responds to the
correct stimulus (the owner’s command).

Explanation: The dog learns to discriminate between different stimuli (the voice of the owner
vs. others) and only responds when the desired stimulus (the owner’s voice) is present. The dog
does not generalize to other people’s commands.

Summary of Each Process:

●​ Shaping: Gradually reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
(e.g., teaching a dog to roll over by rewarding each step).
●​ Extinction: Behavior gradually disappears when reinforcement stops (e.g., a child stops
asking for candy when the parent no longer gives it).
●​ Generalization: A learned behavior extends to similar situations or stimuli (e.g., a dog
sitting on command in various locations).
●​ Discrimination: Learning to respond only to a specific stimulus or under certain
conditions (e.g., a dog responds only to its owner's command to sit).

In linguistics, syntagm and paradigm are two key concepts used to analyze how language
works, particularly in terms of how words and elements are structured and related. Here’s a
breakdown of each:
1. Syntagm:
A syntagm refers to a sequence or arrangement of linguistic units (such as words, phrases, or
morphemes) that occur together in a particular linear order within a sentence. It focuses on the
relationships between elements as they are combined in a specific context.

●​ In simpler terms, a syntagm deals with the structure of language, how elements
combine in sentences or utterances.
●​ For example, in the sentence "The cat sleeps":
○​ The syntagm would be the way the words "The", "cat", and "sleeps" are
combined in a specific order to convey meaning. The syntagmatic relationship
governs how the words function together to form a grammatically correct
sentence.

2. Paradigm:
A paradigm refers to a set of linguistic units (such as words or forms) that share a common
feature and can be substituted for each other in a particular syntactic position. It’s concerned
with the choices available in a language based on a particular context, especially in terms of
inflection or substitution.

●​ A paradigm can be thought of as a category where different options are available for
replacing one element in a sentence.
●​ For example, in English, the paradigm for the verb "to be" includes different forms like
"am," "is," "are," "was," "were," etc. These can replace each other depending on the
subject or tense, and they form a paradigm of the verb.
○​ For example, "I am", "She is", "They are"—the verb form changes depending on
the subject, which is an example of a paradigm.

Comparison:

●​ Syntagm is about the linear combination of elements in a sentence (what goes

together and in what order).
●​ Paradigm is about the set of alternatives that can replace one element in a specific
position (choices available within a category).

In short, syntagms relate to how things fit together in sentences, while paradigms deal with
what can be substituted in different contexts.
🧠 1. Behaviorism
●​ Proposed by: John B. Watson (1913)
●​ Key Figures:
○​ John B. Watson – Founded behaviorism, focusing on observable behavior and
conditioning.
○​ B.F. Skinner – Developed operant conditioning (reinforcement and
punishment).
○​ Ivan Pavlov – Discovered classical conditioning (Pavlov's dogs).

🔎 Core Idea:
●​ Learning happens through stimulus-response associations and reinforcement, without
involving mental states.
●​ Example: Teaching a dog to sit using treats = positive reinforcement.

🧠 2. Cognitive Psychology
●​ Proposed by: Ulric Neisser (1967) – Called the "father of cognitive psychology."
●​ Key Figures:
○​ Jean Piaget – Studied cognitive development in children.
○​ George Miller – Studied working memory (the "magic number 7 ± 2").
○​ Noam Chomsky – Critiqued behaviorism, arguing for an innate cognitive
structure for language (influencing cognitive psychology).

🔎 Core Idea:
●​ The mind functions like a computer — processing, storing, and retrieving information.
●​ Focus on mental processes like memory, problem-solving, and language.

🧠 3. Generative Linguistics
●​ Proposed by: Noam Chomsky (1957)
●​ Key Work: Syntactic Structures
●​ Key Idea:
○​ Humans have an innate "universal grammar" that allows us to generate and
understand sentences.
○​ Language acquisition is not just learned behavior — it reflects deep-seated
cognitive structures.

🔎 Core Idea:
 ●​ Language is governed by underlying, innate rules.
●​ Example: We can produce and understand sentences we’ve never heard before.

🧠 4. Social Constructivism
●​ Proposed by: Lev Vygotsky (1934)
●​ Key Work: Thought and Language
●​ Key Figures:
○​ Jerome Bruner – Built on Vygotsky’s work, emphasizing scaffolding.
○​ Albert Bandura – Focused on social learning through observation (e.g., Bobo
doll experiment).

🔎 Core Idea:
●​ Learning happens through social interaction and cultural context.
●​ Language and thought develop through communication and shared meaning.

🧠 5. Constructivism
●​ Proposed by: Jean Piaget (1936)
●​ Key Work: The Origins of Intelligence in Children
●​ Key Idea:
○​ Knowledge is actively constructed through experiences.
○​ Children go through developmental stages (sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete operational, formal operational).

🔎 Core Idea:
●​ Learning = active process of constructing knowledge through exploration.
●​ Example: A child learns gravity by dropping objects and seeing the outcome.

🧠 6. Cognitive Constructivism
●​ Proposed by: Jean Piaget (also linked with cognitive psychology)
●​ Key Idea:
○​ Learning happens through assimilation (fitting new info into existing knowledge)
and accommodation (adjusting knowledge structures).
○​ Focus on individual learning rather than social interaction.
🔎 Core Idea:
●​ Knowledge is actively built by the learner.
●​ Example: A child learns that not all four-legged animals are dogs — some are cats!

🌟 Summary Table:
Theory Proposed By Key Idea

Behaviorism John B. Learning through conditioning (stimulus-response)

Watson

Cognitive Psychology Ulric Neisser Mind as an information processor

Generative Linguistics Noam Innate language ability (universal grammar)

Chomsky

Social Constructivism Lev Vygotsky Learning through social interaction

Constructivism Jean Piaget Knowledge is actively constructed through

experience

Cognitive Jean Piaget Individual learning through assimilation and

Constructivism accommodation
/ carl roger's humanistc competence
 CARL ROGERS HUMANISTIC THEORY

Brief Background

Carl Ransom Rogers is a clinical/educational psychologist. In 1946-1947, he

became a president in a leading scientific and professional organization representing
psychology in the United States named the “American Psychologist Association (APA).”

His main field was humanistic psychology, which emphasizes looking at the
whole person and the uniqueness of each individual, and he was considered the
most humanistic among all humanists. Moreover, Rogers was more focused on therapy
rather than theory, as he often dealt with the client. Person-Centered Theory—his
theory is also known as Client-Centered Therapy. At first, Rogers had no interest in
making his practice a theory; however, due to the pressure placed on him by the people
around him, he eventually decided to formalize it; thus, he created his theory. This
theory was developed during the 1940s and was fully articulated in his 1951 book,
which is the book entitled “Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications,
and Theory.

Rogers has his basic assumptions. He believes in:

●​ Formative Theory: The universal drive for all things (living and non-living) to
evolve, grow, and become more complex. Rogers believes that there is a
tendency for all matter to evolve from simpler to more complex forms. An
example of that is when a seed becomes a small plant and then turns into a big
tree. It is also similar to the cognitive development of a child’s brain to an adult
brain.
●​ Actualizing Tendency: The natural drive in all humans to grow, develop, and
fulfill their full potential. This is the tendency of all humans, animals, and plants
to move toward completion or fulfillment of potentials. Rogers believes that all
beings have potential, and it serves as one's motivation to do something. To have
self-actualization, Rogers stated the 2 things that an individual must have— the
maintenance and enhancement. Maintenance includes basic needs such as
 food, air, safety, love, etc. It is similar to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs because
it is needed for everyone to maintain their physiological self in order to fulfill their
potential. For instance, how can a person do his thing when his state is not good
enough to give him energy in life? Similarly, a plant also has necessities to meet
its potential in yielding products such as soil, water, and sunlight. The other thing
an individual needs is the enhancement, which is the strong desire to learn
and the willingness to change in order to reach the maximum potential for
a person to improve.

Following these tendencies, a human being can eventually create an awareness

of themselves that becomes the sense of self of an individual, and it is called
“self-concept.” It is the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about
oneself. To put it in another way, self-concept is anything and everything about one’s
self as the concept of “This is me” or “This is who I am.”

Self-concept includes three (3) components:

1.​ Self-Worth: It is the value or worth an individual places on themselves. Rogers

believed that the self-worth of a person develops during early childhood and is
formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father.
2.​ Self-Image: It refers to individuals’ mental representation of themselves that is
shaped by personal experiences and interactions with others. It affects how a
person thinks, feels, and behaves. Self-image is how a person sees his
personality traits, abilities, values, and such. To be specific, it is the
understanding of an individual of who they are as a person.
3.​ Ideal Self: It is the version of oneself that an individual aspires to become. It is
the vision of a being on who they want to be, including the goals and ambitions in
life.

According to Rogers (1959), we want to feel, experience, and behave in ways

consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal
self. This is where the idea of congruence and incongruence takes place.
 In the concept of congruence, a person’s ideal self is consistent with the real self
or closely aligned. Rogers believed that the closer our self-image and ideal are to
each other, the more consistent and the higher sense of self-worth a person will
have in himself. On the other hand, in incongruence, there is a large gap between
ideal self and self-image. This happens when a person’s ideal self is not aligned with
what actually happens in his life, which is the self-image. In accordance with Rogers, if
the ideal self is unrealistic or there is a disparity between the real self and ideal
self, it can lead to incongruence resulting in dissatisfaction, unhappiness, and
low self-worth. Therefore, one of Rogers's goals in this therapy or theory is to help
people bring their real self and ideal self into alignment, enhancing self-esteem and life
satisfaction.

Positive Regard and Self-Worth

Carl Rogers (1951) viewed the child as having two basic needs: positive regard
from other people (the need to feel valued, respected, and loved) and self-worth (the
value or worth an individual places on themselves). To Carl Rogers (1959), receiving
positive regards from other people would result in an individual having an
increase in their self-worth. With a high self-worth, a person could have confidence
and positive feelings about themselves, could face challenges in life, accept failure and
unhappiness, and will be open to people. Unlike a person with a low self-worth who
will avoid challenges in life, not accept painful and unhappy times, and be
defensive and guarded with other people. Moreover, Rogers made two distinctions:
unconditional positive regard and conditional positive regard.

●​ Unconditional Positive Regard is accepting and valuing a person no matter

what. It is a situation wherein we see someone in a positive light regardless of
the situation, which is a sign of love, trust, and commitment to the other person.
Even when the person does something wrong or makes a mistake, positive
regard is not withdrawn, and judgment or criticism will not be given. A great
example of this is a teacher encouraging students to recite something in class
and acknowledging their answers even if they are wrong. That way, the teacher
created a safe and comfortable space for the students to share what they want to
say, not worrying if what they answered is correct because they are now used to
it.
●​ Conditional Positive Regard is defined as the concept in psychology that refers
to the expression of acceptance and approval by others (often parents or
caregivers) only when an individual behaves in a certain acceptable or approved
way. Meaning, love, support, respect, and acceptance could only be given when
an individual met certain conditions and standards. This could result in insecurity,
low self-worth, and constantly wanting the validation of other people. An example
of this is when parents only praise their child for receiving the highest scores and
having good grades. However, if their child received an unsatisfactory grade,
they would not even acknowledge their child’s effort—they would instead
pressure and compare the child to someone they know.

The Fully Functioning Person

Rogers describes an individual who is actualizing as a fully functioning person. A

fully functioning person is those individuals who could reach their fullest
potential in life because their basic needs are met. Rogers also believed that
becoming a fully functioning person is not an end or completion of life’s journey, as it is
a process of always becoming and changing.

Five Characteristics of the Fully Functioning Person:

 1.​ Open to Experience: A fully functioning person accepts both positive and
negative emotions. Their negative feelings are not denied but instead worked
through. A fully functioning person views challenges and obstacles as a learning
process that gives them more experiences in life.
2.​ Existential Living: A fully functioning person lives in the moment. They are able
to live and fully appreciate the present, not always looking back to the past or
forward to the future.
3.​ Trust Feelings: A fully functioning person pays attention and puts trust into their
feelings, instincts, and gut reactions. They trust themselves and their decisions in
,life because they believe that they are making the right choices.
4.​ Creativity: A fully functioning person is creative in thinking when it comes to
coming up with a solution to their problems. They are also risk-taking individuals
who do not play it safe all the time because they have the ability to adjust and
adapt to situations.
5.​ Fulfilled Life: A fully functioning person is an individual who is happy and
satisfied with life. They are also always looking for new challenges and
experiences because they are not afraid to experience all of their emotions and
feelings.

Experts Who Made Changes to the Theory

Carl Rogers' humanistic theory was shaped by contributions and revisions

from several thinkers across different periods. Below are some of the most notable
contributions to the world-renowned theory.
 Victor Frankl (1946): In Man’s Search for Meaning, Frankl introduced
logotherapy, emphasizing the human need for meaning. This existential perspective
influenced Rogers' emphasis on self-actualization and personal growth.

Rollo May (1950s–1970s): May integrated existentialism into psychology,

focusing on anxiety, freedom, and authenticity. His works, such as Existence (1958) and
Love and Will (1969), deepened the philosophical underpinnings of Rogers’
client-centered therapy.

James Bugental (1960s–1990s): Bugental developed existential-humanistic

therapy, emphasizing therapist presence and authenticity. His 1965 book The Search
for Authenticity aligned with Rogers' principles of genuineness and self-awareness.

Joseph Zinker (1970s–1980s): As a Gestalt therapist, Zinker contributed to

creative and experiential therapeutic techniques, particularly in his 1977 book
Creative Process in Gestalt Therapy. His work paralleled Rogers’ belief in
self-expression.

Fritz Perls (1940s–1960s): Perls founded Gestalt therapy, which emphasized

present experience and personal responsibility. His work in the 1950s, particularly
Gestalt Therapy: Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality (1951), influenced
humanistic psychology’s focus on self-awareness.

Immanuel Kant (18th century): Kant's ideas on autonomy and

self-determination, particularly in Critique of Pure Reason (1781), laid a foundation for
humanistic psychology’s emphasis on self-actualization.

Edmund Husserl (1900s–1930s): Husserl developed phenomenology,

particularly in Logical Investigations (1900) and Ideas Pertaining to a Pure
Phenomenology (1913). His focus on subjective experience influenced Rogers'
emphasis on personal perception.
 Max Wertheimer (1910s–1940s): Wertheimer, one of the founders of Gestalt
psychology, developed principles of holistic perception that aligned with Rogers' views
on self-concept. His Productive Thinking (1945) influenced humanistic psychology.

Kurt Koffka (1910s–1930s): Koffka’s Principles of Gestalt Psychology (1935)

emphasized perception and learning as holistic experiences, which related to Rogers'
focus on the integrated self.

Wolfgang Köhler (1910s–1940s): Köhler’s research on insight learning in The

Mentality of Apes (1917) highlighted cognitive processes that influenced the
understanding of self-directed growth in Rogers’ theory.

Abraham Maslow (1940s–1960s): Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943)

introduced self-actualization as a pinnacle of human motivation, aligning directly with
Rogers' concept of the fully functioning person. His later work, Toward a Psychology of
Being (1962), further refined these ideas.
kolb's experiential
 ●​ What is Learning?

"Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of

experience" - David Kolb (1984, 38)

●​ Who is David Kolb

-​ David Allen Kolb
-​ An American educational theorist born in December 12, 1939
-​ Kolb earned his BA from Knox College in 1961 and his MA and Ph.D. from
Harvard University in 1964 and 1967 respectively, in social psychology.
-​ He is mainly credited for his experiential learning model (ELM) and his
learning style inventory (LSI) proposed in 1984

There are two parts to Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory. The first is that learning
follows a four-stage cycle, as outlined below. Kolb believed that, ideally, learners
progressed through the stages to complete a cycle, and, as a result, transformed
their experiences into knowledge. The second part to Kolb’s Theory focused on
learning styles, or the cognitive processes that occurred in order to acquire knowledge.
Essentially, Kolb believed that individuals could demonstrate their knowledge, or
the learning that occurred, when they were able to apply abstract concepts to
new situations.

Original proponent and the date it was published.

Experiential learning, as its name indicates, is the process of turning experience into
useful knowledge.

According to Kolb's theory, experiential learning occurs in four stages:

0
 1.​ Concrete Experience - happens when a student has an unique experience or
views a prior encounter in another way.
-​ Kolb’s learning process cycle begins with a concrete experience. This can
either be a completely new experience or a reimagined experience that
already happened. In a concrete experience, each learner engages in an
activity or task. Kolb believed that the key to learning is involvement. It is
not enough for learners to just read about it or watch it in action. In order
to acquire new knowledge, learners must actively engage in the task.

2.​ Reflective Observation - In order to comprehend the meaning of the new

experience, the learner thinks about it.
-​ After engaging in the concrete experience, the learner steps back to
reflect on the task.
3.​ Abstract Conceptualisation - Based on experience and self-analysis, the
learner improves their way of thinking or develops new concepts.
-​ The next step in the learning cycle is to make sense of these events. The
learner attempts to draw conclusions of the experience by reflecting on
their prior knowledge, using ideas with which they are familiar or
discussing possible theories with peers. The learner moves from reflective
observation to abstract conceptualization when they begin to classify

0
 concepts and form conclusions on the events that occurred. This involves
interpreting the experience and making comparisons to their current
understanding on the concept. Concepts need not be “new”; learners
can analyze new information and modify their conclusions on already
existing ideas.
4.​ Active Experimentation - The student tests their new concepts in real-life
scenarios to determine whether they are effective and whether any adjustments
are necessary.
-​ This stage in the cycle is the testing stage. Learners return to participating
in a task, this time with the goal of applying their conclusions to new
experiences. They are able to make predictions, analyze tasks, and make
plans for the acquired knowledge in the future. By allowing learners to put
their knowledge into practice and showing how it is relevant to their lives,
you are ensuring that the information is retained in the future.

Kolb’s learning styles model

Note:
Kolb's Learning Cycle also known as experiential learning cycle.

0
It is divided into two dimensions. East-west (RO/AE) line called processing
continuum refers to how the learner knows about the tasks, do we do it or do watch
it. The North-South (CE/AC) axis is called the perception continuum where our
emotional response is involved whether the learner is thinking and feeling.

1.​ Diverging - This type of learning emphasizes reflective observation and real
experience.
-​ This learning style takes an original and creative approach. Rather than
examining concrete experiences by the actions taken, individuals
tend to assess them from various perspectives. They value feelings
and take an interest in others. Individuals who prefer this learning style
tend to enjoy tasks such as brainstorming ideas and working
collaboratively in groups.
2.​ Assimilating - Students that prefer thoughtful observation and abstract
conceptualization are included in this learning style.
-​ This learning style emphasizes reasoning. Individuals who demonstrate
this learning style are able to review the facts and assess the experience
as a whole. They tend to enjoy designing experiments and working on
projects from start to completion.
-​ More into logical Approach
3.​ Converging - This type of learner focuses on active experimentation and
abstract conceptualization.
-​ This learning style highlights problem solving as an approach to learning.
Individuals who prefer this learning style are able to make decisions and
apply their ideas to new experiences. Unlike Divergers, they tend to avoid
people and perceptions, choosing instead to find technical solutions.
-​ Practical Learners
4.​ Accommodating - This type of learner prefers active experimentation and real
experience.
-​ This learning style is adaptable and intuitive. These individuals use trial and
error to guide their experiences, preferring to discover the answers for
themselves.

Inspirations:

0
Jean Piaget

●​ A Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development.

●​ Explored how children learn through active exploration and interaction with their
environment
●​ Schemas are Piaget’s term for the mental frameworks that help individuals
understand and interpret information.

John Dewey

●​ A renowned American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer

known for being a founder of Pragmatism.
○​ Pragmatism - John Dewey emphasized the usage of knowledge in
practical applications and experience to solve problems rather than
abstract theorizing.
●​ He emphasized learning through direct experience rather than passive
absorption of information.
●​ Dewey conceived learning in a similar way to Lewin; he saw it as a journey from
impulsive to purposeful experience rather than a cycle

Kurt Lewin

●​ Was an influential psychologist recognized today as the founder of modern

social psychology.
●​ Lewin emphasized interaction with others as well as change.
●​ He introduced three stages of change:
a.​ Unfreezing - Recognizing the need for change.
b.​ Change/ Moving - Implementing new ideas, behaviors, and processes.
c.​ Refreezing - Stabilizing and solidifying the new learning to make it stick.
●​ Lewin conceived learning as a four-stage cycle:

1)Concrete Experience

2)Reflective Observation

3)Abstract Conceptualization

4)Active Experimentation

0
The revisions of each expert did)
Background of the experts (chronological)

1.​ Peter Jarvis

- Adult educator and Emeritus Professor at the University of Surrey.
- Focused on giving emphasis to continuing adult education.

2.​ Harald Bergsteiner & Gayle Avery

- Both were researchers and professors from Australia.
- Both were founders of the Institute for Sustainable Leadership
- The Twin Cycle Experiential Learning Model, they revisioned Kolb's experiential
learning theory into their own terms. They basically divided the concept of concrete
and abstract, unlike in Kolb's model, they proposed that the concept of concrete and
abstract is different and should not be in the same cycle.
- Concrete/Active/Primary (CAP) Learning Cycle - This cycle emphasizes learning
through direct experience, active participation, and first-hand involvement.
- Abstract/Passive/Secondary (APS) Learning Cycle - This cycle focuses on
learning through abstract concepts, passive observation, and second-hand information.
- Always remember that in this model, the concept of concrete and abstract is not in the
same cycle, rather it’s separated.

3.​ Thomas Howard Morris

- Doctor of Education and a researcher at Bath Spa University, which advocates for the
understanding of the nature of life-long learning and continuing adult education.
- Context-Enriched Experiential Model (CEEM) - This theory was proposed by
Thomas Howard Morris, it argues that Kolb's model, while influential, often overlooks
the crucial role of context in shaping the learning process and outcomes.
- In this model, learning is said to be based on the context whether there should be
learning or not. Morris argues that Kolb's model tends to present learning as a
somewhat abstract and universal process, neglecting the specific social, cultural,
historical, and environmental contexts in which learning occurs.
- Context is the biggest factor of this model, context is not just a backdrop but an active
and integral part of the learning process. It shapes the nature of the experience, the
opportunities for reflection, the formation of abstract concepts, and the
possibilities for action.

4.1. Makoto Matsuo

0
- Doctor of Philosophy and Senior Researcher at Aoyama Gakuin University in Japan.

4.2. Nagata Masaki

- Visiting Professor at the University of Tokyo
- Researcher in the Division of Transdisciplinary Sciences and the Department of
Advanced Energy in Japan.

-​ Revisioned model of Makoto Matsuo and Nagata Masaki - is a significant

update to David Kolb's widely influential Experiential Learning Cycle (ELC).
Recognizing the limitations of Kolb's original four-stage model, Matsuo and
Nagata proposed a revised model in their 2020 paper, "A revised model of
experiential learning with a debriefing checklist," published in the
International Journal of Training and Development.
-​ This model emphasizes more in the learning in the context of the learners
emotions. They said that Kolb’s model is lacking emotional approach and that
hinders learning and the same as Kolb’s, they created a much more broader
cycle rather than the classic concept of concrete abstract and the active
experimentation.
-​ Expected and Unexpected Experiences: Matsuo and Nagata refine the
"Concrete Experience" stage of Kolb's model by explicitly acknowledging that
experiences can be both expected and unexpected. Unexpected
experiences, in particular, can trigger deeper reflection and learning.
-​ The Management of Emotions: This is a crucial addition to the model. They
emphasize that learning experiences, especially unexpected ones, often evoke
emotions. The ability to manage these emotions (awareness, regulation) is a
critical factor in whether learning progresses effectively. Unmanaged emotions
can hinder reflection and subsequent learning stages.
-​ Reflective Analysis: This stage aligns with Kolb's "Reflective Observation" but
with a stronger emphasis on deeper analysis. Learners are encouraged to
critically examine their experiences and the associated emotions.
-​ Abstract Conceptualization: Similar to Kolb's model, this stage involves
forming new concepts or modifying existing ones based on the reflection.
-​ Unlearning: This is another key and novel addition. Matsuo and Nagata argue
that deep learning often requires unlearning – the process of discarding outdated
or ineffective knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions that may hinder the adoption
of new understandings. This stage acknowledges that learning is not just about
acquiring new information but also about letting go of the old.
-​ Active Experimentation: This final stage, like Kolb's, involves testing the newly
formed concepts and understandings in new situations.

0
5. Mike Ryder and Carolyn Downs
- Both were professors and interdisciplinary researchers at Lancaster University.
- Both focus on proposing participatory and work-based learning theories.
Ryder and Downs argue that Kolb's ELC, while influential, suffers from several
limitations in today's environment.
-​ This theory is just an updated version of Kolb’s experiential learning so it can fit
in today’s society. Always remember that the year of the theories that got
revisioned really matters, because the concept of learning changes overtime
based on the era it is in.
-​ It can be an alternative for OODA loop, it is very similar in Kolb’s model but have
a few alterations and its cycle is different in Kolb’s model.
-​ Observe: Gather information from the environment.
-​ Orient: Make sense of the information in the context of your existing knowledge,
beliefs, and the current situation. This is the most crucial and often overlooked
stage.
-​ Decide: Formulate a course of action based on your orientation.
-​ Act: Implement the decision.

Key points

1.​ Peter Jarvis (2004) - Expanded model: Disruptive Learning Pathways.

a.​ Learning is not always linear or cyclical
b.​ Realistically, stated the factors affecting learning in addition to Kolb's
theory: External Factors, Social, Cultural, and Physical.
c.​ Multiple pathways of learning are introduced.
i.​ Non Learning - Experience does not lead to any change or
learning.
ii.​ Non-reflective Learning - Learning happens through routine or
habitual actions without deep reflection.
iii.​ Reflective Learning - Leads to personal growth and a deeper
comprehension of the subject matter.

Harald Bergsteiner & Gayle Avery (2014) - Reconceptualize: The Twin Cycle
Experiential Theory.
- Concrete experiences: Direct, hands-on involvement.
- Abstract conceptualizations: Formulation of ideas or theories.

Thomas Howard Morris (2019) - Context-Enriched Experiential Model.

0
- Contextually rich concrete experience: Learning anchored in the real-world
environment.
- Critical reflective observation: Deep self-analysis of experiences.
- Contextual-specific abstract conceptualization: Tailoring concepts to unique
scenarios.
- Pragmatic active experimentation: Applying the learning in a way that’s immediately
practical and relevant.

Makoto Matsuo and Nagata Masaki (2020) - Revised model: Second Order
Learning.
- Expected and Unexpected Experiences
Learning arises through expected or unexpected events, encouraging openness to
possibilities.
- Management of Emotions
It helps learning by boosting motivation, engagement, and retention during the learning
process.
- Reflective Analysis
Deep reflection transforms experiences into meaningful personal growth and
understanding.
- Abstract Conceptualization
Insights of reflection towards creating abstract theories applicable to future events.
- Unlearning
Unlearning outdated knowledge gives space for new knowledge that is sustainable.
- Active Experimentation
Applying new knowledge in real-life scenarios refines understanding and personal
growth.

Mike Ryder and Carolyn Downs (2022) - OODA loop by John Boyd (1986) as an
alternative.
- Adaptive Learning Frameworks
Emphasize the need to incorporate theory into the modern world scenarios.
- Stages:
1.​ Observe: Gather information about the current situation.
2.​ Orient: Analyze and synthesize the data to understand it within the context.
3.​ Decide: Select the best course of action based on the orientation.
4.​ Act: Execute the decision and test the results.

LEARNING PATH
●​ Non Learning

0
 ●​ Non Reflective Learning
●​ Reflective Learning

0
/communicative competence
 Introduction
The term communicative competence refers to a person’s ability to use a
language effectively and appropriately in different situations.
It was created as a response to Chomsky’s linguistic competence, which focused
only on grammar.

Original Proponent & Date of Publication

Developed by: Michael Canale & Merrill Swain
Title of Paper: "Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language
Teaching and Testing"
Published in: 1980

The Evolution of Canale and Swain’s Communicative Competence

I.​ The Foundation: Canale and Swain (1980)
Title: “Canale and Swain's Communicative Competence”

1. Grammatical Competence:
Ability to create grammatically correct sentences.
2. Sociolinguistic Competence:
Ability to produce sociolinguistically appropriate utterances.
3. Strategic Competence:
Ability to solve communication problems.

Canale revised their scheme in 1983 and added a fourth component to its
discourse competence: they implied the user’s ability to achieve cohesion and
coherence in connected texts whether spoken or written.

4. Discourse Competence
The mastery of rules that determine ways in which forms and meanings are
combined to achieve a meaningful unity of spoken or written texts. The unity of a text
is enabled by cohesion in form and coherence in meaning (Canale, 1983).

●​ Cohesion is achieved by the use of cohesion devices (e.g. pronouns,

conjunctions, synonyms, parallel structures etc.) which help to link individual
sentences and utterances to a structural whole.
 ●​ Coherence is achieved by repetition, progression, consistency, relevance of
ideas etc., enabling the organisation of meaning, i.e. establishing a logical
relationship between groups of utterances.

II.​ Refinement: Canale (1987)

Canale and Swain's 1987 paper “The Measurements of Communicative
Competence” further elaborated on the concept of communicative competence and its
implications for second language teaching and testing. They stressed that
communicative competence involves:
-​ Knowing language rules
-​ Using language effectively in real-world situations

They also highlighted the challenges of assessing communicative competence,

noting that traditional tests often fall short.

III.​ Expansion: Bachman (1990)

Title: Bachman's Model
Bachman’s “Scheme of Communicative Language Proficiency” (1990) is much
more comprehensive than Bachman and Palmer’s (1982) theoretical framework and
adds a number of new components. The communicative language ability proposed by
Bachman (1990) consists of three components of language competence, strategic
competence, and psychophysio-logical mechanisms or psychomotor skills,
which interact with the language use context and language user’s knowledge (p. 84).

Three (3) Components of Bachman’s Communicative Competence

1. Language Competence - Language competence comprises mainly
components of specific language knowledge utilized in communication and is divided
into organizational and pragmatic competence.

a.​ Organizational competence - concerns the relationships among signs

and their referents (Bachman, 1990, p. 89), involves controlling the formal
structure of language to recognize or produce grammatical sentences,
understanding their propositional content, and ordering them to form text,
and is subdivided into grammatical and textual competence.
 b.​ Grammatical competence- refers to the competencies involved in language
usage, such as knowledge of vocabulary, morphology, syntax, and
phonology/graphology.
c.​ Textual competence- involves the knowledge of the conventions for
connecting utterances to form a text according to rules of cohesion and
rhetorical organization.
d.​ Pragmatic competence - concerns the relationships between the
language users and the context of communication (p. 89) and includes:

d.1 illocutionary competence (knowledge of pragmatic conventions for

performing acceptable language functions)

D.2 and sociolinguistic competence (knowledge of sociolinguistic

conventions for performing appropriate language functions) (p. 90). The
former includes the ideational, manipulative, heuristic, and imaginative
functions of language while the latter is the sensitivity to differences in
dialect or variety and register and to naturalness and the ability to
interpret cultural references and figures of speech (Congmin, 2023).

2. Strategic Competence - The ability to solve communication problems. It

involves identifying the information needed to achieve the communicative goal of the
context, determining the language competencies available, ensuring interlocutor’s
abilities and knowledge, and evaluating the extent to which the communicative goal.

3. Psychophysio-logical Mechanisms or Psychomotor Skills - According to

Congmin (2023), exercising psychophysiological mechanisms in the modality and
channel appropriate to the context and the communicative goal. It involves
psychomotor skills such as oral and visual (speaking and writing), and aural and
visual (hearing and reading).

Revisions Made by Other Experts

Communicative competence has evolved over time. Its core idea was that it is
more than just knowing grammar; it is about using language effectively in real
situations. Different experts have contributed to our understanding of what it means
to be communicatively competent.
 While Canale, Swain, and Bachman are key figures, it is important to
acknowledge that the development of communicative competence theory involved
contributions from other scholars as well.

Hymes
Dell Hymes coined the term "communicative competence" in 1966, reacting to
Chomsky's concept of competence. Hymes emphasized the importance of social
knowledge in language use. Hyme’s idea of communicative competence is the ability to
use language appropriately with regard to the given social contexts.

Widdowson
Widdowson (1983) distinguished between competence (knowledge of linguistic
and sociolinguistic conventions) and capacity (ability to use knowledge to create
meaning).

Savignon
Savignon placed a greater emphasis on the aspect of ability in communicative
competence, describing it as the ability to function in a dynamic exchange.

It is important to present these not as a linear replacement of theories, but as an

evolving understanding with each expert building upon the last.
Tab 6
 KOLB’S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

●​ What is Learning?
"Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of
experience" - David Kolb (1984, 38)

●​ Who is David Allen Kolb

-​ An American educational theorist born December 12, 1939.
-​ Kolb earned his BA from Knox College in 1961 and his MA and Ph.D. from
Harvard University in 1964 and 1967 respectively, in social psychology.
-​ He is mainly credited for his experiential learning model (ELM) and his learning
style inventory (LSI) proposed in 1984.

There are two parts to Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory. The first is that learning
follows a four-stage cycle, as outlined below. Kolb believed that, ideally, learners
progressed through the stages to complete a cycle, and, as a result, transformed their
experiences into knowledge. The second part to Kolb’s Theory focused on learning
styles, or the cognitive processes that occurred in order to acquire knowledge.
Essentially, Kolb believed that individuals could demonstrate their knowledge, or the
learning that occurred, when they were able to apply abstract concepts to new
situations.

➔​ Experiential learning, as its name indicates, is the process of turning experience

into useful knowledge.
1.​ Concrete Experience - happens when a student has an unique experience or
views a prior encounter in another way.
-​ Kolb’s learning process cycle begins with a concrete experience. This can
either be a completely new experience or a reimagined experience that
already happened. In a concrete experience, each learner engages in an
activity or task. Kolb believed that the key to learning is involvement. It is
not enough for learners to just read about it or watch it in action. In order
to acquire new knowledge, learners must actively engage in the task.

2.​ Reflective Observation - In order to comprehend the meaning of the new

experience, the learner thinks about it.
-​ After engaging in the concrete experience, the learner steps back to
reflect on the task.

3.​ Abstract Conceptualisation - Based on experience and self-analysis, the learner

improves their way of thinking or develops new concepts.
-​ The next step in the learning cycle is to make sense of these events. The
learner attempts to draw conclusions of the experience by reflecting on
their prior knowledge, using ideas with which they are familiar or
discussing possible theories with peers. The learner moves from reflective
observation to abstract conceptualization when they begin to classify
concepts and form conclusions on the events that occurred. This involves
interpreting the experience and making comparisons to their current
understanding of the concept. Concepts need not be “new”; learners
can analyze new information and modify their conclusions on already
existing ideas.

4.​ Active Experimentation - The student tests their new concepts in real-life
scenarios to determine whether they are effective and whether any
adjustments are necessary.
-​ This stage in the cycle is the testing stage. Learners return to participating
in a task, this time with the goal of applying their conclusions to new
experiences. They are able to make predictions, analyze tasks, and make
plans for the acquired knowledge in the future. By allowing learners to put
their knowledge into practice and showing how it is relevant to their lives,
you are ensuring that the information is retained in the future.
Kolb’s learning Styles Model

Note:
Kolb's Learning Cycle also known as experiential learning cycle.

It is divided into two dimensions. East-west (RO/AE) line called processing

continuum refers to how the learner knows about the tasks, do we do it or do watch it.
The North-South (CE/AC) axis is called the perception continuum where our
emotional response is involved whether the learner is thinking and feeling.

1.​ Diverging - This type of learning emphasizes reflective observation and real
experience.
-​ This learning style takes an original and creative approach. Rather than
examining concrete experiences by the actions taken, individuals tend to
assess them from various perspectives. They value feelings and take an
interest in others. Individuals who prefer this learning style tend to enjoy
tasks such as brainstorming ideas and working collaboratively in groups.
 2.​ Assimilating - Students that prefer thoughtful observation and abstract
conceptualization are included in this learning style.
-​ This learning style emphasizes reasoning. Individuals who demonstrate
this learning style are able to review the facts and assess the experience
as a whole. They tend to enjoy designing experiments and working on
projects from start to completion.
-​ More into logical Approach

3.​ Converging - This type of learner focuses on active experimentation and

abstract conceptualization.
-​ This learning style highlights problem solving as an approach to learning.
Individuals who prefer this learning style are able to make decisions and
apply their ideas to new experiences. Unlike Divergers, they tend to avoid
people and perceptions, choosing instead to find technical solutions.
-​ Practical Learners

4.​ Accommodating - This type of learner prefers active experimentation and real
experience.
-​ This learning style is adaptable and intuitive. These individuals use trial and error
to guide their experiences, preferring to discover the answers for themselves.

Inspirations:

1.​ Jean Piaget

●​ A Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development.
●​ Explored how children learn through active exploration and interaction with their
environment.
●​ Schemas are Piaget’s term for the mental frameworks that help individuals
understand and interpret information.

2.​ John Dewey

●​ A renowned American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer known
for being a founder of Pragmatism.
○​ Pragmatism - John Dewey emphasized the usage of knowledge in
practical applications and experience to solve problems rather than
abstract theorizing.
●​ He emphasized learning through direct experience rather than passive
absorption of information.
 ●​ Dewey conceived learning in a similar way to Lewin; he saw it as a journey from
impulsive to purposeful experience rather than a cycle.

3.​ Kurt Lewin

●​ Was an influential psychologist recognized today as the founder of modern social
psychology.
●​ Lewin emphasized interaction with others as well as change.
●​ He introduced three stages of change:
a.​ Unfreezing - Recognizing the need for change.
b.​ Change/Moving - Implementing new ideas, behaviors, and processes.
c.​ Refreezing - Stabilizing and solidifying the new learning to make it stick.
●​ Lewin conceived learning as a four-stage cycle:
1)​ Concrete Experience
2)​ Reflective Observation
3)​ Abstract Conceptualization
4)​ Active Experimentation

The Revisions Each Expert Did

1.​ Peter Jarvis

- Adult educator and Emeritus Professor at the University of Surrey.
- Focused on giving emphasis to continuing adult education.

➢​ Expanded Model: Disruptive Learning Pathways

a.​ Learning is not always linear or cyclical
b.​ Realistically, stated the factors affecting learning in addition to Kolb's
theory: External Factors, Social, Cultural, and Physical.
c.​ Multiple pathways of learning are introduced.
i.​ Non Learning - Experience does not lead to any change or
learning.
ii.​ Non-reflective Learning - Learning happens through routine or
habitual actions without deep reflection.
iii.​ Reflective Learning - Leads to personal growth and a deeper
comprehension of the subject matter.

2.​ Harald Bergsteiner & Gayle Avery

- Both were researchers and professors from Australia.
- Both were founders of the Institute for Sustainable Leadership.
 ➢​ The Twin Cycle Experiential Learning Model, they revisioned Kolb's
experiential learning theory into their own terms. They basically divided the
concept of concrete and abstract, unlike in Kolb's model, they proposed that the
concept of concrete and abstract is different and should not be in the same cycle.
➢​ Concrete/Active/Primary (CAP) Learning Cycle - This cycle emphasizes
learning through direct experience, active participation, and first-hand
involvement.
➢​ Abstract/Passive/Secondary (APS) Learning Cycle - This cycle focuses on
learning through abstract concepts, passive observation, and second-hand
information.
- Always remember that in this model, the concept of concrete and abstract is not
in the same cycle, rather it’s separated.

3.​ Thomas Howard Morris

- Doctor of Education and a researcher at Bath Spa University, which advocates for the
understanding of the nature of life-long learning and continuing adult education.

➢​ Context-Enriched Experiential Model (CEEM) - This theory was proposed by

Thomas Howard Morris, it argues that Kolb's model, while influential, often
overlooks the crucial role of context in shaping the learning process and
outcomes.
- In this model, learning is said to be based on the context whether there should
be learning or not. Morris argues that Kolb's model tends to present learning as a
somewhat abstract and universal process, neglecting the specific social, cultural,
historical, and environmental contexts in which learning occurs.
- Context is the biggest factor of this model, context is not just a backdrop but
an active and integral part of the learning process. It shapes the nature of the
experience, the opportunities for reflection, the formation of abstract concepts,
and the possibilities for action.

4.​ Makoto Matsuo & Nagata Masaki

4.1. Makoto Matsuo

- Doctor of Philosophy and Senior Researcher at Aoyama Gakuin University in Japan.

4.2. Nagata Masaki

- Visiting Professor at the University of Tokyo.
- Researcher in the Division of Transdisciplinary Sciences and the Department of
Advanced Energy in Japan.
 ➢​ Revisioned model of Makoto Matsuo and Nagata Masaki - is a significant
update to David Kolb's widely influential Experiential Learning Cycle (ELC).
Recognizing the limitations of Kolb's original four-stage model, Matsuo and
Nagata proposed a revised model in their 2020 paper, "A revised model of
experiential learning with a debriefing checklist," published in the International
Journal of Training and Development.
-​ This model emphasizes more in the learning in the context of the learners
emotions. They said that Kolb’s model is lacking emotional approach and that
hinders learning and the same as Kolb’s, they created a much more broader
cycle rather than the classic concept of concrete abstract and the active
experimentation.
-​ Expected and Unexpected Experiences: Matsuo and Nagata refine the
"Concrete Experience" stage of Kolb's model by explicitly acknowledging that
experiences can be both expected and unexpected. Unexpected experiences, in
particular, can trigger deeper reflection and learning.
-​ The Management of Emotions: This is a crucial addition to the model. They
emphasize that learning experiences, especially unexpected ones, often evoke
emotions. The ability to manage these emotions (awareness, regulation) is a
critical factor in whether learning progresses effectively. Unmanaged emotions
can hinder reflection and subsequent learning stages.
-​ Reflective Analysis: This stage aligns with Kolb's "Reflective Observation" but
with a stronger emphasis on deeper analysis. Learners are encouraged to
critically examine their experiences and the associated emotions.
-​ Abstract Conceptualization: Similar to Kolb's model, this stage involves
forming new concepts or modifying existing ones based on the reflection.
-​ Unlearning: This is another key and novel addition. Matsuo and Nagata argue
that deep learning often requires unlearning – the process of discarding
outdated or ineffective knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions that may hinder the
adoption of new understandings. This stage acknowledges that learning is not
just about acquiring new information but also about letting go of the old.
-​ Active Experimentation: This final stage, like Kolb's, involves testing the newly
formed concepts and understandings in new situations.

5.​ Mike Ryder and Carolyn Downs

- Both were professors and interdisciplinary researchers at Lancaster University.
- Both focus on proposing participatory and work-based learning theories.

➢​ Ryder and Downs argue that Kolb's ELC, while influential, suffers from several
limitations in today's environment.
 ➢​ OODA loop by John Boyd (1986) as an alternative - This theory is just an
updated version of Kolb’s experiential learning so it can fit in today’s society.
Always remember that the year of the theories that got revisioned really
matters, because the concept of learning changes overtime based on the
era it is in.
-​ It can be an alternative for OODA loop, it is very similar in Kolb’s model but has a
few alterations and its cycle is different in Kolb’s model.
-​ Observe: Gather information from the environment.
-​ Orient: Make sense of the information in the context of your existing knowledge,
beliefs, and the current situation. This is the most crucial and often overlooked
stage.
-​ Decide: Formulate a course of action based on your orientation.
-​ Act: Implement the decision.

CARL ROGERS’ HUMANISTIC THEORY

Brief Background

Carl Ransom Rogers is a clinical/educational psychologist. In 1946-1947, he

became a president in a leading scientific and professional organization representing
psychology in the United States named the “American Psychologist Association (APA).”

His main field was humanistic psychology, which emphasizes looking at the
whole person and the uniqueness of each individual, and he was considered the most
humanistic among all humanists. Moreover, Rogers was more focused on therapy rather
than theory, as he often dealt with the client. Person-Centered Theory—his theory is
also known as Client-Centered Therapy. At first, Rogers had no interest in making his
practice a theory; however, due to the pressure placed on him by the people around
him, he eventually decided to formalize it; thus, he created his theory. This theory was
developed during the 1940s and was fully articulated in his 1951 book, which is the
book entitled “Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications, and Theory.
Rogers has his basic assumptions. He believes in:

●​ Formative Theory: The universal drive for all things (living and nonliving) to
evolve, grow, and become more complex. Rogers believes that there is a
tendency for all matter to evolve from simpler to more complex forms. An
example of that is when a seed becomes a small plant and then turns into a big
tree. It is also similar to the cognitive development of a child’s brain to an adult
brain.
●​ Actualizing Tendency: The natural drive in all humans to grow, develop, and
fulfill their full potential. This is the tendency of all humans, animals, and plants
to move toward completion or fulfillment of potentials. Rogers believes that all
beings have potential, and it serves as one's motivation to do something. To have
self-actualization, Rogers stated the 2 things that an individual must have—
the maintenance and enhancement. Maintenance includes basic needs such as
food, air, safety, love, etc. It is similar to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs because it
is needed for everyone to maintain their physiological self in order to fulfill their
potential. For instance, how can a person do his thing when his state is not good
enough to give him energy in life? Similarly, a plant also has necessities to meet
its potential in yielding products such as soil, water, and sunlight. The other thing
an individual needs is the enhancement, which is the strong desire to learn and
the willingness to change in order to reach the maximum potential for a person
to improve.

Following these tendencies, a human being can eventually create an awareness

of themselves that becomes the sense of self of an individual, and it is called
“self-concept.” It is the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about
oneself. To put it in another way, self-concept is anything and everything about one’s
self as the concept of “This is me” or “This is who I am.”
Self-concept includes three (3) components:

1.​ Self-Worth: It is the value or worth an individual places on themselves. Rogers

believed that the self-worth of a person develops during early childhood and is
formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father.
2.​ Self-Image: It refers to individuals’ mental representation of themselves that is
shaped by personal experiences and interactions with others. It affects how a
person thinks, feels, and behaves. Self-image is how a person sees his
personality traits, abilities, values, and such. To be specific, it is the
understanding of an individual of who they are as a person.
3.​ Ideal Self: It is the version of oneself that an individual aspires to become. It is
the vision of a being on who they want to be, including the goals and ambitions
in life.

According to Rogers (1959), we want to feel, experience, and behave in ways

consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal
self. This is where the idea of congruence and incongruence takes place.

In the concept of congruence, a person’s ideal self is consistent with the real
self or closely aligned. Rogers believed that the closer our self-image and ideal are to
each other, the more consistent and the higher sense of self-worth a person will have in
himself. On the other hand, in incongruence, there is a large gap between ideal self
and self-image. This happens when a person’s ideal self is not aligned with what
actually happens in his life, which is the self-image. In accordance with Rogers, if the
ideal self is unrealistic or there is a disparity between the real self and ideal self, it can
lead to incongruence resulting in dissatisfaction, unhappiness, and low self-worth.
Therefore, one of Rogers's goals in this therapy or theory is to help people bring their
real self and ideal self into alignment, enhancing self-esteem and life satisfaction.

Positive Regard and Self-Worth

Carl Rogers (1951) viewed the child as having two basic needs: positive
regard from other people (the need to feel valued, respected, and loved) and self-worth
(the value or worth an individual places on themselves). To Carl Rogers (1959),
receiving positive regards from other people would result in an individual having an
increase in their self-worth. With a high self-worth, a person could have confidence and
positive feelings about themselves, could face challenges in life, accept failure and
unhappiness, and will be open to people. Unlike a person with a low self-worth who will
avoid challenges in life, not accept painful and unhappy times, and be defensive and
guarded with other people. Moreover, Rogers made two distinctions: unconditional
positive regard and conditional positive regard.

●​ Unconditional Positive Regard is accepting and valuing a person no matter

what. It is a situation wherein we see someone in a positive light regardless of
the situation, which is a sign of love, trust, and commitment to the other person.
Even when the person does something wrong or makes a mistake, positive
regard is not withdrawn, and judgment or criticism will not be given. A great
example of this is a teacher encouraging students to recite something in class
and acknowledging their answers even if they are wrong. That way, the teacher
created a safe and comfortable space for the students to share what they want
to say, not worrying if what they answered is correct because they are now used
to it.
●​ Conditional Positive Regard is defined as the concept in psychology that
refers to the expression of acceptance and approval by others (often parents or
 caregivers) only when an individual behaves in a certain acceptable or approved
way. Meaning, love, support, respect, and acceptance could only be given when
an individual met certain conditions and standards. This could result in insecurity,
low self-worth, and constantly wanting the validation of other people. An
example of this is when parents only praise their child for receiving the highest
scores and having good grades. However, if their child received an unsatisfactory
grade, they would not even acknowledge their child’s effort—they would instead
pressure and compare the child to someone they know.

The Fully Functioning Person

Rogers describes an individual who is actualizing as a fully functioning person. A

fully functioning person is those individuals who could reach their fullest potential in life
because their basic needs are met. Rogers also believed that becoming a fully
functioning person is not an end or completion of life’s journey, as it is a process of
always becoming and changing.

Five Characteristics of the Fully Functioning Person:

1.​ Open to Experience: A fully functioning person accepts both positive and
negative emotions. Their negative feelings are not denied but instead worked
through. A fully functioning person views challenges and obstacles as a learning
process that gives them more experiences in life.
2.​ Existential Living: A fully functioning person lives in the moment. They are
able to live and fully appreciate the present, not always looking back to the past
or forward to the future.
3.​ Trust Feelings: A fully functioning person pays attention and puts trust into
their feelings, instincts, and gut reactions. They trust themselves and their
decisions in life because they believe that they are making the right choices.
4.​ Creativity: A fully functioning person is creative in thinking when it comes to
coming up with a solution to their problems. They are also risk-taking individuals
 who do not play it safe all the time because they have the ability to adjust and
adapt to situations.
5.​ Fulfilled Life: A fully functioning person is an individual who is happy and
satisfied with life. They are also always looking for new challenges and
experiences because they are not afraid to experience all of their emotions and
feelings.

Experts Who Made Changes to the Theory

Carl Rogers' humanistic theory was shaped by contributions and revisions

from several thinkers across different periods. Below are some of the most notable
contributions to the world-renowned theory.

Victor Frankl (1946): In Man’s Search for Meaning, Frankl introduced

logotherapy, emphasizing the human need for meaning. This existential perspective
influenced Rogers' emphasis on self-actualization and personal growth.

Rollo May (1950s–1970s): May integrated existentialism into psychology,

focusing on anxiety, freedom, and authenticity. His works, such as Existence (1958) and
Love and Will (1969), deepened the philosophical underpinnings of Rogers’
client-centered therapy.

James Bugental (1960s–1990s): Bugental developed

existential-humanistic therapy, emphasizing therapist presence and authenticity.
His 1965 book The Search for Authenticity aligned with Rogers' principles of
genuineness and self-awareness.

Joseph Zinker (1970s–1980s): As a Gestalt therapist, Zinker contributed to

creative and experiential therapeutic techniques, particularly in his 1977 book
Creative Process in Gestalt Therapy. His work paralleled Rogers’ belief in
self-expression.
 Fritz Perls (1940s–1960s): Perls founded Gestalt therapy, which emphasized
present experience and personal responsibility. His work in the 1950s,
particularly Gestalt Therapy: Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality (1951),
influenced humanistic psychology’s focus on self-awareness.

Immanuel Kant (18th century): Kant's ideas on autonomy and

self-determination, particularly in Critique of Pure Reason (1781), laid a foundation
for humanistic psychology’s emphasis on self-actualization.

Edmund Husserl (1900s–1930s): Husserl developed phenomenology,

particularly in Logical Investigations (1900) and Ideas Pertaining to a Pure
Phenomenology (1913). His focus on subjective experience influenced Rogers' emphasis
on personal perception.

Max Wertheimer (1910s–1940s): Wertheimer, one of the founders of Gestalt

psychology, developed principles of holistic perception that aligned with Rogers'
views on self-concept. His Productive Thinking (1945) influenced humanistic
psychology.

Kurt Koffka (1910s–1930s): Koffka’s Principles of Gestalt Psychology (1935)

emphasized perception and learning as holistic experiences, which related to
Rogers' focus on the integrated self.

Wolfgang Köhler (1910s–1940s): Köhler’s research on insight learning in

The Mentality of Apes (1917) highlighted cognitive processes that influenced the
understanding of self-directed growth in Rogers’ theory.

Abraham Maslow (1940s–1960s): Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943)

introduced self-actualization as a pinnacle of human motivation, aligning directly with
Rogers' concept of the fully functioning person. His later work, Toward a Psychology of
Being (1962), further refined these ideas.
 CANALE AND SWAIN’S COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

Introduction
The term communicative competence refers to a person’s ability to use a language
effectively and appropriately in different situations.

It was created as a response to Chomsky’s linguistic competence, which focused only

on grammar.

Developed by: Michael Canale & Merrill Swain

Published in: 1980
Title of Paper: "Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language
Teaching and Testing"
Field: Applied Linguistics
Key Idea: Language learning is more than just grammar—it requires social and
strategic skills.

The Evolution of Canale and Swain Communicative Competence

1.​ The Foundation: Canale and Swain (1980)

Title: Canale and Swain's Communicative Competence (1980)
 ●​ Grammatical Competence: Ability to create grammatically correct sentences.
●​ Sociolinguistic Competence: Ability to produce sociolinguistically appropriate
utterances.
●​ Strategic Competence: Ability to solve communication problems.

Canale and Swain revised their scheme in 1983 and added a fourth component to
its discourse competence: they implied the user’s ability to achieve cohesion and
coherence in connected texts whether spoken or written.

●​ Discourse Competence: Canale (1983) described discourse competence as

mastery of rules that determine ways in which forms and meanings are combined
to achieve a meaningful unity of spoken or written texts. The unity of a text is
enabled by cohesion in form and coherence in meaning.
-​ Cohesion is achieved by the use of cohesion devices (e.g. pronouns,
conjunctions, synonyms, parallel structures etc.) which help to link individual
sentences and utterances to a structural whole.
-​ Coherence is achieved by repetition, progression, consistency, relevance of
ideas etc., enabling the organisation of meaning, i.e. establishing a logical
relationship between groups of utterances.

Refinement: Canale (1987)

Canale and Swain's 1987 paper “The Measurements of Communicative Competence”
further elaborated on the concept of communicative competence and its implications for
second language teaching and testing. They stressed that communicative competence
involves:
- Knowing language rules
- Using language effectively in real-world situations

They also highlighted the challenges of assessing communicative competence, noting

that traditional tests often fall short.

Expansion: Bachman (1990)

Title: Bachman's Model (1990)

➢​ Organizational Competence: Grammatical Competence, Discourse

Competence (or Textual Competence).
➢​ Pragmatic Competence: Sociolinguistic Competence, Illocutionary Competence
or Functional Knowledge.
Explanation: Bachman re-categorized the competencies into organizational grammatical
and discourse and pragmatic sociolinguistic and functional competence.

Communicative competence has evolved over time.

●​ The core idea is that it's more than just knowing grammar; it's about using
language effectively in real situations.
●​ Different experts have contributed to our understanding of what it means to be
communicatively competent.

While Canale, Swain, and Bachman are key figures, it's important to acknowledge that
the development of communicative competence theory involved contributions from other
experts as well.

➢​ Hymes: Dell Hymes coined the term "communicative competence" in 1966,

reacting to Chomsky's concept of competence. Hymes emphasized the
importance of social knowledge in language use. Hymes idea of communicative
competence is the ability to use language appropriately with regard to the
given social contexts.
➢​ Widdowson: Widdowson (1983) distinguished between competence
(knowledge of linguistic and sociolinguistic conventions) and capacity (ability to
use knowledge to create meaning).
➢​ Savignon: Savignon placed a greater emphasis on the aspect of ability in
communicative competence, describing it as the ability to function in a
dynamic exchange.
pask's conversation theory
Gordon Pask Conversation Theory
The Conversation Theory developed by Gordon Pask originated from a
cybernetics framework and attempts to explain learning in both living organisms and
machines. This theory was published in his book Conversation, Cognition, and Learning
(1975) alongside with his other books, The Cybernetics of Human Learning and
Performance. Wherein, it was stated that learning happens through people's
conversation about a certain topic, which allows communication to flow and be
understood better. This aligns with Pask's discussion that social systems are symbolic
and language-based, where individuals respond based on the interpretation of one
another's behaviours. Through a conversation, shared meanings are formed.

Learning happens during conversations about a particular subject that help

knowledge be articulated and understood.

These conversations conducted have three levels (Taylor, 2020):

1. Natural language - This is the everyday language used in general discussion

and communication. It is also known as general discussion.

2. Object languages - This pertains to specialized language used to discuss a

specific subject matter.

3. Metalanguages - this language is used to describe another language or

learning language itself.

Teach-back - A critical method for learning in which one person teaches another what

they have learned (Culatta, 2018).

Pask Two Types of Learning Strategies

1. Serialists - Learners progress through an entailment structure in a sequential
fashion. They prefer a step-by-step process of learning, focusing on one
detail at a time.
2. Holists - Learners look for higher-order relations. They like to holistically
view things before diving into their details.

Bernard Scott’s Revision

 Scott worked alongside Pask at Systems Research Ltd. (1968–1978), a hub for
cybernetics research. Their partnership blended Pask’s abstract theories with Scott’s
focus on operationalizing ideas for education and technology (10 Learning Theories to
Structure Your Training Programs, n.d.; The Cybernetics Society, n.d.).

Summary
The main point of Bernard Scott's revision to Gordon Pask's Conversation
Theory is the integration of TOTE cycles (Test-Operate-Test-Exit) into educational
contexts. Scott emphasized that learning occurs through recursive feedback loops,
where hypotheses are iteratively tested and refined until they meet the criteria of
higher-order systems. This approach operationalizes Conversation Theory for
practical use in adaptive learning systems and human-machine interactions (Pask,
1975).

Major Revisions and Contributions

(a) Formalizing the TOTE Cycle in Education

According to Anderson, J. R., and Lebiere, C. (1998), the
Test-Operate-Test-Exit (TOTE) model, borrowed from cognitive
psychology (Miller et al., 1960), became a cornerstone of Scott’s revisions.
He adapted it as a recursive feedback mechanism for learning:
1.​ Test: A learner proposes a hypothesis (e.g., “This mineral is gold”).
2.​ Operate: The teacher challenges the learner to refine it (e.g., “Test
its density”).
3.​ Test Again: The learner revises their understanding (e.g., “Fool’s
gold has lower density”).
4.​ Exit: The cycle concludes once the learner internalizes the concept.
​
(b) Applications in Adaptive Educational Technologies
Scott’s later work (2000s–2020s) applied Conversation Theory to modern tools:
●​ Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS): Designed AI tutors that use TOTE
cycles to personalize feedback (e.g., Khan Academy’s adaptive quizzes).
●​ Corporate Training: Framed workplace learning as a “conversation”
between employees and training modules, with real-time adjustments
based on performance.
Paul Pangaro’s revision
Paul Pangaro was a student and collaborator of Gordon Pask, deeply influenced
by his mentor’s ideas. His work began in the 1980s, focusing on refining and extending
Conversation Theory to make it more applicable to practical domains. Pangaro’s
revisions sought to clarify the theory’s abstract concepts while demonstrating their utility
in real-world systems (P. H. Jones, 2010).

Major Revisions and Contributions

(a) Development of the Protologic LP (An examination and confirmation of a macro

theory of conversations, n.d.)
●​ In his 1987 doctoral thesis at Brunel University, Pangaro focused on the
"protologic" Lp, a formalization of Conversation Theory that models how
concepts evolve through interaction.
Key Contribution:

●​ He created microscopic simulations to validate Pask’s macro-level

predictions about conversations. These simulations demonstrated how
interactions between conceptual entities could lead to the emergence of
shared understanding or conflict resolution.
●​ This work confirmed that conversation theory could serve as a reliable
model for cognitive processes, particularly in human-computer interaction.

(b) Thoughtsticker System

●​ Pangaro developed a software tool called Thoughtsticker, which
operationalized Conversation Theory for practical use (THOUGHTSTICKER
Software System, n.d.)
●​ Purpose: Thoughtsticker facilitated structured dialogues between users and
systems, allowing for the negotiation of beliefs and goals (Pangaro, n.d.).

Diana Laurillard’s Revision

Gordon Pask's work stands rather outside the mainstream of the psychology of
education, but is immediately recognised by many learners and teachers in adult
education as being very significant. He was a cyberneticist rather than an
educationalist, and developed a systems approach to learning which is highly abstract
and difficult, although rewarding: it is reflected in the “conversational” models of learning
of Laurillard and Thomas and Harri-Augstein.
Laurillard’s Conversational Framework
Diana Laurillard’s Conversational Framework strives to overview the learning
theories developed over the last few years and compress the main concepts into one
schema allowing for educators to test new methods against them.

The framework itself elaborates on Pask and Scott’s conversation theory and
highlights the role of dialogue in learning, expressing the necessity of conversation
between teacher and student, over transmission of information from teacher to
student.

Laurillard argues that the nature of much academic learning is largely defined by the
acquisition of complex concepts and the creation of conceptual distinctions. The four
components for efficient learning are considered to be: teacher’s concepts;
teacher’s constructed learning environment; student’s concepts; and student’s
specific actions; furthermore the necessity of a two-way dialogue between teacher and
student at each of these conceptual levels is emphasized.

The premise of this framework focuses on producing an information-rich

environment whereby the student is granted the opportunity to acquire
knowledge, and this acquiring of knowledge is supported and enhanced through
the guidance of teachers. The symmetrical nature of the model above further
highlights the view of both the teacher and the student having an equal role in
learning. This equality is a step forward from past theories of learning that lead to
distortions by focussing solely on the teacher (tutor-centred learning) or the student
(student-centred learning) (Jacob & Carmel, n.d.).
Figure 1. Four Components for Efficient Learning. (Jacob & Carmel, n.d.)

Conversational Phases

●​ Discursive Phase: After the initial presentation of a new concept by a teacher,

the learner and the teacher enter dialogue and collaborate to understand
the concept.
●​ Interactive Phase: The teachers formulate tasks incorporating the new
concept, and learners interact with these tasks, receiving continuous
feedback on their performance.
●​ Adaptive Phase: Further understanding is gained as the learners put the
original concept into practice by relying on what they have learned to adapt
their actions appropriately.
●​ Reflective Phase: Learners reflect on the above stages and further adjust their
thinking as a result of such reflection.

It is evident through the above that this is a very interactive model focusing strongly on
feedback,which may make it difficult to apply into higher education classes where there
are large numbers of pupils to one teacher. After identifying the conversational phases
of learning, Laurillard outlines the main media types involved in prompting knowledge
accumulation through this framework.

Figure 2. Different Teaching Media and their Corresponding Media Forms (Millner,
2008)
a.​ Narrative media - provide structure and coherence to learning content but are
linear, presenting only the teacher's ideas without accommodating the learner's
reactions or reformulations. These media support only the initial, non-dialogic
part of the learning process. (e.g digital text, video, or audio files)
b.​ Interactive media - non-linear and support exploration and discovery, allowing
students to make their own connections and follow inquiries. They offer limited
intrinsic feedback and, when combined with narrative media, can support both
the discursive and interactive phases of learning. (e.g hypertext, learning objects,
and the web)
c.​ Adaptive media - offer more control to learners, enabling experimentation,
modeling, and practical application of new knowledge. They provide detailed
intrinsic feedback, allow logging of the interaction process, and encourage
reflection, supporting the interactive, adaptive, and reflective phases of learning.
(advanced learning objects, simulations, and virtual environments)
d.​ Communicative media -such as CMC, chat, and online social/collaborative
environments, support the discursive aspect of learning, allowing discussion and
debate with teachers and other learners. These media not only enhance the
dialogic phase but also provide additional learning content, such as new
information and ideas, and offer extrinsic feedback during the interactive and
adaptive phases. This supports reflection in the final stages of learning.
Communicative media (like wikis and blogs) can also serve as outputs of
productive learning. However, they do not easily support the interactive and
adaptive phases on their own.
e.​ Productive media - such as webpages, blog posts, or digital objects, allow
learners to express and share their learning, reflect on the learning experience,
adjust their understanding, and consider the significance of the process. These
media primarily support the reflective phase of learning and often overlap with
communicative media (Jacob & Carmel, n.d.).

a.​ Narrative Media​

i.​ What it is: These are linear and structured media, like digital texts, videos, or
audio files.​

ii.​ How it helps: They provide information from the teacher but don’t allow the
learner to interact or change the content. They support the beginning phase of
 learning where the learner is first introduced to the material.​

iii.​ Example: A lecture video or a textbook.​

b.​ Interactive Media​

i.​ What it is: These media are non-linear, meaning learners can explore and make
their own connections. Examples include websites, learning apps, or hypertext.​

ii.​ How it helps: They allow learners to explore and discover on their own but don’t
give much feedback. These media are useful during the exploration phase when
students are trying to figure things out on their own.​

iii.​ Example: An interactive website where you can click through different topics or
quizzes.​

c.​ Adaptive Media​

i.​ What it is: These media are designed to give learners more control, such as
simulations or virtual environments.​

ii.​ How it helps: They provide feedback based on your actions, helping you
experiment and learn through practice. These media support the interactive,
adaptive, and reflective stages of learning, where learners are trying things out,
getting feedback, and thinking about what they've learned.​

iii.​ Example: A virtual science lab where you can experiment with different
variables.​

d.​ Communicative Media​

i.​ What it is: These include chat platforms, discussion boards, and social learning
environments, such as wikis or blogs.​

ii.​ How it helps: They encourage conversation, discussion, and debate with
teachers and other learners, supporting the dialogic phase of learning. They
help learners exchange ideas and receive feedback.​

iii.​ Example: A group discussion in a class or a forum where learners ask questions
and share ideas.​

e.​ Productive Media​

 i.​ What it is: These media allow learners to create and share their own work, like
blog posts, webpages, or digital presentations.​

ii.​ How it helps: They encourage learners to express what they've learned, reflect
on the process, and improve their understanding. These media primarily support
the reflective phase of learning, where learners think about what they've learned
and refine their ideas.​

iii.​ Example: Writing a blog post about a topic you've learned or creating a digital
portfolio.

Summary:

●​ Narrative media = Teacher-centered, introduces content.​

●​ Interactive media = Learner-centered, allows exploration.​

●​ Adaptive media = Gives feedback, allows practice.​

●​ Communicative media = Promotes discussion and feedback.​

●​ Productive media = Encourages creation and reflection on learning.

Tab 9
🔷 Teacher’s Concepts
This is where the teacher starts — with theories, subject knowledge, and educational ideas.

●​ The teacher offers theory and ideas to the student.​

●​ In return, students ask questions and share their ideas, which can also influence the
teacher’s understanding.​

🔶 Student’s Specific Concept

Students form their own understanding based on what the teacher presents.

●​ They adapt their actions (how they behave or learn) using the teacher’s theory.​

●​ They also reflect based on their own experiences, deepening their understanding.​

🔶 Student’s Specific Actions

This is the application part — students take action based on their understanding.

●​ Their actions provide goal feedback and lead to revisions of what they do.​

●​ These actions also feed back into their concept-building.​

🔷 Teacher’s Constructed Environment

This is what the teacher creates to help students learn — the classroom activities, tasks, and
materials.

●​ Based on reflection on students’ actions, the teacher adjusts the environment to

better support learning.​

●​ Then the teacher rethinks the learner’s activities, refining them to improve the cycle.​
🔁 The Continuous Loop
●​ Teachers observe and reflect on how students act and learn.​

●​ Students act, reflect, and adapt based on what they experience and the theory they
receive.​

●​ Both teacher and student are constantly adjusting and growing — it’s a mutual
feedback loop.​

Key Ideas in Red Text:

These represent key interactions:

●​ Adaptation, reflection, and feedback drive the learning process.​

●​ Both teachers and students learn from each other.​

●​ The cycle continues, leading to deeper understanding and better teaching/learning

practices.​

🟦 Teacher’s Concepts
The teacher starts with solid content knowledge and teaching theories.

●​ For example, the teacher knows how photosynthesis works and believes in hands-on,
inquiry-based learning.​

●​ They introduce the concept: “Plants make their own food using sunlight, water, and
carbon dioxide.”​

➡️ They explain this to students using a mini-lecture and visual aids.

🟨 Student’s Specific Concept

A student hears this and forms their own understanding.

●​ Maybe a student thinks: “Oh, it’s kind of like plants eat light!” — not fully correct, but a
starting point.​

●​ They start adapting their understanding to fit this new idea.​

➡️ They might ask, “So do plants eat like we do?” — showing their current mental model.

🟨 Student’s Specific Actions

Now the student does something — like a hands-on experiment.

●​ For example, they put a plant in sunlight and another in darkness to compare growth.​

●​ They write notes, collect data, and try to explain results.​

➡️ These actions give feedback on how well they understand — maybe they realize
something's missing in their logic.

🟦 Teacher’s Constructed Environment

The teacher observes students during the activity.

●​ They see that some students think plants “drink” sunlight or “eat” air.​

➡️ So the teacher adjusts the learning environment — maybe they bring in a model or
animation that shows molecules moving into leaves.

➡️ The teacher reflects: “Ah, I need to reinforce the idea of chemical processes, not just light.”

🔁 The Ongoing Cycle

●​ The teacher tweaks the next lesson based on what they saw.​
 ●​ Students revise their understanding as they get better feedback and clearer
explanations.​

●​ Everyone is learning and evolving together.​

Summary in One Line:

The diagram shows how teaching and learning are interactive and reflective —
both teacher and student keep improving their ideas and actions based on
feedback from each other.
Tab 4
TAB 1
WHAT IS ACCULTURATION?
The ability to acquire a second language can be best understood by looking at how second
language speakers handle being transplanted from one culture to a new one (Schumann, 1978).

WHAT IS SCHUMANN’S ACCULTURATION MODEL?

John Schumann's Acculturation Model was introduced in 1978, this model explains how social
and psychological elements influence the second language learning of a learner, especially for
ethnic minorities, immigrants, and those acquiring a new language in a dominant language
environment. The model emphasises that the success of language acquisition is closely linked
to the acculturation process, which refers to how well learners adjust to the culture associated
with the target language.

John Schumann’s acculturation model states that some L2 learners do not progress beyond the
early stages of linguistic acquisition with a target language because of social and psychological
distance between the speaker’s culture and the target culture.

TWO VARIABLES THAT COULD INFLUENCE LEARNERS’ LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

(AND ACCULTURATION)

1.​ Social Variables - the degree of social distance for SL learners in the target language,
in which the social distance is the learners’ position to acquire the target language and
group or to become part of the target language group (Schumann, 1978).
He argued that the social distance would effectively impact students’ SLA by influencing
the amount of acculturation

2.​ Psychological Variables - the way that individuals respond to language learning
conditions, which is also known as (also known as) affective factors (Ushioda, 1993).

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL DISTANCE

1.​ Social Dominance Patterns - The native language learners' reference group can either
be superior, inferior, or equal in terms of politics, culture, or economics. If they view their
group as superior, they may not learn the second language.
2.​ Integration Strategies
 -​ Assimilative learners give up their native language values and lifestyles.
-​ Preservative learners keep native language values and lifestyles.
-​ Adaptive learners become bicultural and switch depending on the group.
3.​ Enclosure - When groups (Degree of shared social and physical facilities of learners),
enclosure is low. This supports language learning.
4.​ Intended Length of Residency - Length of time a learner plans to stay in the country
and the permanency of residency in the country can impact motivation to learn a new
language.
5.​ Cohesiveness - Strong intragroup the learner's level of contact in the native language
community (and outside the community) with few contacts outside the community
impacts second language learning.
6.​ Size - The size of the native language community may impact L2 learning.
7.​ Cultural Congruence - The similarity and harmony between the cultures impact second
language learning.
8.​ Attitudes - The feelings of learners of the reference groups toward each other’s [impact]
learning.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTANCE

1.​ Motivation - ​ Level of motivation affects learning.

2.​ Cultural Shock - Being anxiety or disorientation in the culture equates to less likely to
learn.
3.​ Ego-permeability - The extent to which second language learners view their first
language as fixed and rigid will impact their learning of the second language.
4.​ Language Shock - Feeling silly (anxiety or confusion) about trying to learn the language
equates to less likely to learn.

TAB 2
Teske and Nelson (1974, cited in Navas, et.al. 2005) offered the first complete psychological
perspective on acculturation. According to these writers, acculturation included changes in
material traits, behavior patterns, norms, institutional changes, and importantly, values.
However, Teske and Nelson did not go further in their psychological analysis of how members of
diverse cultures accommodate one another.
This was left to Berry (et. al., 1992), who expanded on the view of acculturation. John Berry
expanded Schumann's model by introducing the concept of "acculturation strategies," which
include integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization.

This proposed model of acculturation categorized individual adaptation strategies along two
dimensions.

First dimension: the retention or rejection of an individual’s native culture (i.e. “Is it
considered to be of value to maintain one’s identity and characteristics?”).

Second dimension: the adoption or rejection of the host culture. (“Is it considered to be
of value to maintain relationships with the larger society?”)

From these two questions, four acculturation strategies emerge:

Assimilation: when individuals adopt the cultural norms of a dominant or host culture,
over their original culture.

Separation: when individuals reject the dominant or host culture in favor of preserving
their culture of origin. Separation is often facilitated by (e. g., immigration to ethnic
enclaves.

Integration: when individuals are able to adopt the cultural norms of the dominant or
host culture while maintaining their culture of origin.

Marginalization: when individuals reject both their culture of origin and the dominant
host culture.

Berry's model suggests that integration is often the most successful strategy, while
marginalization is the least successful. The other two strategies, assimilation and separation, fall
in between. Regardless, his idea about acculturation was important because it recognized that
people from different cultures can live together and that individuals have a choice in how much
they want to adapt to a new culture. Thus, acculturation isn't just a one-way process where
people lose their old culture and take on a new one. Instead, it's a complex process that
happens when different groups interact, and people can choose how much they want to change.
Berry's idea also suggests that people can learn a new language without giving up their own
cultural identity.

Ozgur Celenk and Fons J.R. van de Vijver "Acculturation Attitude Scale" to measure
acculturation attitudes. The AAS provides insights into individuals' preferences for cultural
maintenance, adoption, and integration.
It typically consists of a series of statements or items that assess various aspects of
acculturation attitudes. These items AAS may be organized into subscales or dimensions that
measures:

Cultural maintenance: measures the importance of maintaining one's heritage culture.

Cultural adoption: measures the willingness to adopt the host culture.

Cultural integration: measures the desire to integrate elements of both cultures.

Cultural rejection: measures the rejection of either the heritage or host culture.

Respondents typically rate their agreement or disagreement with each item on a Likert scale
(e.g., 1-5). The scores are then calculated to provide an overall acculturation attitude score, as
well as subscale scores.

Colleen Ward (Ward, 2001; Ward, Bochner, & Furnham, 2001) has identified three main areas
of human life that change during acculturation, and referred to these as the ‘‘ABCs of
Acculturation,’’ with the ‘‘ABCs’’ referring respectively to the ff. aspects of the acculturation
process.

Affective Acculturation: changes in emotions, feelings, and attitudes towards the host
culture and one's own culture.

Behavioral Acculturation: changes in behavior, habits, and daily routines as individuals

adapt to the host culture.

Cognitive Acculturation: changes in thoughts, beliefs, and knowledge about the host
culture and one's own culture.
—

H. Douglas Brown (1980) postulates that the process of acculturation in a natural L2

environment consists of four stages:

Euphoria: learners get excited (excitement over the newness of the surroundings

Culture-shock: individuals feel the intrusion of cultural differences into their own images
of self and security

Cultural stress and gradual recovery: some problems of acculturation are solved,
while others continue for some time. The learner starts to understand the differences in
 thinking. The learner’s problems revolve around the question of identity; she/he does not
perceive herself/himself as belonging to any culture.

Full-recovery: adaptation, assimilation, or acceptance of the new culture, whereim new

identity is developed.

Ellis (2008) and Larson-Freeman (2007) assert that an elaborated version of Schumann' model
was provided by Richard W. Anderson (1993). This time, it’s in the cognitive dimension.
Anderson built the nativization model on the Schumann model in particular by providing
(provided a cognitive dimension which Schumann did not consider. According to Ellis (1985) the
model consists of two major processes:

Nativization: The process of assimilation of the input. The learner modifies the L2 input
to match his/ her internalized knowledge of his/her L1, other languages and the world.
This process is visible in the first stage of language acquisition.

Denativization: The process of accommodation. The learner modifies his/her

internalized knowledge to accommodate L2 input. This process is typical for later stages
of language acquisition when L2 production is close to target norm.

TAB 3
Revisions and Extensions

Over the years, Schumann sought to expand his model to incorporate contemporary cognitive
theories of second language acquisition. Notable revisions include:

Integration with Cognitive Models: Schumann explored how cognitive theories, such as those
proposed by Barry McLaughlin and Evelyn Hatch, could be integrated into the framework of his
acculturation model. This involved assessing (assessed how cognitive processes interact with
social and psychological factors in language learning.

1.1. According to the study, the integration of additional variables into the accultuon model
occurred through an examination of various cognitive models relevant to second language
acquisition (SLA).

This process involved evaluating McLaughlin's cognitive theory, as well as exploring the
experiential approach proposed by Hatch and Hawkins, the knowledge and control dimensions
model by Bialystok and Ryan, Anderson's framework of active thought control, and Gasser's
connectionist lexical memory framework (Schumann, 1990). Anderson's cognitive dimension
elaborates Schumann's model that talks about nativization and denativization (Larsen-Freeman,
2007). Ellis (2015) summarizes the process of 'nativization' as a kind of modification of L2 input
in compliance with the learners' internalized knowledge of L1. Nativization, a form of
assimilation, occurs in the early stage of SLA. On the flip side, denativization is a process
involving adaptation. It is the modification of the learners' internalized knowledge of L1 for
accommodating L2 input. Denativization occurs in the later stages of SLA

1.2. John W. Berry's Four Acculturation Strategies

Berry's Acculturation Model, often referred to as Berry's Fourfold Model, centers on intercultural
dynamics. It comprises four distinct stages: Assimilation, in which individuals from a distinct
culture adopt the cultural practices of the new country or region they've relocated to; Integration,
involving the simultaneous embrace of both the dominant culture and one's original culture;
Separation, when an individual eschews the dominant culture and retains their original cultural
identity; Marginalization, wherein someone rejects both their native culture and the prevailing
cultural norms.

1.3. Evelyn Hatch: Her research on the interactional approach to language acquisition is
relevant to this integration.

Integrating Evelyn Hatch's Interactional Approach into Schumman's Acculturation Model

Evelyn Hatch's interactional approach emphasizes the importance of interaction and negotiation
of meaning in SLA. It suggests that learners acquire language through communicative
interactions, where they actively participate in conversations and resolve communication
breakdowns. This negotiation of meaning provides valuable opportunities for learners to receive
feedback, clarify misunderstandings, and refine their language use
1.4. Bialystok and Ryan's Knowledge and Control Dimensions Model: Explores the interplay
between declarative and procedural knowledge in language learning.

Schumann's Acculturation Model, initially focusing on social and psychological factors

influencing second language acquisition (SLA), was later expanded to incorporate cognitive
dimensions, including Bialystok and Ryan's Knowledge and Control Dimensions Model.

Bialystok and Ryan's Model

This model posits that language learning involves the interplay of two types of knowledge:

Declarative Knowledge: Explicit knowledge of language rules and facts. This is the "knowing
that" aspect of language, such as understanding grammatical rules or vocabulary definitions.

Procedural Knowledge: Implicit knowledge of how to use language. This is the "knowing how"
aspect, such as being able to speak fluently or write grammatically correct sentences without
consciously thinking about the rules.

1.5. Anderson's Active Thought Control Framework: Focuses on the cognitive processes
involved in controlling and regulating thought.

Anderson's Active Thought Control Framework

Anderson's framework emphasizes the cognitive processes involved in controlling and

regulating thoughts wherein learners must need attention, working memory, and cognitive
strategies. . It suggests that learners actively manage their thinking processes, including:
Attention: Focusing on relevant information and ignoring distractions.

Working Memory: Holding and manipulating information in the short term.

Cognitive Strategies: Using techniques to improve learning and problem-solving.

1.6. Gasser's Connectionist Lexical Memory Framework: Examines how lexical knowledge is
stored and accessed in the brain. (2008)

This framework examines how lexical knowledge, or vocabulary, is stored and accessed in the
brain. It suggests that lexical items are not stored as isolated units but are interconnected in a
network, forming complex relationships based on meaning, sound, and grammatical function.

1.7. Nativization and Denativization

Anderson's cognitive dimension contributed to Schumann's model by introducing the concepts

of nativization and denativization.

1.7.1. Nativization: A process of assimilation where L2 input is modified to align with the
learner's L1 knowledge. It occurs in the early stages of SLA. This means that learners tend to
use their existing language knowledge as a foundation for understanding and producing the new
language.

1.7.2. Denativization: A process of adaptation where the learner's L1 knowledge is modified to

accommodate L2 input. This occurs in the later stages of SLA. As learners become more
proficient, they adapt their L1 knowledge to better fit the rules and structures of the L2.

Focus on Psychological Factors: Schumann emphasized the importance of psychological

factors in language acquisition, highlighting how learners' mental states, such as motivation and
attitude, significantly impact their ability to learn a new language.
Cultural Adaptation: He also addressed the complexities of cultural adaptation, suggesting that
successful language acquisition is not just about learning vocabulary and grammar but also
about understanding and integrating into the target culture.

Schumann’s Acculturation Model: Evolution and Critique

Schumann’s Acculturation Model is a foundational theory in second language acquisition (SLA)

that explains how social and psychological factors influence language learning, particularly for
adult learners in a second-language environment. The theory has evolved over time, integrating
perspectives from neurobiology, motivation, and sociocultural studies.

Original Proponent and Date of Publication

John H. Schumann (1978) first proposed the Acculturation Model in his book The Pidginization
Process: A Model for Second Language Acquisition. He argued that a learner’s success in
acquiring a second language is heavily influenced by their social distance (e.g., cultural and
political relations between the learner’s group and the target language group) and psychological
distance (e.g., individual attitudes and motivation toward learning the language) (Schumann,
1978).

Subsequent Experts and Revisions

Schumann’s Later Refinement (1986): The Neurobiological Model

Schumann later expanded his model, incorporating insights from neurobiology. He proposed
that language acquisition is influenced by emotional and cognitive responses to new linguistic
input, which are shaped by brain functions and motivation (Schumann, 1986). This shift
highlighted how language learning is not merely a social process but also linked to brain
mechanisms.

Ellis (1994): Cognitive Critique

Rod Ellis (1994) critiqued Schumann’s model, arguing that it placed too much emphasis on
external social factors while overlooking cognitive abilities. Ellis emphasized that language
learning is not just about social integration but also involves internal cognitive processes, such
as working memory and problem-solving skills (Ellis, 1994).

Gardner (1985, 2001): The Socio-Educational Model

Robert Gardner’s research on motivation aligns with Schumann’s concept of acculturation.

Gardner (1985, 2001) introduced the Socio-Educational Model, which distinguishes between
integrative motivation (desire to integrate into a new culture) and instrumental motivation
(learning a language for practical benefits). He demonstrated that learners with higher
integrative motivation tend to develop stronger second-language proficiency, supporting
(supported Schumann’s view on psychological distance (Gardner, 1985, 2001).

Larsen-Freeman & Long (1991): Expanding the Model

Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) argued that while acculturation is a significant factor,
language acquisition is also influenced by cognitive and linguistic processes. They suggested
integrating (integrated Schumann’s model with theories of input processing (how learners
perceive and process new language structures) to create a more holistic framework
(Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991).

Brown (2000, 2007): Cultural Identity and Language Learning

H. Douglas Brown emphasized the role of cultural identity, affective factors, and language ego in
second-language learning. Brown (2000, 2007) expanded on Schumann’s model by
incorporating the Affective Filter Hypothesis, which states that emotions such as anxiety and
self-confidence influence language learning success (Brown, 2000, 2007).

Recent Cognitive and Sociocultural Approaches (2010-Present)

Contemporary researchers have moved beyond Schumann’s acculturation framework,

incorporating identity, social interaction, and autonomy such as:
Lantolf & Thorne (2006) applied Sociocultural Theory, arguing that language learning is a
socially mediated process, where learners construct knowledge through interaction with more
proficient speakers (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006).

Dörnyei (2010) emphasized motivation and learner autonomy, shifting the focus from
acculturation to individual agency in language learning (Dörnyei, 2010).

Key Revisions Over Time

Schumann

1978

Introduced Acculturation Model (social and psychological distance).

1986

Expanded with a neurobiological perspective.

Gardner

1985, 2001

Connected motivation (integrative vs. instrumental) to acculturation.

Ellis

1994

Criticized model for ignoring cognitive factors.

Larsen-Freeman & Long

1991

Suggested integrating cognitive and linguistic theories.

Brown

2000, 2007

Emphasized cultural identity and emotional influences.

Lantolf & Thorne

2006

Applied Sociocultural Theory (social interaction in learning).

Dörnyei

2010

Focused on learner autonomy and motivation beyond acculturation.

Conclusion

Schumann’s Acculturation Model remains a foundational theory in second language acquisition,

but it has evolved significantly over time. While Schumann emphasized social and psychological
factors, later researchers incorporated cognitive (Ellis, 1994), motivational (Gardner, 1985,
2001), and sociocultural perspectives (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006). The model has shifted from a
passive view of acculturation to a more complex interaction between social, cognitive, and
individual factors in language learning. Understanding these perspectives provides a more
comprehensive view.

TAB 4 FINAL REVISION

Schumann (1978)
Introduced Acculturation Model

-​ Introduced in 1978, explains how social and psychological elements influence the
second language learning of a learner, especially for ethnic minorities,
immigrants, and those acquiring a new language in a dominant language
environment.
-​ Refers to how well learners adjust to the culture associated with the target
language.

TWO VARIABLES THAT COULD INFLUENCE LEARNERS’ LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

(AND ACCULTURATION)
1.​ Social Variables
2.​ Psychological Variables

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL DISTANCE

1.​ Social Dominance Patterns
2.​ Integration Strategies - Assimilative, Preservative, Adaptive learners
3.​ Enclosure
4.​ Intended Length of Residency
5.​ Cohesiveness
6.​ Size
7.​ Cultural Congruence
8.​ Attitudes

CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTANCE

1.​ Motivation
2.​ Cultural Shock
3.​ Ego-permeability
4.​ Language Shock
Schumann (1986)
Expanded with a neurobiological perspective.

Evelyn Hatch's Interactional Approach (1978)

Gardner (1985, 2001)

Connected motivation (integrative vs. instrumental) to acculturation.

1.​ Integrative motivation

2.​ Instrumental motivation

Bialystok and Ryan's Model

Interplay of two types of knowledge (1985)

1.​ Declarative Knowledge

2.​ Procedural Knowledge

Larsen-Freeman & Long (1991)

Suggested integrating cognitive and linguistic theories.

Richard W. Anderson (1993)

Nativization model
1.​ Nativization
2.​ Denativization

Ellis (1994)
Criticized model for ignoring cognitive factors.

John Berry (1997, 2001) - 4 Acculturation Strategies

1.​ Assimilation
2.​ Separation
3.​ Integration
4.​ Marginalization

Ozgur Celenk and Fons J.R. van de Vijver

"Acculturation Attitude Scale" (2000)
1.​ Cultural maintenance
2.​ Cultural adoption
3.​ Cultural integration
4.​ Cultural rejection

Brown (2000, 2007)

Emphasized cultural identity and emotional influences.

Colleen Ward
‘‘ABCs of Acculturation,’’ (2001)
1.​ Affective Acculturation
2.​ Behavioral Acculturation
3.​ Cognitive Acculturation

Lantolf & Thorne (2006)

Applied Sociocultural Theory (social interaction in learning).

Dörnyei (2010)
Focused on learner autonomy and motivation beyond acculturation.
SCHUMANN’S ACCULTURATION
MODEL
ROBERT SCHUMANN’S ACCULTURATION MODEL

Schumann 1978
● Introduced in 1978, explains how social and psychological elements influence the
second language learning of a learner, especially for ethnic minorities, immigrants,
and those acquiring a new language in a dominant language environment.
● Refers to how well learners adjust to the culture associated with the target language.

TWO VARIABLES THAT COULD INFLUENCE LEARNERS’

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND ACCULTURATION
● Social Variables
- the degree of social distance for SL learners in the target language, in which the
social distance is the learners’ position to acquire the target language and
group or to become part of the target language group Schumann, 1978.

● Psychological Variables
- the way that individuals respond to language learning conditions, which is
also known as (also known as) affective factors Ushioda, 1993.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL DISTANCE

1. Social Dominance Patterns - The native language learners' reference group can either
be superior, inferior, or equal in terms of politics, culture, or economics. If they view
their group as superior, they may not learn the second language.
2. Integration Strategies
- Assimilative learners give up their native language values and
lifestyles.
- Preservative learners keep qnative language values and lifestyles.
- Adaptive learners become bicultural and switch depending on the group.
3. Enclosure - When groups Degree of shared social and physical facilities of
learners), enclosure is low. This supports language learning.
4. Intended Length of Residency - Length of time a learner plans to stay in the country
and the permanency of residency in the country can impact motivation to learn a new
language.
5. Cohesiveness - Strong intragroup the learner's level of contact in the native language
community (and outside the community) with few contacts outside the community impacts
second language learning.
 6. Size - The size of the native language community may impact L2 learning.
7. Cultural Congruence - The similarity and harmony between the cultures impact
second language learning.
8. Attitudes - The feelings of learners of the reference groups toward each other’s
[impact] learning.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTANCE

1. Motivation - Level of motivation affects learning.
2q. Cultural Shock - Being anxiety or disorientation in the culture equates to less likely to
learn.
3. Ego-permeability - The extent to which second language learners view their first
language as fixed and rigid will impact their learning of the second language.
4. Language Shock - Feeling silly (anxiety or confusion) about trying to learn the
language equates to less likelihood to learn.

Evelyn Hatch’s Interactional Approach 1978

● Emphasizes the role of social interaction in second language acquisition.
● Evelyn Hatch's interactional approach emphasizes the importance of interaction and
negotiation of meaning in SLA. It suggests that learners acquire language through
communicative interactions, where they actively participate in conversations and resolve
communication breakdowns. This negotiation of meaning provides valuable opportunities
for learners to receive feedback, clarify misunderstandings, and refine their language
use.

Gardner’s Motivation Theory 1985, 2001

● Robert Gardner’s research on motivation aligns with Schumann’s concept of acculturation.
Gardner 1985, 2001 introduced the Socio-Educational Model, which distinguishes
between integrative motivation (desire to integrate into a new culture) and instrumental
motivation (learning a language for practical benefits). He demonstrated that learners
with higher integrative motivation tend to develop stronger second-language
proficiency, supporting (supported Schumann’s view on psychological distance Gardner,
1985, 2001.

Bialystok and Ryan’s Knowledge and Control Dimensions Model 1985

● This model posits that language learning involves the interplay of two types of knowledge:
● Declarative Knowledge: Explicit knowledge of language rules and facts. This is the
"knowing that" aspect of language, such as understanding grammatical rules or
vocabulary definitions.
● Procedural Knowledge: Implicit knowledge of how to use language. This is the "knowing
how" aspect, such as being able to speak fluently or write grammatically correct sentences
without consciously thinking about the rules.

Anderson’s Nativization and Denativization Model 1993

● Anderson's cognitive dimension contributed to Schumann's model by introducing the
concepts of nativization and denativization.
● Nativization: A process of assimilation where L2 input is modified to align with the
learner's L1 knowledge. It occurs in the early stages of SLA. This means that learners tend
to use their existing language knowledge as a foundation for understanding and
producing the new language.
● Denativization: A process of adaptation where the learner's L1 knowledge is modified
to accommodate L2 input. This occurs in the later stages of SLA. As learners become
more proficient, they adapt their L1 knowledge to better fit the rules and structures
of the L2.

John Berry 1997, 2001

● Assimilation: when individuals adopt the cultural norms of a dominant or host culture,
over their original culture.
● Separation: when individuals reject the dominant or host culture in favor of preserving
their culture of origin. Separation is often facilitated by (e. g., immigration to ethnic enclaves. ●
Integration: when individuals are able to adopt the cultural norms of the dominant or host
culture while maintaining their culture of origin.
● Marginalization: when individuals reject both their culture of origin and the dominant
host culture.
● Berry's model suggests that integration is often the most successful strategy, while
marginalization is the least successful. The other two strategies, assimilation and
separation, fall in between. Regardless, his idea about acculturation was important
because it recognized that people from different cultures can live together and that
individuals have a choice in how much they want to adapt to a new culture.

Brown 2000, 2007

● Emphasized cultural identity and emotional influences.
● H. Douglas Brown emphasized the role of cultural identity, affective factors, and language
ego in second-language learning. Brown 2000, 2007 expanded on Schumann’s model by
incorporating the Affective Filter Hypothesis, which states that emotions such as
anxiety and self-confidence influence language learning success Brown, 2000, 2007.
Colleen Ward 2001
● ‘‘ABCs of Acculturation’’
● Affective Acculturation: changes in emotions, feelings, and attitudes towards the host
culture and one's own culture.
● Behavioral Acculturation: changes in behavior, habits, and daily routines as individuals
adapt to the host culture.
● Cognitive Acculturation: changes in thoughts, beliefs, and knowledge about the host
culture and one's own culture.

Dörnyei 2010
● Emphasized motivation and learner autonomy, shifting the focus from acculturation to
individual agency in language learning.
Tab 8
TWO VARIABLES THAT COULD INFLUENCE LEARNERS’
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND ACCULTURATION

1. Social Variables

●​ These refer to the social distance between the learner and the community that speaks
the second language (L2).​

●​ Social distance means how close or distant the learner feels from the L2 group —
socially, culturally, or politically.​

●​ If the learner feels included, welcomed, and connected, they’re more likely to learn
the language and adapt to the culture.​

●​ If they feel separated or rejected, learning and acculturation are harder.​

Schumann (1978) emphasized that the more socially distant a learner is, the more
difficult it is to become part of the target language group and learn the language.

2. Psychological Variables

●​ These are about the learner’s internal response to the process of learning a new
language.​

●​ They include motivation, anxiety, self-confidence, attitude, and emotional

readiness.​

●​ A learner with positive affective factors (like high motivation and low anxiety) will
usually learn better and adapt more easily.​

●​ Learners who feel stressed, unmotivated, or insecure may struggle more.​

Ushioda (1993) referred to these as affective factors—emotions and attitudes that

influence how someone deals with the challenge of language learning.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL DISTANCE

1. Social Dominance Patterns

This refers to how the learner's group compares to the group that speaks the second language
(L2) — politically, economically, or culturally.

●​ If learners see their own group as superior, they might resist learning the new
language.​

●​ If they feel equal or inferior, they may be more open to learning it.​

2. Integration Strategies

These are the ways learners adapt to the new culture:

●​ Assimilative: Learners completely adopt the new culture and language, giving up their
own.​

●​ Preservative: Learners keep their original culture and language, not adapting much.​

●​ Adaptive: Learners balance both cultures, switching depending on context (bicultural).​

3. Enclosure

This refers to how separated or integrated the learner’s group is from the rest of society.

●​ If there's low enclosure (shared spaces, institutions, social interactions), it's easier to
learn the new language.​

4. Intended Length of Residency

How long learners plan to stay in the new country affects motivation.

●​ Long-term or permanent residents are usually more motivated to learn the language.​

●​ Short-term residents might not see the need.​

5. Cohesiveness

If learners are closely connected within their own group and have few contacts outside,
they may not feel the need to use or learn the second language.

6. Size of the Group

A large native language community can provide everything the learner needs, reducing the
pressure to learn the second language.

●​ Smaller groups might need to interact more with the larger society, encouraging
language learning.​

7. Cultural Congruence

When the learner’s culture is similar to the new culture, it’s easier to adjust and learn the
language.

●​ Big cultural differences may create barriers.​

8. Attitudes

The attitudes learners and the host community have toward each other really matter.

●​ Positive attitudes lead to better learning experiences.​

●​ Negative feelings can create resistance or anxiety.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTANCE

1. Motivation

●​ The stronger the motivation, the better the learner is likely to do.​

●​ If someone really wants or needs to learn the language (for work, relationships,
survival, etc.), they’re more likely to succeed.​

2. Culture Shock

●​ This is the stress, confusion, or anxiety someone feels when adjusting to a new
culture.​

●​ The stronger the culture shock, the harder it is to focus on language learning. It can
distract or discourage learners.​

3. Ego-Permeability

●​ This means how open or flexible someone is with their identity and native language.​

●​ Learners who see their first language or identity as rigid and unchangeable may resist
learning a new one.​

●​ Those with more flexible egos are more open to trying, making mistakes, and learning.​

4. Language Shock
 ●​ This is the embarrassment, confusion, or discomfort someone feels when speaking a
new language.​

●​ If learners feel awkward, silly, or anxious trying to speak, they might avoid using the
new language, which slows learning.

Anderson’s Nativization and Denativization Model 1993

🌟 Context: Anderson + Schumann

●​ Schumann focused on the social and psychological distance affecting language
learning.​

●​ Anderson added a cognitive perspective, explaining how learners mentally process

new language input.​

●​ He introduced two key stages: Nativization and Denativization.​

🔹 1. Nativization (Early Stage)

●​ Think of it as the learner shaping the new language (L2) to fit what they already
know from their first language (L1).​

●​ It’s a form of assimilation.​

●​ Learners modify the L2 input to make it more familiar or comfortable, using their L1 as
a reference point.​

🧠 Example:​
A Spanish speaker learning English might say “He has 25 years” instead of “He is 25 years
old”, because that structure matches Spanish (Él tiene 25 años).

➡️ Why it happens: In the beginning, learners rely heavily on their first language to make
sense of the second one.

🔹 2. Denativization (Later Stage)

 ●​ This is the reverse process — learners start adjusting their L1-based habits to align
better with the rules of the L2.​

●​ It’s a form of accommodation.​

●​ As they become more proficient, learners begin to think more in the new language and
adapt their mental language framework.​

🧠 Example:​
That same Spanish speaker eventually stops saying “He has 25 years” and correctly says “He
is 25 years old”, realizing that English doesn’t follow the same logic as Spanish.

➡️ Why it happens: The learner's brain is now more tuned into the unique features of the
second language and lets go of first-language interference.

🔁 Summary:
Stage Name Description Learner Behavior

Early Nativization Adjusting L2 to fit L1 “Forces” L2 to match familiar L1

structures

Later Denativization Adjusting L1 Accepts and uses L2 structures as

framework to fit L2 they are
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
PTLAL

Language Theories: Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

Lev Vygotsky – Russian psychologist

●​ Developed: Sociocultural theory of cognitive development = fundamental role of social

interaction in the development of cognition​

●​ Fundamental role of the social environment in language acquisition​

Sociocultural Theory = Introduced in the 1920s and further elaborated in his book: Thought
and Language (1934)

​
His work was largely unpublished in the West until the late 20th century when it gained
widespread recognition.

Social Development Theory = Child's cognitive development and learning ability can be
guided and mediated by their social interactions.

Sociocultural Theory = States that learning is crucially a social process as opposed to an

independent journey of discovery.

Three Central Factors of Cognitive Development

1.​ Culture – Vygotsky believed in the crucial role played in the cognitive development of
children.​

2.​ Social Interaction – Vygotsky gave more weight to the social interactions that
contributed to the cognitive level of individuals.​

3.​ Language – Opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have.​

Key Concepts of Vygotsky's Theory

1.​ Social Interaction and Learning – Vygotsky argued that cognitive development is
largely a result of social interaction.​
 2.​ The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) – Refers to someone who has a higher level of
understanding or expertise than the learner.​

3.​ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) – The gap between what the learner can do
independently and what they can achieve with guidance and support.​

4.​ Scaffolding – Temporary support provided by an MKO to help a child learn a new
concept or skill.​

5.​ Language and Thought –​

Language plays a crucial role in cognitive development.​
Thought and language are initially separate systems but merge as children develop.​

6.​ Cultural Tools and Mediation – Emphasized the importance of cultural tools (e.g.,
language, symbols, and technology) in shaping cognition.​

Revisionists and their Revision:

1.​ Jerome Bruner (1960s–1970s): Introduced the concept of scaffolding in relation to

Vygotsky's ZPD, emphasizing structured learning support that is gradually withdrawn as
the learner gains independence.​

2.​ Barbara Rogoff (1980s–1990s): Applied Vygotsky's ideas to cultural psychology,

emphasizing how cognitive development varies across different cultures and how social
institutions shape learning.​

3.​ James Wertsch (1990s–2000s): Expanded the role of mediated action in learning,
exploring how tools, symbols, and communication shape cognitive development.
Tab 11
Three Central Factors of Cognitive
Development (According to Vygotsky)
1.​ Culture​
Vygotsky believed that culture plays a crucial role in children's cognitive development.
Culture provides the tools (such as language, writing systems, counting systems, and
social norms) that shape the way individuals think and learn. Through cultural traditions,
practices, and technologies, children learn how to think and what to think about. Every
culture passes down its specific ways of solving problems, understanding the world, and
communicating.​

2.​ Social Interaction​

Vygotsky emphasized that learning is fundamentally a social process. He believed that
cognitive development happens first on a social level (between people) and later on an
individual level (within the child). Children learn new ideas, skills, and ways of thinking
through interactions with parents, teachers, peers, and other members of society.
Without these social interactions, the full development of higher mental functions (like
reasoning and problem-solving) would be limited.​

3.​ Language​
Language is a critical tool for cognitive development. It allows learners to access the
knowledge and experiences of others. Through speaking, listening, reading, and writing,
children can internalize complex ideas and concepts that others have already mastered.
Vygotsky argued that language is the main means by which social interaction happens,
and therefore the main pathway for learning and development.​

Key Concepts of Vygotsky's Theory

1.​ Social Interaction and Learning​
Vygotsky stated that learning leads to development. Cognitive abilities are constructed
through collaborative dialogues with more skilled individuals. Social interaction is not just
helpful — it is essential for cognitive growth.​

2.​ The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)​

An MKO is anyone who has a better understanding or higher ability level than the
learner with respect to a particular task or concept. This could be a teacher, a parent, a
 peer, or even a tool like a computer program. The MKO provides guidance and
examples that help the learner progress.​

3.​ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)​

The ZPD is the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can do
with assistance from an MKO. According to Vygotsky, real learning happens in this zone
— tasks that are too easy don't promote development, and tasks that are too hard are
discouraging.​

4.​ Scaffolding​
Scaffolding is the temporary support provided by the MKO to help the learner
accomplish a task within the ZPD. As the learner becomes more skilled, the support is
gradually removed until the learner can perform the task independently.​

5.​ Language and Thought​

Initially, language and thought develop independently. As children grow, these two
systems merge. Private speech (talking to oneself) is a critical stage in this process — it
helps children plan activities and solve problems. Eventually, this becomes inner speech
(thinking silently), which is central to advanced cognitive processes.​

6.​ Cultural Tools and Mediation​

Cultural tools (like language, symbols, maps, and technology) are used to mediate and
shape cognitive processes. These tools are passed from one generation to the next and
fundamentally influence how individuals think and interact with their environment.
Vygotsky believed that cognitive development cannot be fully understood without
considering the cultural context.​

1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Definition:

●​ The ZPD is the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can do
with guidance or collaboration.​

●​ It's the range of tasks that the learner can perform with assistance but cannot yet do
on their own.​

Example:
 ●​ A child can solve simple addition problems independently, but they need help to solve
more complex problems. The ZPD is the space between what they can do (simple
addition) and what they can achieve with support (complex addition problems).​

Key Focus:

●​ The potential for learning with the right level of guidance or interaction.​

2. More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)

Definition:

●​ The MKO is anyone who has a higher level of understanding or expertise than the
learner in a specific area. This could be a teacher, parent, peer, or even a tool (like an
instructional video).​

●​ The MKO helps bridge the gap between what the learner can do independently and
what they can achieve with guidance.​

Example:

●​ A teacher is the MKO for a student learning to solve math problems. The teacher has
more knowledge and can guide the student through the steps they need to learn.​

Key Focus:

●​ The person or resource providing the expertise and support to help the learner bridge
the ZPD gap.​

3. Scaffolding

Definition:

●​ Scaffolding refers to the temporary support provided by an MKO to help the learner
perform tasks within their ZPD.​
 ●​ As the learner becomes more competent, the MKO gradually removes the support until
the learner can do the task independently.​

Example:

●​ When teaching a child to ride a bike, the parent may initially hold the bike steady
(scaffolding). As the child gains confidence and balance, the parent gradually lets go,
offering less and less support.​

Key Focus:

●​ The process of providing and gradually removing support to help the learner master
a new skill.​

4. Social Interaction and Learning

Definition:

●​ Social Interaction and Learning is the idea that cognitive development is primarily
a result of social interaction.​

●​ Vygotsky emphasized that learning is a collaborative process and that children learn
best when they engage with others (teachers, peers, etc.).​

Example:

●​ A group of students working together on a science project. They discuss ideas, explain
concepts to each other, and solve problems together. Through these social
interactions, their cognitive skills develop.​

Key Focus:

●​ The role of social interactions in learning, and how collaboration and communication
with others contribute to cognitive development.​

Key Differences:
 Concept Focus Example

ZPD (Zone of The gap between what the learner A child can solve 1-digit
Proximal can do independently vs. with help. problems but needs help with
Development) 2-digit ones.

MKO (More The person or resource that A teacher helping a student solve
Knowledgeable provides guidance to help the math problems.
Other) learner bridge their ZPD.

Scaffolding The temporary support provided A teacher offering hints for a

by the MKO to help the learner math problem, then gradually
master a task, with support reducing the help as the student
gradually removed. becomes more confident.

Social Interaction The collaborative process in A group of students working

and Learning which learning occurs through together on a science project and
interaction with others. learning from each other.

Summary of Key Differences:

●​ ZPD is about the range of tasks the learner can perform with or without help.​

●​ MKO is the person or resource providing guidance within the ZPD.​

●​ Scaffolding is the support given by the MKO to help the learner accomplish tasks
within the ZPD.​

●​ Social Interaction and Learning is the overarching idea that learning is a social
process, and that interacting with others (MKO or peers) is essential for cognitive
development.​
Krashen's Input Hypotthesis
Language Theories: Krashen’s Monitor Model (Input Hypothesis)

Introduction

●​ Krashen’s Monitor Model Theory consists of five hypotheses that deal with the
acquisition-learning distinction, the natural order of acquisition, how learning monitors
acquisition, how we acquire language, and how affective factors affect the acquisition.​

●​ It is called the "natural approach" to language learning, where the emphasis is on

exposure, or comprehensible input.​

The Five Hypotheses of Monitor Model

1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

●​ Acquisition is a subconscious/informal process.​

●​ Learning is a conscious/formal process.​

2. The Natural Order Hypothesis

●​ This hypothesis states that grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order.
For example, the following chart shows the order in which people learning English as a
second language acquire grammatical morphemes:​
​
a) ing (progressive)​
b) plural​
c) coupla (to be)​
d) auxiliary (progressive)​
e) article (a, the)​
f) irregular past​
g) regular past​
h) third person singular (s)​
 i) possessive ('s)​

3. The Monitor Hypothesis

●​ The monitor hypothesis maintains that conscious learning can function only as a
monitor or editor that checks and repairs the output of the acquired system. This means
that we may call upon learned knowledge to correct ourselves when we communicate.​

●​ Three conditions limit the successful use of the monitor:

a) Time: There must be sufficient time for a learner to choose and apply a learned rule.​
b) Focus on form: The language user must be focused on correctness or on the form
of the output.​
c) Knowledge of rules: The performer must know the rules. (Krashen, 1982)​

4. The Input Hypothesis

●​ Humans acquire language by understanding messages or by receiving comprehensible

input.​

●​ They move from i, their current level, to i+1, the next level along the natural order, by
understanding language containing i+1.​

●​ Here the structure is i + 1, where i represents, as stated above, the current level of
competence, and 1 represents the new input that is to be added with i.​

●​ The following figure is a representation of the process: i + 1 → current level of

competence + new input.​

5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis

●​ The affective filter is a part of the internal processing system. It subconsciously screens
incoming language based on affective factors such as the acquirer's motives, attitudes,
and emotional states.​
 ●​ When learners are relaxed and motivated, the "affective filter" is low, allowing more input
to be processed.​

Implications for teachers' roles, learners' roles, teaching method, and

classroom environment

a. Implications for Teacher’s Role

●​ Teachers' roles include organizing class activities, facilitating acquisition processes, and
the explanation of language input.​

●​ Teachers have to modify their language to meet the need of classroom teaching.​

●​ Teachers can use simple vocabulary and less complex syntactic structures, slower
speech rate, and provide comprehensible input for learners.​

b. Implications for Learner’s Role

●​ Learners are largely responsible for their learning. They have to put emphasis on the
primacy of meaning rather than on form.​

●​ Since communication is the primary function of language, they have to be frequently

engaged in meaningful communication to grasp language.​

●​ Krashen and Terrell (1983) hold that acquisition can take place only when people
understand messages in the target language.​

c. Implications for Teaching Method

●​ The traditional teacher-centered teaching method does not contribute to effective

learning.​

●​ Learners need to actively notice and choose the outside information according to the
proceeding cognitive structure and construct the meaning.​
 ●​ Therefore, learners should be made to actively take part in class activities based on
a learner-centered teaching method.​

d. Implications for Classroom Environment

●​ Classroom environment is required to be optimal. It must be conducive to a low affective

filter (i.e., high motivation, low anxiety, etc.).​

●​ It needs to create a supportive atmosphere so that learners can feel relaxed.​

●​ To provide sufficient input, multimedia technology can be used in the class.​

Tab 13
Krashen's Monitor Model (Input Hypothesis)

Stephen Krashen's Monitor Model is one of the most influential theories in language
acquisition, particularly in second language learning. The model posits that there are specific
elements of how we learn and acquire language, and it is based on five main hypotheses that
explain different aspects of language acquisition. Krashen emphasizes that language learning
occurs best when the learner is exposed to language that is comprehensible (i.e., slightly
beyond their current level of understanding).

Here’s a breakdown of Krashen’s Monitor Model and its key concepts:

Introduction to Krashen’s Monitor Model Theory:

Krashen's theory is structured around five hypotheses that address the following key areas:

1.​ The acquisition-learning distinction: This is the difference between acquiring a

language subconsciously and learning it consciously.​

2.​ The natural order of acquisition: This refers to the predictable order in which
individuals acquire different grammatical elements of a language.​

3.​ How learning monitors acquisition: This involves the role of learned knowledge in
regulating and correcting language use.​

4.​ How we acquire language: Language acquisition happens through exposure and
understanding of comprehensible input.​

5.​ The effect of affective factors: Motivation, emotional states, and attitudes influence
how successfully a learner acquires language.​

The theory is also known as the "natural approach" to language learning, which places a strong
emphasis on exposure to language and the comprehensibility of the input, rather than
focusing on grammar rules or formal learning.

The Five Hypotheses of the Monitor Model:

1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis:

 ●​ Acquisition refers to a subconscious, informal process of picking up a language
through exposure and use. It’s how we naturally learn languages as children without
being explicitly taught grammar rules.​

●​ Learning, on the other hand, is a conscious, formal process in which we actively

study and apply rules of grammar, often in a classroom setting.​

In Krashen’s view, acquisition is more important than learning because it leads to more fluent,
natural language use.

2. The Natural Order Hypothesis:

●​ This hypothesis asserts that the order in which we acquire grammatical structures
follows a predictable pattern. For example, learners typically acquire simple structures,
like present progressive (e.g., "I am running"), before more complex ones, like the use of
articles ("a" or "the").​

●​ Krashen lists the order of morpheme acquisition, including elements like plurals, irregular
past tense, and possessive forms (e.g., "s").​

3. The Monitor Hypothesis:

●​ According to this hypothesis, conscious learning can serve only as a monitor or editor
that checks and corrects the language produced by the subconscious acquisition
system. In other words, when we speak or write, we may use learned rules to correct
errors, but these corrections are limited to the rules we’ve consciously learned.​

●​ There are three conditions that affect the effectiveness of the monitor:​

○​ Time: Learners need enough time to think about and apply learned rules.​

○​ Focus on form: The learner must focus on correctness rather than meaning
when using the monitor.​

○​ Knowledge of rules: The learner must know the rules they are applying to
monitor their output.​

This suggests that spontaneous speech is largely driven by acquired language, while
conscious learning plays a role in refining that speech.
4. The Input Hypothesis:

●​ Krashen argues that language acquisition occurs when learners understand language
that is just slightly above their current level, a concept referred to as i+1.​

○​ i represents the learner's current level of competence.​

○​ +1 refers to the next level, which is slightly more challenging but still
comprehensible.​

●​ By receiving comprehensible input (language that learners can understand but is

slightly more advanced than their current level), they can gradually acquire new
structures and vocabulary.​

This hypothesis underscores the importance of exposure to language that learners can
understand and interact with, rather than forcing them to learn language through rote
memorization of rules.

5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis:

●​ The affective filter refers to the emotional factors (like motivation, anxiety, and attitudes)
that affect how we process language.​

●​ If learners are motivated and relaxed, the affective filter is low, allowing more input to
be absorbed and processed.​

●​ Conversely, if learners are anxious or unmotivated, the filter is high, and they may not
effectively absorb language input.​

This highlights the importance of creating a positive and supportive environment for learners,
where they feel comfortable and motivated to engage with the language.

Implications for Teachers' and Learners' Roles, Teaching Methods, and

Classroom Environment:

a. Implications for Teacher’s Role:

 ●​ Teachers are responsible for organizing class activities that facilitate language
acquisition, and for providing comprehensible input that aligns with the learner’s level.​

●​ Teachers should simplify their language, using simpler vocabulary, slower speech, and
clear structures to ensure learners understand.​

●​ Teachers should also create a supportive and low-anxiety environment to help lower
the affective filter and allow for better language absorption.​

b. Implications for Learner’s Role:

●​ Learners should take responsibility for their own learning, focusing on meaning rather
than grammar rules.​

●​ Learners need to engage in meaningful communication, as Krashen suggests that

acquisition happens when learners are focused on understanding messages in the
target language, not on formal rules.​

●​ By understanding language in context (i.e., through exposure and use), learners

acquire it naturally, much like how children learn their first language.​

c. Implications for Teaching Method:

●​ Traditional teacher-centered methods that focus solely on grammar drills are not as
effective for language acquisition.​

●​ Learners need to actively engage with the language through interactive activities,
where they can construct meaning themselves.​

●​ A learner-centered approach that emphasizes communication and exposure to natural

language is more effective.​

d. Implications for Classroom Environment:

●​ The classroom should be a place where learners feel relaxed, supported, and motivated.
This is crucial for maintaining a low affective filter.​
 ●​ To ensure that learners receive enough input, multimedia resources (like videos,
music, and interactive content) can be used to expose learners to varied language input.​

To easily spot which hypothesis applies to a given situation, you can focus on the key themes
of each hypothesis and how they are represented in the scenario. Here’s a simple guide for
recognizing each one in situational contexts:

1. Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

●​ Look for:​

○​ A situation where learners are either acquiring language naturally (through

immersion, exposure, and communication) or consciously learning language
(through formal instruction, rule memorization).​

○​ Key idea: Natural vs. Formal learning.​

●​ Example:​

○​ Acquiring language: A learner is practicing conversational English, and you

notice they don't focus on grammar rules but just try to understand and
communicate.​
 ○​ Learning language: A learner is studying grammar rules and vocabulary from a
textbook, focusing on getting the rules right.​

2. Natural Order Hypothesis

●​ Look for:​

○​ A situation that involves learners acquiring language structures in a predictable

sequence, such as learning easier structures before more complex ones.​

○​ Key idea: Predictable stages of grammatical acquisition (e.g., plural “s” comes
before past tense).​

●​ Example:​

○​ A learner starts using plural forms (dogs) before using articles (a dog) and then
progresses to more complex structures like irregular past tense verbs.​

3. Monitor Hypothesis

●​ Look for:​

○​ A situation where learners are consciously aware of their language use, possibly
focusing on correcting themselves or others during speaking or writing.​

○​ Key idea: Self-correction (using learned rules as a "monitor").​

●​ Example:​

○​ A learner speaks but pauses to self-correct a mistake, such as switching between

tenses during a conversation because they remember a grammar rule they
learned earlier.​

○​ The learner may worry about grammar mistakes when speaking.​

4. Input Hypothesis
 ●​ Look for:​

○​ A situation where learners are exposed to comprehensible input (language that

is just above their current level but still understandable).​

○​ Key idea: Exposure to language that pushes the learner to the next level (i +
1).​

●​ Example:​

○​ A beginner learner is watching a movie in English with subtitles and can

understand the general meaning, even if some words are unfamiliar.​

○​ The learner is reading a text that is slightly more complex than what they already
know, but they can still understand the content.​

5. Affective Filter Hypothesis

●​ Look for:​

○​ A situation where the learner’s emotional state (motivation, anxiety, attitude) is

influencing their ability to acquire language.​

○​ Key idea: Emotions affecting language acquisition—a "low filter" means they
are relaxed, motivated, and open to learning, while a "high filter" means anxiety
or low motivation is blocking learning.​

●​ Example:​

○​ A learner is excited and confident, which helps them pick up language faster.​

○​ A learner feels nervous or stressed, which makes them hesitant to speak or

engage with the language.​

Quick Situational Guide to Recognizing Each Hypothesis:

1.​ Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis:​

 ○​ Look for natural communication or formal grammar learning.​

○​ Focus: Subconscious vs. conscious learning.​

2.​ Natural Order Hypothesis:​

○​ Look for a sequence in language acquisition (easy structures first, complex ones
later).​

○​ Focus: Predictable order of language structures.​

3.​ Monitor Hypothesis:​

○​ Look for self-awareness and self-correction while speaking or writing.​

○​ Focus: Conscious application of learned rules to correct language output.​

4.​ Input Hypothesis:​

○​ Look for comprehensible input that’s just above the learner's level (i+1).​

○​ Focus: Exposure to language slightly beyond current knowledge.​

5.​ Affective Filter Hypothesis:​

○​ Look for emotional factors (motivation, anxiety, etc.) that affect learning.​

○​ Focus: Emotional states influencing language learning (high vs. low affective
filter).​

Example Summary:

●​ Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: A student learns grammar rules in a classroom

(learning) and then speaks casually with friends, focusing on communication
(acquisition).​

●​ Natural Order Hypothesis: A learner starts using basic plural forms first and then
moves on to irregular past tense verbs after some time.​
 ●​ Monitor Hypothesis: A learner tries to self-correct errors while speaking, thinking about
grammar rules they’ve learned.​

●​ Input Hypothesis: A learner watches a TV show in English and understands the

meaning, even though they don’t know all the words.​

●​ Affective Filter Hypothesis: A learner is too anxious to participate in class, preventing

them from effectively absorbing new language.​

I hope this makes it easier for you to identify the hypotheses in real-world situations! Let me
know if you need more examples or clarification!
Approaches
The Silent Way
Caleb Gattegno​
First introduced by Gattegno in 1963 in his book Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The
Silent Way

Theories Related to the Silent Way

Theory Proponent Core Idea How It Relates to the
Silent Way

Constructivism Piaget and Learners build Learners discover

Bruner knowledge through language rules
experience independently

Cognitive Theory Gagné Learning involves Encourages reflection,

internal mental analysis, and mental
processes engagement

Humanism and Rogers and Emphasis on the whole Prioritizes learner

Hierarchy of Needs Maslow person, emotions, independence, emotional
autonomy safety

Discovery Learning Bruner Learners learn best Learners solve problems

through self-discovery and find patterns
themselves

Educational Influence of the Silent Way to Language

Teaching
●​ Minimizing Teacher Verbalization
●​ Task-Based Learning
●​ Peer Correction Techniques

Methods Related to the Approach

●​ Sound Introduction
●​ Word Formation
●​ Contextual Situations
Techniques of Teaching the Method
Traditional Techniques:

●​ Fidel Charts
●​ Rod Stories
●​ Silent Modeling

Contemporary Techniques:

●​ Digital Sound Boards

●​ Augmented Reality Rods
●​ Collaborative Whiteboards

"Tell me and I forget, teach me and I remember, involve me and I learn." - Benjamin
Franklin

Suggestopedia
Developed by Bulgarian psychiatrist Dr. Georgi Lozanov in the 1970s, it was derived from
Suggestology, known as the scientific study of suggestion (Bancroft, 1976). It uniquely
integrates music, visual imagery, and relaxation techniques to create a more comfortable and
effective learning experience (Rustipa, 2011).

Theories Related to Suggestopedia

Theory Proponent Core Idea How It Relates to
Suggestopedia

Suggestology Lozanov Positive suggestion Uses music, tone, and

improves learning setting to suggest
potential confidence

Affective Filter Krashen Emotions affect how Creates low-anxiety

Hypothesis well learners absorb environments
input

Baroque Music Lozanov's team Music can induce Uses music during
and Brain Waves (inspired by relaxed alertness and reading to boost
neuroscience) aid memory retention
Educational Influence of the Suggestopedia to Language
Teaching
●​ Affective Filter Reduction
●​ Role-Play and Drama
●​ Use of Music and Art
●​ Teacher as Facilitator, Not Authority

Methods Related to the Approach

●​ Deciphering (Understanding New Material)
●​ Concert Sessions (Active and Passive Learning)
●​ Elaboration (Practice and Reinforcement)
●​ Production (Spontaneous Language Use)

Techniques of Teaching the Method

Traditional Techniques:

●​ Active Listening
●​ Audiolingualism
●​ Use of Classical Music

Contemporary Techniques:

●​ Expressive Readings
●​ Integration of Technology
●​ Gamification

CLIL / CBI - Content-Based Instruction (CBI)

/and Content and Language Integrated Learning
(CLIL)
Prof. Do Coyle and Dr. David Marsh​
CLIL emerged in Europe during the 1980s as a response to the increasing need for bilingual
education and multilingualism within the European Union (Tudor, 2008). The term CLIL was
formally introduced in the 1990s and is often associated with teaching through the medium of
English (Dalton-Puffer et al., 2010).
Theories Related to CLIL/CBI
Theory Proponent Core Idea How It Relates to
CLIL/CBI

Second Language Krashen Language is acquired CLIL/CBI provides

Acquisition (SLA) through meaningful, rich, contextual input
Theory understandable input

Constructivism Piaget and Learners build knowledge Students construct

Bruner through active experience meaning through real
content

Sociocultural Theory Vygotsky Learning is social, supported Learners interact and

(SCT) by interaction and scaffolding collaborate on content
tasks

Educational Influence of the CLIL/CBI on Language

Teaching
●​ Promotes Deeper Learning Through Real-World Content
●​ Improves Language Proficiency and Fluency
●​ Redefines the Role of the Teacher
●​ Prepares Students for Global Competence

Promotes Deeper Learning Through Real-World Content

●​ Language is not taught in isolation but is used as a tool to explore real topics.

Improves Language Proficiency and Fluency

●​ Learners are exposed to rich, contextualized input while actively using the language to learn new
ideas.

Redefines the Role of the Teacher

●​ Teachers act more as facilitators and content guides, not just language instructors.
Prepares Students for Global Competence

●​ Strengthens thinking skills (analysis, synthesis, evaluation)

Methods Related to CLIL/CBI

●​ Language Support Strategies
●​ Integrated Skills Methods
●​ Assessment for Learning
●​ 4Cs Framework

Techniques of Teaching the Method

Traditional Techniques:

●​ Immersion Teaching
●​ Task-Based Learning
●​ Theme-Based Instruction
●​ Explicit Language Teaching

Contemporary Techniques:

●​ Team Teaching
●​ Scaffolding Strategies
●​ Multimedia Integration
●​ Collaborative Learning
Tab 15
 Silent Way

‘Educational Influence of the Silent Way to Language Teaching

●​ Minimizing Teacher Verbalization​

The teacher speaks very little, encouraging learners to actively discover language rules
themselves. This reduces dependence on the teacher and boosts learner autonomy and
engagement.​

●​ Task-Based Learning​
Learning happens through meaningful tasks that require students to use the language practically,
helping them acquire language naturally through problem-solving and communication.​

●​ Peer Correction Techniques​

Students correct each other’s mistakes, promoting collaborative learning and deeper
understanding, while the teacher remains mostly silent.​

Methods Related to the Approach

●​ Sound Introduction​
Sounds of the language are introduced systematically using visual tools, focusing on correct
pronunciation and auditory discrimination.​

●​ Word Formation​
Learners explore how words are built (roots, prefixes, suffixes) using manipulatives like rods,
aiding understanding of language structure.​

●​ Contextual Situations​
Language is taught within meaningful, real-life contexts to make learning relevant and
memorable.​

Techniques of Teaching the Method

Traditional Techniques:

●​ Fidel Charts​
Color-coded charts representing language sounds to teach pronunciation and spelling visually.​

●​ Rod Stories​
Stories created with colored rods to illustrate grammar, vocabulary, and sentence structure
 interactively.​

●​ Silent Modeling​
Teachers model language through gestures and visuals without verbal explanations, prompting
learners to infer meaning.​

Contemporary Techniques:

●​ Digital Sound Boards​

Interactive tools allowing learners to hear and manipulate sounds digitally for better phonetic
learning.​

●​ Augmented Reality Rods​

Physical rods enhanced with AR technology to provide immersive and interactive language
experiences.​

●​ Collaborative Whiteboards​
Digital boards that enable learners to work together on language tasks, encouraging cooperation
and engagement.​

Suggestopedia

Educational Influence of Suggestopedia to Language Teaching

●​ Affective Filter Reduction​

Suggestopedia aims to lower learners’ anxiety and emotional barriers, creating a
relaxed and positive learning environment that enhances language acquisition.​

●​ Role-Play and Drama​

Using theatrical techniques encourages natural language use and helps learners
internalize new structures through acting and improvisation.​

●​ Use of Music and Art​

Incorporates classical music and visual arts to stimulate the brain, improve memory, and
create an enjoyable learning atmosphere.​
 ●​ Teacher as Facilitator, Not Authority​
The teacher guides and supports learners instead of dominating the classroom,
promoting learner confidence and motivation.​

Methods Related to the Approach

●​ Deciphering (Understanding New Material)​

Learners are exposed to new content in a way that encourages curiosity and exploration
without pressure.​

●​ Concert Sessions (Active and Passive Learning)​

Sessions combine active participation with passive listening (often accompanied by
music), helping learners absorb material naturally.​

●​ Elaboration (Practice and Reinforcement)​

Learners practice and deepen understanding through varied, interactive exercises and
activities.​

●​ Production (Spontaneous Language Use)​

Encourages learners to use language spontaneously in meaningful contexts, reinforcing
fluency and confidence.​

Techniques of Teaching the Method

Traditional Techniques:

●​ Active Listening​
Learners listen attentively to language input, often supported by music and rhythmic
elements.​

●​ Audiolingualism​
Repetition and drills help reinforce language patterns, often used alongside
Suggestopedia’s relaxed atmosphere.​

●​ Use of Classical Music​

Classical music is played during sessions to reduce stress and enhance cognitive
functioning.​
Contemporary Techniques:

●​ Expressive Readings​
Dramatic and emotional reading exercises to engage learners and deepen
understanding.​

●​ Integration of Technology​
Using apps, multimedia, and interactive tools to support suggestopedic principles in a
modern context.​

●​ Gamification​
Applying game elements (points, challenges, rewards) to motivate learners and make
language practice enjoyable.​

CLIL / CBI - Content-Based Instruction (CBI)

/and Content and Language Integrated Learning
(CLIL)

Educational Influence of CLIL/CBI on Language Teaching

●​ Promotes Deeper Learning Through Real-World Content​

CLIL/CBI integrates language learning with subject matter, helping learners engage with
meaningful content that enhances both language skills and subject knowledge.​

●​ Improves Language Proficiency and Fluency​

Constant exposure to language in authentic contexts accelerates learners’ proficiency
and ability to use language fluently.​

●​ Redefines the Role of the Teacher​

Teachers act as facilitators and content experts, supporting both language and subject
learning rather than focusing solely on language instruction.​

●​ Prepares Students for Global Competence​

By linking language learning to real-world skills and knowledge, CLIL/CBI equips
students with the communication and critical thinking skills needed in a globalized world.​
Methods Related to CLIL/CBI

●​ Language Support Strategies​

Techniques like vocabulary pre-teaching, visuals, and simplified language help learners
understand content while acquiring language.​

●​ Integrated Skills Methods​

Teaching combines listening, speaking, reading, and writing to reflect natural language
use in academic and real-life contexts.​

●​ Assessment for Learning​

Ongoing formative assessment guides learning by providing feedback, promoting
reflection, and adapting instruction.​

●​ 4Cs Framework​
Focuses on Content, Communication, Cognition, and Culture to ensure balanced
development of language and subject skills.​

Techniques of Teaching the Method

Traditional Techniques:

●​ Immersion Teaching​
Learners are immersed in the language through content lessons, fostering natural
acquisition.​

●​ Task-Based Learning​
Learning through meaningful tasks that integrate content and language goals.​

●​ Theme-Based Instruction​
Language learning is organized around thematic units, linking vocabulary and structures
to relevant topics.​

●​ Explicit Language Teaching​

Targeted teaching of language forms and functions needed to understand and express
content.​

Contemporary Techniques:
 ●​ Team Teaching​
Language and subject teachers collaborate to deliver integrated lessons.​

●​ Scaffolding Strategies​
Providing temporary support (e.g., visuals, graphic organizers) to help learners
understand and use language in content areas.​

●​ Multimedia Integration​
Using videos, interactive software, and online resources to enrich content and language
learning.​

●​ Collaborative Learning​
Encouraging group work and peer interaction to practice language through content
tasks.​

1. The Silent Way (Caleb Gattegno)

Core Idea (Elaborated):​

The Silent Way is built on the principle that learners learn best when they take active control
of their own learning process rather than being passively taught. The teacher minimizes
speaking (“silent”) to encourage students to discover the rules and patterns of the language
independently. Instead of explaining grammar or vocabulary directly, the teacher uses tools like
color-coded charts and objects (rods) to guide students, prompting them to experiment,
self-correct, and internalize the language structures through problem-solving and exploration.
This approach treats learners as active constructors of knowledge, where learning is a personal,
cognitive process. It emphasizes deep mental engagement, reflection, and learner autonomy,
creating a learning environment where students feel emotionally safe to make mistakes and
self-correct. The role of the teacher shifts from an instructor to a facilitator who supports and
scaffolds discovery.

2. Suggestopedia (Dr. Georgi Lozanov)

Core Idea (Elaborated):​

Suggestopedia centers on the belief that learning is significantly enhanced when learners
are in a relaxed, positive, and receptive state of mind. Drawing from the idea of
suggestology, which studies how positive suggestion can influence mental functioning, this
method uses music, comfortable settings, and art to reduce learner anxiety and lower
psychological barriers (the “affective filter”) that block learning. Baroque music, in particular, is
used to create a calm but alert mental state, which is thought to optimize brain wave patterns for
memory and retention. The method integrates active and passive learning phases, where
learners absorb material with less conscious effort and then gradually produce language
spontaneously. The teacher acts more as a guide or facilitator than a traditional authority figure,
helping to create an emotionally supportive atmosphere where learners feel safe and confident
to take risks.

3. CLIL / CBI (Content and Language Integrated Learning / Content-Based

Instruction)

Core Idea (Elaborated):​

CLIL and CBI are based on the idea that language learning is most effective when it is
embedded within meaningful, authentic content learning. Instead of teaching language in
isolation, these approaches integrate language instruction with academic subjects like science,
history, or geography. The belief is that learners acquire language naturally as they engage with
real-world topics and concepts that interest them. This method provides rich, contextualized
language input, making the language more comprehensible and memorable. Moreover, learning
happens through social interaction and collaboration with peers, as learners discuss and solve
content-related tasks. This approach aims not just to teach language, but also to develop critical
thinking, cultural awareness, and content knowledge, preparing learners for global competence.
The teacher’s role involves designing meaningful tasks, supporting language development
through scaffolding, and fostering active learner participation.
techniques
1. Fidel Charts

●​ What they are: Charts that show all the possible spelling–sound correspondences in
a language. For English, they display different ways to pronounce a sound (like /f/ as in
"fun," "phone," etc.).​

●​ How they’re used:​

○​ Color-coded to match the Cuisenaire rods and sound–color chart.​

○​ Students use them to visualize pronunciation and spelling rules.​

●​ Purpose in Silent Way:​

○​ Helps learners develop awareness of phonemic contrasts and orthography.​

○​ Encourages self-correction as students match sounds to symbols.​

2. Rod Stories

●​ What they are: Short narratives or dialogues created using colored rods (Cuisenaire
rods) as props or characters.​

●​ How they’re used:​

○​ The teacher silently models or prompts a scene with rods.​

○​ Students interpret the meaning, describe it, or retell the story in the target
language.​

●​ Purpose in Silent Way:​

○​ Facilitates speaking and structure practice through imaginative interaction.​

○​ Promotes creativity and fluency without teacher-led correction.​

3. Silent Modeling
 ●​ What it is: The teacher demonstrates pronunciation, sentence structure, or grammar
without speaking, using gestures, facial expressions, and tools (charts, rods).​

●​ How it’s used:​

○​ For example, to teach a question form, the teacher may silently indicate
intonation and word order using gestures and pointing at charts.​

●​ Purpose in Silent Way:​

○​ Encourages students to observe, analyze, and reproduce language on their

own.​

○​ Reduces dependency on the teacher’s voice; promotes learner independence

and self-discovery.​

Summary Table:
Technique Tool Used Main Purpose

Fidel Charts Spelling–sound Phonemic awareness, self-correction

charts

Rod Stories Cuisenaire rods Creativity, fluency, structure practice

Silent Modeling Teacher Learner autonomy, focus on form/discovery

gestures/tools

Educational Influence of the Silent Way

The Silent Way, developed by Caleb Gattegno, emphasizes learner autonomy,
self-discovery, and minimal teacher talk. It influenced both traditional and modern language
teaching in the following ways:

Core Principles

1. Minimizing Teacher Verbalization

 ●​ The teacher talks as little as possible.​

●​ Students must observe, hypothesize, and produce language.​

●​ Encourages active learning and student responsibility.​

2. Task-Based Learning

●​ Learning happens through problem-solving and discovery tasks.​

●​ Students are given linguistic challenges to figure out language rules and usage.​

●​ Focus on meaningful language use, not drills.​

3. Peer Correction Techniques

●​ Students are encouraged to correct one another.​

●​ Promotes collaborative learning and critical thinking.​

●​ Builds a non-threatening, cooperative environment.​

Methods Related to the Silent Way

1. Sound Introduction

●​ Uses the sound–color chart to introduce phonemes.​

●​ Students associate colors with sounds to master pronunciation and listening.​

2. Word Formation

●​ Begins with sound recognition, then moves to combining sounds into words.​

●​ Emphasizes understanding how words are built phonetically and morphologically.​

3. Contextual Situations
 ●​ Language is introduced through real-life or imagined contexts.​

●​ Learners understand grammar and vocabulary through situational usage rather than
explanations.​

Techniques of Teaching the Method

Traditional Techniques
Technique Description Purpose

Fidel Charts Color-coded charts showing Supports reading and pronunciation

sound–spelling correspondences

Rod Stories Using rods to create narratives or Develops fluency, storytelling,

grammatical structures grammar awareness

Silent Teacher demonstrates silently using Promotes student observation and

Modeling gestures and tools independent production

Contemporary Techniques (Modern adaptations of Silent Way ideas)

Technique Description

Digital Sound Boards Interactive apps with sound–color mapping and pronunciation
feedback

Augmented Reality AR tools that simulate Cuisenaire rods for story-building and
Rods structure practice

Collaborative Digital boards for peer correction, sentence formation, and

Whiteboards group activities

Summary of Educational Influence

Influence Area Silent Way Contribution

Learner Autonomy Students take charge of their own learning process

Multisensory Learning Use of visual, tactile, and auditory tools

Constructivist Principles Emphasis on discovery, problem-solving

 Peer Learning Encourages interaction and mutual correction

Innovation in Tools Paved the way for creative digital and physical tools

🔹 Methods Related to CLIL/CBI

1. Language Support Strategies

These are tools and approaches that help learners access content in a second language.

●​ Purpose: To make academic content comprehensible while supporting language

development.​

●​ Examples:​

○​ Pre-teaching key vocabulary and phrases.​

○​ Using visual aids (charts, images, realia).​

○​ Employing sentence starters, word banks, and model texts.​

○​ Providing bilingual glossaries or dictionaries.​

○​ Using gestures, body language, and tone to reinforce meaning.​

2. Integrated Skills Methods

This method emphasizes the use of all four language skills in meaningful contexts.
 ●​ Purpose: To reflect authentic language use by combining reading, writing, speaking, and
listening.​

●​ Examples:​

○​ A science project that includes reading articles, discussing findings, writing a

report, and giving a presentation.​

○​ Role plays and debates based on historical events.​

○​ Listening to podcasts and writing responses or summaries.​

3. Assessment for Learning (AfL)

Assessment becomes an active tool for student learning, not just a grading mechanism.

●​ Purpose: To inform instruction and support student progress in both language and
content.​

●​ Strategies:​

○​ Continuous feedback from teachers and peers.​

○​ Rubrics that assess both content mastery and language use.​

○​ Formative tools like quizzes, concept maps, reflective journals.​

○​ Exit tickets or one-minute papers to check understanding.​

4. 4Cs Framework (by Coyle, 1999)

A core framework in CLIL that integrates Content, Communication, Cognition, and Culture.

●​ Content: Subject matter (e.g., science, math).​

●​ Communication: Language used to access and express subject knowledge.​

●​ Cognition: Thinking skills used to understand and apply knowledge.​

 ●​ Culture: Awareness and appreciation of different cultures and perspectives,
encouraging global citizenship.​

🔹 Techniques of Teaching the Method

Traditional Techniques

1. Immersion Teaching

Students are "immersed" in the target language through content instruction.

●​ Purpose: To simulate natural language acquisition by using the target language for all
instruction.​

●​ Example: A history class taught entirely in English to non-native speakers, without

translation.​

2. Task-Based Learning (TBL)

Learners use language as a tool to complete meaningful tasks.

●​ Purpose: To promote real-world communication and problem-solving.​

●​ Example: Students plan a school event, requiring them to write invitations, make
posters, and give presentations.​

3. Theme-Based Instruction

A thematic unit connects various subjects under one umbrella topic.

●​ Purpose: To integrate content areas and language skills around a central theme.​
 ●​ Example: A “Climate Change” unit that spans science (effects), geography (global
impact), and language arts (persuasive writing).​

4. Explicit Language Teaching

Direct instruction in grammar, vocabulary, and language forms related to the content.

●​ Purpose: To support learners who need help with the academic language of the subject.​

●​ Example: Teaching the passive voice while studying scientific processes.​

Contemporary Techniques

1. Team Teaching

Two or more teachers collaborate—often one content expert and one language teacher.

●​ Purpose: To combine expertise in subject matter and language pedagogy.​

●​ Example: A biology teacher partners with an English teacher to co-teach a unit on

ecosystems.​

2. Scaffolding Strategies

Temporary support is given to students and gradually removed as competence increases.

●​ Purpose: To guide students from their current level to more advanced understanding.​

●​ Examples:​

○​ Breaking complex tasks into smaller steps.​

○​ Using visual organizers, sentence frames, or checklists.​

 ○​ Modeling tasks before expecting independent student output.​

3. Multimedia Integration

Use of audio-visual, digital, and interactive tools to enhance content and language learning.

●​ Purpose: To provide engaging, multimodal input and support differentiated learning.​

●​ Examples:​

○​ Educational videos, simulations, podcasts.​

○​ Digital storytelling, virtual labs, language-learning apps.​

4. Collaborative Learning

Students work together to solve problems, complete tasks, or create projects.

●​ Purpose: To build both social and academic skills through peer interaction.​

●​ Examples:​

○​ Group research projects.​

○​ Think-pair-share activities.​

○​ Literature circles or discussion groups.​

Tab 20
The Critical Period Hypothesis: The Younger the Better?

THE CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS

• Also called as "Sensitive Period" for language acquisition.
• It is a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired more easily and
beyond which time language is increasingly difficult to acquire.
• The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) claims that there is such a biological timetable.

(SINGLETON & RYAN, 2004; CLARK, 2009)

• Pathological studies of children who failed to acquire their Ll, or aspects thereof, became fuel
for arguments of biologically determined predispositions

(BIRDSONG, 1999; SCOVEL, 2000; HYLTENSTAM & ABRAHAMSSON, 2003 ; MOYER,

2004; SINGLETON & RYAN, 2004; 1OUP, 2005; MUÑO& SINGLETON, 2011; SINGLETON &
MUÑOZ, 2011)
• In recent years, a plethora of research has appeared on the possible applications of the CPH
to L2 contexts. The classic argument is that a critical point for second language acquisition
occurs around puberty, beyond which people seem to be relatively incapable of acquiring a
second language.

NEUROBIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
(Obler & Gjerlow, 1999; Schumann et al., 2004; Singleton & Ryan, 2004; Muñoz & Singleton,
2011)
• One of the most interesting areas of inquiry in age and acquisition research has been the
study of the function of the brain in the process of acquisition

HEMISPHERIC LATERALIZATION
• Several decades ago, researchers were favoring lateralization of the brain as the key to
answering such a question.
• There is evidence in neurological research that as the human brain matures, certain functions
are assigned, or "lateralized," to the left hemisphere of the brain, and certain other functions
to the right hemisphere.
• Intellectual, logical, and analytic functions appear to be largely located in the left hemisphere,
while the right hemisphere controls functions related to emotional and social needs.

LEFT HEMISPHERE AND RIGHT HEMISPHERE

(ZANGWILL, 1971, P. 220)
• Language functions appear to be controlled primarily, but not exclusively, in the left
hemisphere, although there is a good deal of conflicting evidence.
• For example, patients who have had left hemispherectomies or left hemisphere injuries have
been capable of comprehending and producing some language.

SCOVEL (1969)
• Suggested that the plasticity of the brain prior to puberty enables children to acquire not only
their first language but also a second language, and that possibly it is the very accomplishment
of lateralization that makes it difficult for people to easily acquire fluent control of a second
language.

BIOLOGICAL TIMETABLES
Thomas Scovel's (1988)
• He concluded that the development of a socially bonding accent at puberty enables species to:
(1) form an identity with their own community as they anticipate roles of parenting and
leadership, and
(2) attract mates of "their own kind" in an instinctive drive to maintain their own species.

Scovel (1988)
• Concluded that native accents, and therefore
"foreign" accents after puberty, may be a genetic leftover that, in our widespread human
practice of mating across dialectal, linguistic, and racial barriers, is no longer necessary for the
preservation of the human species.
• "In other words," explained Scovel, "an accent emerging after puberty is the price we pay for
our preordained ability to be articulate apes"

Walsh and Diller (1981)

• Proposed that different aspects of an L2 are learned optimally at different ages.
• LOWER-ORDER - processes such as pronunciation are dependent on early-maturing brain
functions, making foreign accents difficult to overcome after childhood.
• HIGHER-ORDER - language functions, such as semantic relations, are more dependent on
late-maturing neural circuits, which may explain the efficiency of adult learning.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Ortega (2009)
Some adults have been known to acquire an authentic accent in a second language after the
age of puberty, but such individuals are exceptional.

Anthropologist Jane Hill (1970)

Cited research on non-Western societies that suggested that adults can, in the normal course
of their lives, acquire second languages perfectly.
THINGS TO REMEMBER:
Hill (1970)
Language acquisition processes in largely monolingual societies are anything but universal.

(Morris & Gerstman, 1986; Flege, 1987; Moyer, 2004; Long, 2001; Muñoz and Singleton,
2011)
Has pointed to a multitude of cognitive, motivational, affective, social, psychological, and
strategic variables affecting the ultimate attainment of proficiency in an L2.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ACCENT

• The emergence of what we commonly call "foreign accent" is of some importance in our
arguments about age and acquisition.
• In the middle decades of the twentieth century, research on the acquisition of so-called
authentic (nativelike) control of the phonology of a foreign language supported the notion of a
critical period ending at puberty.

• English users are well acquainted with the concept of

"World Englishes," in which many so-called native speakers of English are perceived as
having
"foreign" accents.
• Bongaerts et al. (1995) found results that suggested certain learner characteristics and
contexts may work together to override the disadvantages of a late start.

• Slavoff and Johnson (1995) found that younger children (ages seven to nine) did not have a
particular advantage in rate of learning over older (ten to twelve-year-old) children. Studies on
the effects of Universal Grammar.

• Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson (2003) reminded us of the positive side of the miracle of
second language acquisition: "More surprising, we would like to claim, are the miraculous levels
of proficiency that second language learners (at all ages) in fact can reach, despite the
constraints that are imposed by our biological scheduling"
• Perhaps, in our everyday encounters with second language users, we are too quick to criticize
the "failure" of adult second language learners by nitpicking at minor pronunciation points or non
intrusive grammatical errors.

• Cook (1995) warned against "using native accent as the yardstick" (p. 55) in our penchant for
holding up monolingualism as the standard. Instead, perhaps we can turn those perspectives
into a more positive focus on the "multi- competence" (p. 52 ) of second language learners.

• Marinova-Todd, Marshall, and Snow (2000), we would do well to refrain from too much of "a
misemphasis on poor adult learners and an under-emphasis on adults who master L2s to
nativelike levels" (p. 9 ). Instead of being so perplexed and concerned about how bad people
are at learning second languages, we should be fascinated with how much those same learners
have accomplished.