ROCKS AND MINERALS AND THEIR EXPLOITATION

1.1 Formation of rocks

 The rock cycle: a representation of the changes between the three rock types and

the processes causing them.

 Types of rocks:

o Igneous rocks:

 Made when liquid magma cools to form solid rock.

 Molten rock below the surface is called magma, and lava when it reaches the

surface.

 Extrusive igneous rock: if the rock cools quickly, small crystals are formed

e.g. basalt.

 Intrusive igneous rock: if the rock cools slowly, large crystals are formed e.g.

granite.

o Sedimentary rocks:

 Formed by the weathering of existing rocks at the Earth’s surface.

 Fossils may be present.

 Sediments (small particles of rocks) accumulate into layers and get pressurised

due to the newer deposits above them.

 The sediments are transported by water and wind (erosion).

 Particles like clays, silts, sands, gravels and small boulders are found in

sediments.

 Examples: limestone, sandstone and shale.

o Metamorphic rocks:

 Formed from existing rock when heat and/or pressure causes changes in the

rock crystals without melting it.

 The changes can be physical, chemical or both.

  Examples: marble and slate.

1.2 Extraction of rocks and minerals from the Earth

 Exploring for minerals:

oProspecting: a process of searching for minerals by examining the surface of the rocks.

o Remote sensing: a process in which information is gathered about the Earth’s

surface from above.

 Photographs of the area are taken from air.

 The images are carefully analysed for mineral presence.

 Aerial photography can cover more ground than a person on the

surface.

o Radiation detection:

 Mineral deposits are weathered at the Earth’s surface, forming

mineral oxides.

 They can be detected by their unique radiation pattern (recorded by a

satellite and downloaded to a computer for analysis).

o Satellite signals:

 Some satellites send signals to the Earth’s surface and collect the

reflected signals, indicating the presence of minerals.

 The system works in all weather conditions.

o Satellite images:

 Computers are used to process the data from a region of interest to

check for mineral presence.

 Geologists confirm the presence of the mineral by visiting the location

 (recorded by the

satellite’s positioning

system).

 Geologists can further check the availability of

the mineral in nearby areas.

 Using satellites saves time and costs less.

oGeochemical analysis: analysing the chemical properties of rocks

(by taking samples).

 The samples can be taken from stream sediments, soil or rocks (using

shallow drilling).

 The location of the sample points can be accurately found using the

Global Positioning System (GPS).

o Geophysics: method to identify mineral ores present in rocks using their

physical properties.

 A series of vibrations (seismic waves) are sent through the Earth’s surface.

 Several sensors are placed at different distances

from the source of vibrations on the surface.

 The vibrations create shock waves that travel down into the rock layers.

 They are reflected back to the sensors on the surface.

 The shock waves record different patterns depending on the mineral present in

the rock layers.

 Methods of extraction:

o Surface mining: includes open-cast (open-pit, open- cut) and strip mining.

 Open-pit mining is used when a valuable deposit is located near the surface.
  The vegetation is cleared and topsoil removed.

 The rocks are broken up and loosened with

explosives.

 The loose rock is removed using diggers.

 The rock or mineral is tipped into trucks or railway wagons.

 Building materials such as sand, gravel and stone are removed from open pits

called quarries.

 Strip mining is used to mine a seam of mineral.

 The overburden (overlying rock and soil) is removed as a thin strip.

 It is mainly used to mine coal.

o Sub-surface mining: includes deep and shaft mining.

 A vertical shaft is sunk down to the rock layer containing minerals.

 A horizontal tunnel is made, following the mineral layer.

 The minerals are extracted by digging (by machines and miners).

 The loose rock is brought from the mine and piled up on waste heaps

on the surface.

 The minerals are brought to the surface and transported in trucks or trains.

 Factors that affect the decision to extract rocks and minerals:

o The costs of exploration and extraction:

 Probable cost of extracting one tonne is calculated.

 There are fewer technical difficulties of mining on a large scale using

open-pit mining as there’d be low extraction costs per tonne.

 Shaft mining is costlier to set up and maintain as the cost per tonne will

be higher. So, only deposits of higher value can be mined in this way.

o Geology:
  High-grade ores yield more of the required chemical elements than low-

grade ores.

 Small deposits of high-grade ore are worth mining.

 Small deposits of low-grade ore that cannot be mined at a profit are

left as reserves.

o Accessibility:

 Transporting the ore from the mine to processing plants can be

difficult and expensive.

 The cost of building road or rail links to the processing plant or to the

nearest port for export has to be considered.

 Carrying out some processing at the mine reduces transport costs.

 The mining company must be given a licence before extracting a

deposit.

 A long-term agreement between the government and mining company

must be reached to avoid rapid rises in the tax, which makes the mining

unprofitable.

o Environmental impact assessment:

 For a licence application to be approved, the company must have a plan to

keep the loss of habitat minimal, followed by the restoration of land proceeding

the completion of mining.

 The choice of site for mine waste should also be considered.

o Supply and demand: the relation between how much of a commodity is

available and how much is needed or wanted by the consumers.

 Increase in world demand for any mineral ore will elevate the prices.

 The profit from a working mine depends on changes in supply and demand.
  If the demand is too high, mines that were not profitable before become

worth mining.

 If the demand falls, working mines may get into a loss due to the transport

and extraction expenses.

1.3 Impact of rock and mineral extraction

 Environmental impacts:

o Ecological impacts:

 Loss of habitat as the vegetation is cleared ‫ ؞‬plants do not have a place to

grow, so the animals depending on them for food and shelter are affected.

 After deep mining has been working for several years, more habitats will be

destroyed due to the increased overburden aboveground.

o Pollution:

 Noise pollution: due to machinery and explosives ‫ ؞‬disturbs the behaviour of

animal species and causes hearing problems for people.

 Water pollution: water supplies may also be polluted, making it unsafe

for people to drink.

 The water may become acidic and dissolve toxic metal ions-this

combination kills many aquatic organisms.

 Bioaccumulation: organisms absorb the ions and retain them in their body,

reaching concentration higher than that in water.

 Biomagnification: the concentrations increase higher up in the food chain

and cause the death of top consumers.

 Land pollution: toxic nature of the waste doesn’t allow plant growth even

years after the mining is stopped.

 Air pollution: dust particles settle on the vegetation, not allowing sunlight to reach the
 leaves and thus, reducing the rate of photosynthesis.

 Breathing in dust that remains in the lungs can cause serious lung

diseases.

 Visual pollution: landscape is damaged.

oWaste management: (refer to section 1.4 Managing the impact of rock

and mineral extraction)

 Economic impacts:

oProvides employment for people and taxes for the government.

 Jobs are created directly to extract the mineral;

 Further jobs are created to supply transport and mining equipment;

 More jobs are created when the mineral is refined to make products;

 If all these activities occur in the same country, it will generate the most

income;

 Earn foreign exchange.

oThe income earned can be used for buying goods and services and investing in

infrastructure projects.

 Improvements to transport;

 Improvements to services, like healthcare and education;

 These services can be helpful for miners and their families too;

 Investing in infrastructure projects can help the country in building more well-designed

communities.

1.4 Managing the impact of rock and mineral extraction

 Safe disposal of mining waste:

o Mine waste must be stored to prevent collapse.

 oSite of the mine must prevent the chances of water pollution.

oThe waste must be monitored to detect any movement or further pollution.

 Land restoration:

o Soil improvement:

 After (sanitary) landfilling, mine waste can be covered by a layer of soil, that can

be enriched with fertilisers.

o Tree planting:

 After improving the soil fertility, plants and trees can be grown in that area,

helping an ecosystem to be reborn.

 Bioremediation: a process of removing pollutants from waste using living

organisms.

o In situ treatment: treatment of contaminated waste

where it’s left.

o Ex situ treatment: removal of contaminated waste from a site to a treatment

plant.

o Often happens slowly (can be sped up by providing oxygen and nitrogen).

o Microorganisms, like bacteria, can absorb pollutants and metabolise them into

less harmful substances.

o Some plants have the ability to bioaccumulate toxic metals.

o After these plants grows for a while, the parts of the plants above ground are

removed so the waste in the ground becomes less toxic.

 Making lakes and natural reserves:

o Several tree and herb species are introduced.

o As their populations grow, they create habitats for many species.

 o These nature reserves become valuable green spaces for human recreation

and help in maintaining biodiversity.

o If the rock lining the hole (created by the extraction) is non-toxic and impervious

to water, it can be filled with water to form a reservoir or lake.

o It is used for irrigating farmland or processed to provide clean, safe drinking

water for humans.

 Using as landfill sites:

o Landfilling: the waste is tipped into a hole; from time to time it is levelled off

and compacted.

o Sanitary landfilling: As in landfilling, the waste is used to fill the hole, but

alternating layers of waste and sand are used.

1.5 Sustainable use of rocks and minerals

 Sustainable resource: a resource that can be continuously replenished e.g.

agriculture, forestry, etc.

 Sustainable development: development that meets the needs of the present,

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

 Strategies for the sustainable use of rocks and minerals:

oIncreasing the efficiency of the extraction of rocks and minerals:

 Mine wastes must be processed for the second time.

 This allows the valuable minerals to be recovered and reduces the risk

of pollution due to mine waste.

 Chemical treatment of the waste and biological treatment (using

microorganisms) extracts much of the valuable mineral still within it.

 Improvements in the performance of the machines used in mining and

 processing.

 Greater use of data analysis by computers (to predict geological

conditions).

oIncreasing the efficiency of the use of rocks and minerals:

 Engineering solutions e.g. design steel beams with same strength but

using less steel.

o The need to recycle rocks and minerals:

 Recycling uses less energy than processing the ores.

 Recycling also produces less waste and thus, reduces the risk of

pollution.

o Legislation:

 The governments pass laws that require manufacturers to become

responsible for recycling and reuse.

ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

1.6 Fossil fuel formation

 Fossil fuels: carbon-based fuels, formed over many millions of years

ago from the decay of living matter.

 Coal: formed from plants.

 Oil and natural gas: formed from sea creatures.

 Formation of coal:

oHuge forests grew millions of years ago covering most of the Earth.

oThe vegetation died and formed peat.

oThe peat was compressed between layers of sediments to form lignite (low-

grade coal).

o Further compression formed coal.

 Formation of oil and natural gas:

o Small animals and plants die and fall to the bottom of the sea.

o Their remains are covered by sediments.

o As the sediments start forming layers, they start to change into sandstone as

the temperature and pressure increase.

o The heat and pressure turn the remains into crude oil and natural gas.

o They separate and rise through the sandstone, filling in the pores.

o The rock above the oil and gas is impervious (non- porous).

o So, they get trapped underneath it.

1.7 Energy resources and the generation of electricity

 The demand for energy is increasing worldwide due to:

o Increasing population size.

 o Increasing industrialisation and urbanisation.

o Improvements in standards of living and expectations.

 Types of energy sources:

 How energy sources are used to generate electricity:

oTurbine: a machine, often containing fins, that is made to revolve by gas,

steam or air (it is connected to a generator).

oGenerator: a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

o Fossil fuels and biofuels:

 These produce a massive amount of energy during combustion that is used to heat

water and
 convert it into steam, which thereby drives the turbines.

o Nuclear power:

 Uranium, a radioactive element, releases huge amounts of energy when nuclear

fission

(splitting of the atom) occurs.

 This energy is used to heat the water, produce steam, and rotate the turbines.

o Geothermal power:

 Cold water is pumped under pressure into a layer of hot rocks.

 The rocks heat the water.

 The hot water returns to the surface under pressure and heats the second

supply of water using a heat exchanger.

 The steam produced in the second supply moves the turbine, generating

electricity.

o Wind power:

 Wind turbines have shafts (blades) that rotate due to wind.

 Gearbox maximises the rotation of the shaft.

 Brakes slow down or stop the rotor in very windy conditions, preventing

damage to the blade.

 As the turbine rotates, the generator produces electricity.

o Solar power:

 Uses photovoltaic cells that produce a small electric charge when exposed to

light.

 A bank of cells organised into solar panels produce a significant amount of

electricity.

o Tidal power:
  Uses the natural rise and fall in the level of water in an area.

Energy Resource Benefits Limitations

Fossil Fuels (coal, - Plentiful in some areas- Job - CO₂ and toxic emissions-
petroleum, natural gas) creation through extraction Environmental damage- Limited
supply
Nuclear Power - No CO₂ emissions- Small fuel - Risk of radiation leaks- Radioactive
(uranium) quantity = high energy- Long- waste is long-term hazard
lasting fuel
Biofuels (bioethanol, - Renewable- Uses waste and - Land demand- May replace
biomass, biogas, wood) crops- Carbon uptake by plants natural ecosystems- Can cause food
during growth shortages
Geothermal Power - Unlimited in suitable areas- No - High installation costs- Only works
CO₂ emissions in certain locations
Hydro-electric Power - No CO₂ emissions- Water - Dam construction affects
reusable for other purposes ecosystems- Can displace
communities
Tidal Power - Predictable energy source- No - Site-specific- Affects tourism and
CO₂ emissions fishing
Wave Power - Renewable- Uses existing - Not yet very efficient- Needs large
technology resource input- Weather-
dependent
Solar Power - No CO₂ emissions- Sunlight is - Daylight-only operation- Affected
unlimited by weather- Visual and ecological
impact
Wind Power - Renewable- No CO₂ emissions - Weather-dependent- Large land
use- Visual impact

1.8 Energy demand

 Domestic demand:

o Created by affordability, availability and social status.

o Most of the purchases that are considered as necessities now increase the

demand for energy supplies, notably electricity.

o Example:

 Fruits and vegetables, that aren’t naturally available in the season locally, are

produced in glasshouse or in areas with a favourable climate and are then

transported.

 In both the scenarios (glasshouse operation and transport), the energy cost is

significant
  Industrial demand:

o Manufacturing requires the use of large amounts of energy throughout

the production e.g. iron and steel production.

o Advanced manufacturing techniques made the products, that were

once luxury items, cheaper.

 So, more people want to buy them.

 The demand for the product increases.

 The demand for energy (needed for production) also increases.

 Transport:

o Manufacturers supply customers across the globe.

o This decreases production costs in countries that import, but increases the transport costs

as they require large amounts of fossil fuels to operate.

o If economic conditions are good:

 Higher employment;

 More money to spend on luxury items;

 Increase in demand for the product;

 Increase in demand for energy (for production).

o If economic conditions are poor:

 Families have less money to spend on luxury items;

 Need to make savings;

 Reduce the use of fuel;

 Reduce the purchase and use of electrical items;

 Decrease in the demand for energy.

oDecline in the economy of one country can have a global impact.

 oReduction in the economy of China meant a worldwide:

 Reduction in production of steel.

 Decrease in the amount of manufactured goods (transported by

ships).

 Decrease in the price of oil (energy source).

 Climate:

oThe demand for energy with regard to climate depends on the

country.

oPeople living in a temperate climate are likely to experience colder winters,

so the energy demand for heating would be far higher.

 They also experience fewer hours of daylight.

 This increases the usage of electrical lighting.

oClimate change (excessive heat or cold) increased the energy consumption

(particularly in urban areas).

 Need for additional heating.

 Installation and operation of air-conditioning units.

Conservation and management of energy sources

 Strategies for the efficient management of energy resources:

o Reducing consumption:

 Reducing the amount of energy used to heat a building.

 Insulation: constructing using material with good insulation properties prevents

loss of heat.

 Loft insulation: adding an insulation layer into the roof space.

 Underfloor insulation: adding an insulation layer on the floor e.g. carpet.

  Cavity wall insulation: a gap between inside and outside walls is filled with

an insulating material, causing the heat to pass through more slowly.

 Double glazing: two panes of glass with a gap in the middle to act as an

insulator.

 This sealed gap is usually filled with air or an inert gas e.g. argon.

 Triple glazing can also be used, but it is too expensive.

 Electrical devices must be turned off when not in use.

 Devices can be left in ‘standby’ mode and can be accessed rapidly.

 More energy-efficient devices must be bought.

 Developing alternative fuels for vehicles and further development in engine

technology.

 ‘Scrappage’ schemes: remove inefficient machines from use (electrical

appliances or vehicles).

o Energy from waste:

 Reusing existing materials to extract energy from them before they are

disposed.

 Anaerobic digestion: breaking down of organic matter (waste food and

vegetation) using bacteria.

 This process takes place in a sealed container and releases methane (a

flammable gas) that can be used for heating purposes.

 The composted waste can be used as organic matter to improve soil structure.

 Household rubbish can be incinerated (burnt) to produce heat, that can

be used to generate electricity

 Vegetable oils, once used, should be disposed;

 These oils can be collected and recycled into biofuels suitable for running
 vehicles;

 It can be used exclusively or as an additive.

o Education:

 Benefits of the technology must be communicated to others;

 Promote new ways of thinking;

 The message must be that significant savings in energy bills can be

made over the longer term, reducing energy use;

 Energy-efficiency ratings must be provided for new products to

compare with the old ones.

 Laws passed by the government to make changes rapidly:

 Stricter building regulations: new constructions must be more

energy efficient.

 Preventing the sales of inefficient types of electrical devices.

 Incentives to encourage the purchase of more efficient

technologies:

 Insulating older houses that are energy efficient;

 Replacing older, inefficient electrical devices;

 Scrapping older, inefficient cars, that emit more pollutants.

o Exploiting existing energy resources:

 The type of energy source used depends on social, environmental and

economic factors.

 The current solution is to use a renewable resource as a primary energy source when

possible and have a fossil-fuel (or biofuel) powered station available as a backup when

weather conditions are not suitable.

 This is a reliable source for industry and households and reduces the
 amount of fossil fuels used.

o Transport policies:

 Regulations regarding the quality of exhaust gases from vehicles;

 Check on the fuel efficiency;

 Restrictions on where vehicles may go;

 Taxation on fuels;

 Surcharges for travelling to certain places at peak times;

 Improving public transport so it is easier and cheaper than using cars;

 Improving routes for cyclists and pedestrians;

 Encouraging car-sharing;

 Restricting when cars can be used e.g. odd even rule in Delhi;

 Providing incentives to buy more fuel-efficient vehicles and for vehicles using

cleaner technology.