Spring 2025 21-254 Linear Algebra and Vector Calculus for Engineers Page 1 of 6

21-254: Linear Algebra and Vector Calculus for Engineers

Lecture #16 Outline

Read: OSC Section 2.5.

Objectives and Concepts:

• A line in space is defined by a point on the line and a vector that points in the direction of the
line. Lines can be represented by vector, parametric, or symmetric equations.
• A plane in R3 is defined by a point on the plane and a vector normal (orthogonal) to the plane.
Planes can be represented by scalar or vector equations.

Suggested Textbook Exercises:

• OSC: Section 2.5 # 243-249 odd, 255-273 odd, 277-295 odd.

Lines in Space

Lines in R2 : We have known for some time that a line in

R2 is determined by a point on the line and the slope of
y
the line. Let a represent the change in x and b represent v
the corresponding change in y of the slope (if the line b L
is vertical then a = 0). The slope m = b/a can be inter- a
preted as a direction vector: v = [a, b]. If a →= 0 and the
(x, y)
line passes through the point (x 0 , y 0 ), then we know its tv
equation is given by
(x 0 , y 0 ) ! "
b x, y = r0 + t v
y ↑ y 0 = m(x ↑ x 0 ) = (x ↑ x 0 ), r0
a
x
which can also be written as (if b →= 0)
x ↑ x0 y ↑ y 0
= .
a b
Using vectors, we can also describe the line through (x 0 , y 0 ) and slope m = b/a. Now any point on the
line (x, y) lies somewhere in the direction of the slope vector v (we call v the direction vector of the
line). In other words, there is some scalar multiple of v such that the position vector of the point (x, y)
is the sum of the scaled v and the position vector r0 of the known point (x 0 , y 0 ). Thus there is some
value of a parameter t (a scalar) such that the position vector for the point (x, y) is given by
! " ! " ! "
x, y = r(t ) = r0 + t v = x 0 , y 0 + t [a, b] = x 0 + at , y 0 + bt .

In this case, the equation r(t ) = r0 + t v is known as the vector equation of the line L, and the two
equations x = x 0 + at , y = y 0 + bt are the parametric equations of L. Note that if a = 0, then the line is
vertical,
! so in" this case the x-coordinate of any point on the line is x 0 . This yields the vector equation
r(t ) = x 0 , y 0 + t [0, b], and thus the parametric
! equations
" are x = x 0 , y = y 0 + bt . If b = 0, then y is
always y 0 , and the vector equation is r(t ) = x 0 + at , y 0 , and the parametric equations are x = x 0 + at ,
y = y0.

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Lines in R3 : Lines in three spatial dimensions are described in the same way as they are in R2 . One
major difference however is that the concept of slope does not readily extend to R3 - the change in y
with respect to x is no longer sufficient to describe the direction of the line. Thus in order to describe
a line, we must have a point (x 0 , y 0 , z 0 ) on the line and a vector v = [a, b, c] that gives the direction. The
numbers a, b, and c are known as the direction numbers of the line.

z L
x ↑ x0 y ↑ y 0 z ↑ z0
Symmetric Equations: = =
(x, y, z) a b c
tv
! "
(x 0 , y 0 , z 0 ) Vector Equation: r(t ) = r0 + t v = x 0 , y 0 , z 0 + t [a, b, c]

Parametric Equations: x = x 0 + at , y = y 0 + bt , z = z 0 + c t
r0 + t v
r0
v Note that if one of the direction numbers is 0 the sym-
metric equations will be slightly different. For example,
if a = 0, then L would be represented by the symmetric
equations
y ↑ y 0 z ↑ z0
x y x = x0 , = .
b c
Example 1: Find the symmetric, vector, and parametric equations of the line through the points
(6, 1, ↑3) and (2, 4, 5).
(6 1 3) (2 ,
4 , 5)
-3-5]
-
,

Direction of line :
[6-2 ,
1-4 ,

T
=
[4 ,
-
3 ,
-
8]

symmetric equations :
* 6

4
-
rector : (t) 8] [6 + H+, 1 -
3 +, -
3 -
8+ ]
= [6 , 1
-
3) + + [a .
-
3,
-
=

parametric X G + H +, z 3- 8t
y
: =
= 1 -
3 +, =

While it is certainly the case that parallel lines do not intersect, in R3 there are nonparallel lines that
do not intersect. to check if chedirection
are they parallel
v
,

vector

Definition: Two lines L 1 and L 2 in R3 are skew if they are not parallel and do not intersect.

Example 2: Determine whether the following lines are parallel, skew, or intersecting. If they intersect,
find the point of intersection.

a) L 1 : x = ↑6t , y = 1 + 9t , z = ↑3t , L2 : x = 1 + 2s, y = 4 ↑ 3s, z = s

i [ =
0
,
a .
-

3)
Fid parallel
*
are
:
[2 ,
-3 , 1]
3 =
4-3s
-

1 + 9t
?
=

line If -St =
1 + 25 ,

-
so
Are they the same ,

Gt = 1 + 2( -
3+) = 0 = 1(not possible)
These lines are parallel

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x y ↑1 z ↑2 x ↑3 y ↑2 z ↑1
b) L 1 : = = , L2 : = =
1 2 3 ↑4 ↑3 2

v [ 3 2]
Y 3] n
=
-

[1
-
, ,
= , 2,

(2 X 3 4) 2 3s 2 = 1 + 25
y
-
= = =
-

,
,

: X = 0 + 1t 1 + 2t z = 2 + 3t
L y
= ,
lines skewed
!
,
These are

1 + 2+ 2 -
35 2 + 3 1 + 2s ( + 3(3 ms) = 1 + 2
t
=
4S
-
=
= 3 -

,
,

2 +
3(3 -
1) = 1 +2

1 + 2(3 -
Ms) = 2 -
35 -
17 3

-
85 + 35 = 2 -
7

5s =
-
5(s 1) :

c) L 1 : r(t ) = [1 ↑ t , 2 + t , ↑2 ↑ 4t ], L2 : r(s) = [↑2s, 2s + 3, ↑8s ↑ 6]

To parametrize a line segment between two points (x 0 , y 0 , z 0 )

(x 0 , y 0 , z 0 ) and (x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ), one can simply take a z
convex combination of the position vectors r0 and r(t ) = (1 ↑ t )r0 + t r1
r1 of the two points:
r0
r(t ) = (1 ↑ t )r0 + t r1 , 0 ↓ t ↓ 1. (x 1 , y 1 , z 1 )

r1
This just amounts to taking a weighted average of
the two position vectors, with the extremes being
r0 when t = 0 and r1 when t = 1. y
x

Planes

The “direction” of a plane in R3 is somewhat more difficult to describe than the direction of a line in
R3 . In fact, at first glance, it seems like there are two directions for a plane. Thus, the idea of using a
point in the plane and a single vector that lies in the plane is insufficient for describing it completely.
However, since a plane really spans two directions, and there are only three independent directions in
R3 , a single vector can be used to describe a plane.

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Definition: A vector n is a normal vector to a plane if it is orthogonal to all vectors that lie in the
plane.

Examining the figure on the left, we see that a normal

z vector n must satisfy the relationship n·(r↑r0 ) = 0 where
n
r0 is the position
! vector
" of a given point (x 0 , y 0 , z 0 ) on the
plane and r = x, y, z is the position vector of any other
r ↑ r0 (x, y, z) point (x, y, z) on the plane. If we write n = [a, b, c], then
(x 0 , y 0 , z 0 ) we have
#! " ! "$
n · (r ↑ r0 ) = [a, b, c] · x, y, z ↑ x 0 , y 0 , z 0
r0 r
= a(x ↑ x 0 ) + b(y ↑ y 0 ) + c(z ↑ z 0 ) = 0.

y This gives us two ways of representing the plane:

n · (r ↑ r0 ) = 0 Vector Equation: n · (r ↑ r0 ) = 0
x
Scalar Equation: a(x ↑ x 0 ) + b(y ↑ y 0 ) + c(z ↑ z 0 ) = 0
The scalar equation is also known as the point-normal form of the equation of a plane. The scalar
equation is what we most commonly use to represent a plane. In fact, any single linear equation in x,
y, and z, such as 3x ↑ y + 2z = 4, represents a plane in R3 . If you are given a scalar equation, it is very
easy to spot the normal vector, as all you need to do is look at the coefficients of the variables. Also note
that if n is normal to a plane, then so is ↑n, or any other nonzero scalar multiple of n.
Example 3: Find the scalar equation of the plane passing through the point (3, ↑1, 7) with normal
vector n = [4, 2, ↑5].

5(z 7) 0
2(y 1)
=

Scalar 4(x-3)
-

equation +
-

: +

4x 52
2y
+
25
-

= -

Now, sometimes you are not given a point on the plane and its normal vector. Nevertheless, with
enough information you can find a point and normal and find the equation of the plane.

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• If you are given a point in the plane and two vec-

z
tors v1 and v2 that lie in the plane (are parallel to n
the plane), then a normal vector can be found by
computing v1 ↔ v2 .
v2
• If you are given two points P 1 and P 2 and a single
vector v in the plane, then you can find another v1
vector in the plane by finding the vector from P 1
to P 2 , provided it is not parallel to v, and then find
the normal using the cross product.
• If you are given three noncollinear points in the y
plane, you can find two nonparallel vectors in the n = v1 ↔ v2
plane, and then find the normal using the cross
x
product.

Example 4: Find an equation of the plane that contains the point (2, 0, 3) and the line x = ↑1 + t , y = t ,
z = ↑4 + 2t .

·
oo i =
=
[3 ,
0, 7]
V

n 7] [2 1
-

3]
[2
-
= ,
0
[1 1
,

= 1 , 2] x , ,

3
7 -

y
-
32 = 5
1(y 0) 3(z 3) = 0 =
equation : T(X-2)
-
- - -

((x 1)
:
+
-

1(y -
0) -

g(z + 4) = 0 7x y
- - 32 = 5

& Example 5: Find an equation of the plane that contains the line x = ↑2 + 3t , y = 4 + 2t , z = 3 ↑ t and is
perpendicular to the plane x ↑ 2y + z = 5.

~ ni vixn

I
=

I
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Two planes in R3 are either parallel, or they intersect in a line. If they are parallel, then their normal
vectors are also parallel, so the equations of the plans can be written as ax + b y + c z = d 1 and ax + b y +
c z = d 2 . If they intersect, then their normal vectors (call them n1 and n2 ) will have an angle ω between
them where 0 ↓ ω ↓ ε/2. Then, since the angle between n1 and n2 is the same as the angle between the
two planes, we have that the acute angle between two planes satisfies

|n1 · n2 |
cos ω = .
|n1 ||n2 |

n1 L
n1
z n2
z
ω
n2

v = n1 ↔ n2

y
y

x
x

But what about the line of intersection L? How can we find it? Recall that we need a point on the
line and a direction vector v. One of the things you can see in the figure on the above right is that the
direction vector v of the line must lie in both planes. So we know that v must be orthogonal to n1 and
n2 . To find a point on the line L, we know that the point must be on both planes. We also know that the
line must pass through at least one of the coordinate planes x = 0, y = 0, or z = 0.

A direction vector of the line of intersection of the planes with normal vectors n1 and n2 is given by
v = n1 ↔ n2 . A point on the line can be found by setting one of the variables in the plane equations
to 0 and solving both equations for the remaining variables.

& Example 6: Find the line of intersection of the planes 2x ↑ 4y + 4z = 6 and 6x + 2y ↑ 3z = 4.

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