Computer network

Computer networking refers to interconnected computing devices that can exchange data
and share resources with each other. These networked devices use a system of rules, called
communications protocols, to transmit information over physical or wireless technologies

Uses

Computer networks have a variety of uses that many would see as essential today, including
the following:

 file sharing, which enables users to share data files through a network;

 application sharing, which enables users to share applications through a network;

 hardware sharing, which enables users in a network to share hardware devices, such as
printers and hard drives;

 client-server model, which enables data to be stored on servers, where end-user devices -
- or clients -- can access that data;

 voice over IP (VoIP), which enables users to send voice data through internet protocols;

 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a technology that allows you to make voice calls
using a broadband Internet connection instead of a regular (or analog) phone line.

 communication, which can include video, text and voice;

 e-commerce, which enables users to sell and buy products over the internet; and

 gaming, which enables multiple users to play together from various locations.

Topology

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to
each other. It is the logical or physical arrangement of components in a network.

Following are different types of network topologies

BUS Topology

o Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable. It has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus
topology.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected
to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it
has been addressed or not.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.

2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.

3. Used in small networks.

4. It is easy to understand.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy then the performance of the network decreases.

 3. Cable has a limited length.

4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.

if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then
the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node.

1. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2

connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.

2. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite
direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep
the network up.

3. Since data flows in one direction, the chance of a packet collision is reduced
4. Devices can be added without impacting network performance
5. Better suited for high traffic environments than a bus topology

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable

faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all
the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
 o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding
new devices increases the communication delay.

Start Topology
A star topology, sometimes known as a star network, is a network topology in which each
device is connected to a central hub. In this network arrangement, all devices linked to a central
network device are displayed as a star.
Unlike Mesh topology, a device cannot provide communication directly between the devices
in a star topology; it has to communicate with the help of a hub. The peripheral devices function
as clients, while the central network device serves as a server.
Each node in this diagram has a direct point-to-point link to the central device
an Active Hub is present in the active star topology. In terms of passing the communication
signals, this Hub performs additional functions. Active Hub, in contrast to Passive Hub, may
reprocess or regenerate communication signals.
There are a lot of examples of star topology in real life also, and you can see Star Network
Topology Examples in Airports, Hospitals, Banks, and Educational Institutes.

Star Topology is classified into three categories on the basis of working mechanism, which are
as follows:

1. Passive Star Topology

2. Active Star Topology
3. Star Topology Using Switch
Passive Star Topology

A Passive Star Topology is created using a Passive Hub.

A passive Hub has the ability to enable the signal to pass without any intervention. In other
words, the communication signals cannot be regenerated or reprocessed by the Passive Hub.

Advantages of start topology

Easy to Install and Configure
Star topology is relatively easy to install and configure. The central hub or switch acts as a
central point of communication, making it easy to connect and disconnect devices. This makes
it easy to add or remove devices from the network without affecting the rest of the network.
Easy to Troubleshoot
Star topology is also easy to troubleshoot. If a device on the network is not working properly,
it is easy to isolate the problem by disconnecting the device from the central hub and testing
it. This makes it easy to identify and fix problems on the network.
Scalability
Star topology is highly scalable. If the network needs to be expanded, it is easy to add more
devices by connecting them to the central hub. This makes it easy to expand the network as
the number of devices on the network increases.
Improved Performance
Star topology can improve network performance. The central hub or switch can control the
flow of data between devices, ensuring that each device receives the data it needs in a timely
manner. This can improve the overall performance of the network.
High Security
Star topology can provide high security. The central hub or switch can be configured to control
access to the network, ensuring that only authorized devices can access the network. This can
help to prevent unauthorized access to the network.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
Single Point of Failure
Star topology has a single point of failure. If the central hub or switch fails, the entire network
will be down. This can be a major problem for networks that require high availability.
Cost
Star topology can be more expensive than other topologies. The central hub or switch can be
expensive, and the cost of additional devices can add up. This can make star topology less
cost-effective for larger networks.
Limited Distance
Star topology is limited in distance. The distance between devices and the central hub or switch
is limited by the length of the cables used to connect the devices. This can make it difficult to
expand the network over a large area.
Limited Bandwidth
Star topology can be limited in bandwidth. The central hub or switch can only handle a limited
amount of data at a time, which can limit the overall bandwidth of the network. This can be a
problem for networks that require high bandwidth.
Mesh Topology

 In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the network through
a dedicated point-to-point link.

 When we say dedicated it means that the link only carries data for the two connected
devices only.

 Lets say we have n devices in the network then each device must be connected with (n-
1) devices of the network.

 Number of links in a mesh topology of n devices would be n(n-1)/2.

There are two types of Mesh topology:

1. Full Mesh Topology: In this topology each device is connected to all the devices
available on the network.
2. Partial Mesh Topology: In partial mesh topology, each device is connected to only
those devices, to which they communicate frequently. This reduces redundant links and
saves the setup cost.
Advantages of Mesh topology

1. No data loss: No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which
means the link is only available for those two devices.
2. Reliable: Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other
links and the communication between other devices on the network.
3. Secure: Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus unauthorized
access is not possible.
4. Easy to troubleshoot: Fault detection is easy as there is a separate connection between each
devices.
5. Fast communication: As there is a dedication connection between two devices on a
network, the communication is fast.

Drawbacks of Mesh Topology

 Mesh Topology is challenging to install and configure.

 As all the nodes are connected with each other, cabling is costly.

 Bulk wiring is essential.

Tree topology

 Tree topology is the topology in which the nodes are connected hierarchically.

 Tree topology has at least three levels of hierarchy.

Tree topology is an example of hybrid topology as it is a combination of star

topology and bus topology that forms a tree like structure.

 Each node has arbitrary number of child nodes.

 The device at the top of the hierarchy is known as root node and other devices that are
lower in hierarchy known as descendants of the root node.
 There is a single path between two devices and this is the path of the communication
between devices.
  Tree topology is also called star-bus topology.

Advantages of Tree topology

 Easy error detection.

 Expendable: It is easy to add new devices to the network in tree topology.
 Easy maintenance: Devices are grouped in small star networks and these star networks
are connected to each other using bus topology. It is easy to manage a device in small
star network.

 Failure of a leaf node will not disturb the other nodes.

Disadvantages

Difficulty in maintenance and configuration

 If the topmost computer fails, it can lead to the failure of the entire network.
 It is expensive when compared to other topologies.

HYBRID topology
A hybrid topology is a type of network topology that uses two or more differing
network topologies.

Types of hybrid topologies

The two most commonly used types of hybrid topologies are the following.

Star-Ring hybrid topology

A star-ring hybrid topology is a combination of the star topology and ring topology. Two or
more star topologies are connected together through a ring topology.
Star-Bus hybrid topology

A star-bus hybrid topology is a combination of the star topology and bus topology. Two or
more star topologies are connected together through a bus topology.

Types of networks

There are mainly three types of computer networks based on their size:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
  Local area network is a group of computers connected with each other in a small
places such as school, hospital, apartment etc.
 LAN is secure because there is no outside connection with the local area network
thus the data which is shared is safe on the local area network and can’t be
accessed outside.
 LAN due to their small size are considerably faster, their speed can range
anywhere from 100 to 1000Mbps.
 The LAN is private. Hospitals, homes, schools, offices, etc., may own it.
 Very easy to design and maintain.
 LAN offers a very high Internet speed.
 The communication medium that it uses has coaxial cables and twisted-pair
cables.
 It also has minimal noise and error due to its short distance coverage.
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that connects computers

within a metropolitan area, which could be a single large city, multiple cities and
towns, or any given large area with multiple buildingS.

 a MAN is made up of interconnected LANs.

 Because MANs are smaller, they are usually more efficient than WANs, since data
does not have to travel over large distances.

 MANs typically combine the networks of multiple organizations, instead of being

managed by a single organization.

 Most MANs use fiber optic cables to form connections between LANs.
  MAN allows multiple computers to interact simultaneously with each other.

 MAN offers a moderate Internet speed.

3. Wide area network (WAN)

 Wide area network provides long distance transmission of data.

 The size of the WAN is larger than LAN and MAN. A WAN can cover country,
continent or even a whole world.
 Internet connection is an example of WAN.
 Very difficult to design and maintain.
 WAN offers a low Internet speed.
 WANs are the largest and most expansive forms of computer networks

PAN
 Personal Area Network (PAN) is the computer network that connects
computers/devices within the range of an individual person.
 As PAN provides a network range within a person's range typically within a range of
10 meters. A Personal Area Network typically involves a computer, phone, tablet,
printer, PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) and other and other entertainment devices
like speakers.
 A PAN network ensures a reliable and stable connection if it's established within the
10-meter range. Easy data synchronization.
 A PAN provides easy data synchronization between different devices. As an example,
all devices connected within a PAN can be used to exchange, download and upload
data with each other.
 To create a PAN, you need a minimum of two computing devices, for example a PC
and a smartphone. You will also need a communication channel, which can be wired
or wireless to transfer information between the different devices.
VPN

 VPN stands for "virtual private network" — a service that helps you stay private
online.
 A VPN establishes a secure, encrypted connection between your computer and the
internet, providing a private tunnel for your data and communications while you use
public networks.

Casting
Casting in computer networks means transmitting data(stream of packets) from the
client(s) to the recipient(s) over a communication channel known as a network. There are
three different types of casting in computer networks, which are: Unicast transmission.
Broadcast transmission. Multicast transmission.

Types of Castings
The different types of casting are as follows −
 Unicast − Transmitting data from one host to another host (one-one)
 Broad cast − Transmitting data from one host to many host (one-all)
 Multicast − Transmitting data from one host to a particular group of host (one-many).

Unicast
Transmitting data from one source host to one destination host is called a unicast. It is called
as a one to one transmission.
For example − source Host IP Address 192.168.20.1 sending data to destination Host having
IP Address 192.122.140.34
Broadcast
Transmitting data from one source host to all other hosts present in the same or other network
is called broadcast. It is called a one to all transmission.
Broadcast is classified into two types, which are as follows −
 Limited Broadcast − Transmitting data from one source host to all other hosts present
in the same network is called a limited broadcast.

 Direct Broadcast − Transmitting data from source host to all other hosts present in
different networks then it is called as direct broadcast.
Multicast
Transmitting data from one source host to a particular group of hosts that are present in another
network called Multicast. It is also called one to many transmissions.

For example − Sending messages on whatsapp to particular groups, video conferences, and
sending email to groups of people.

Point to point and Multipoint communication

S.NO Point to point communication Multipoint Communication

Multipoint Communication means the

Point to point communication means the channel is shared among multiple
1. channel is shared between two devices. devices or nodes.

In this communication, link is provided

In this communication, There is dedicated link at all times for sharing the connection
2. between two nodes. among nodes.

In this communication, the entire capacity is In this communication, the entire

reserved between these connected two devices capacity isn’t reserved by any two nodes
with the possibility of waste of network and the network bandwidth is maximum
3. bandwidth/ resources. utilized.

In this communication, there is one transmitter In this communication, there is one

4. and one receiver. transmitter and many receivers.

In point-to-point connections, the smallest In Multi-point connections, the smallest

distance is most important to reach the distance is not important to reach the
5. receiver. receiver.
 Point-to-point communication provides Multi-point communication does not
security and privacy because communication provide security and privacy because
6. channel is not shared. communication channel is shared.

Network software
 Network software is defined as a wide range of software that streamlines the
operations, design, monitoring, and implementation of computer networks.
 Network software is a fundamental element for any networking system
 It helps administrators and security personnel reduce network complexities, and
manage, monitor, and better control network traffic.
Functions of network software
 User management allows administrators to add or remove users from the network.
 File management lets administrators decide the location of data storage and control user
access to that data.
 Access enables users to enjoy uninterrupted access to network resources.
 Network security systems assist administrators in looking after security and preventing
data breaches.
Components of network softwares

1. Application layer

The first component is the application layer or the application plane, which refers to the
applications and services running on the network

2. Control layer

The control layer lies at the center of the architecture and is one of the most important
components of the three layers. You could call it the brain of the whole system. Also called the
controller or the control plane, this layer also includes the network control software and the
network operating system within it

3. Infrastructure layer

The infrastructure layer, also called the data plane, consists of the actual network devices (both
physical and virtual) that reside in this layer.

Guided and unguided medium

• For any networking to be effective, raw stream of data is to be transported from one
device to other over some medium. Various transmission media can be used for
transfer of data. These transmission media may be of two types –

• Guided − In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling system that has a
fixed path.This is also known as also known as Wired or Bounded transmission
media,For example, copper wires, fibre optic wires, etc.
• Unguided − In unguided media, transmitted data travels through free space in form of
electromagnetic signal. For example, radio waves, lasers, etc.

Types of Guided Transmission Media

• There are three types of Guided Transmission Media:

• Twisted Pair cable
• Coaxial cable
• Fibre Optic Cable

Twisted pair:

• Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each
other.
• A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation
of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.
• The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern.

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

• An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the

categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:
• Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
• Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
• Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
• Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance
communication.
• Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

• It is cheap.
• Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
• It can be used for high-speed LAN.
• Disadvantage:
• This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

• A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that
allows the higher transmission rate.
• Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair(Advntages):
• The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
• An installation of STP is easy.
• It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
• It has a higher attenuation.
• It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages

• It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

• It has a higher attenuation rate

Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cables are copper cables with better shielding than twisted pair cables, so that
transmitted signals may travel longer distances at higher speeds.
• A coaxial cable consists of these layers, starting from the innermost −
• Stiff copper wire as core
• Insulating material surrounding the core
• Closely woven braided mesh of conducting material surrounding the insulator
• Protective plastic sheath encasing the wire
• Coaxial cables are widely used for cable TV connections and LANs.

Coaxial cable is of two types:

• Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at

high speed. Digital Transmission
• Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously. Cable Television

Advantages of Coaxial Cables

• Excellent noise immunity

• Signals can travel longer distances at higher speeds, e.g. 1 to 2 Gbps for 1 Km cable
• Can be used for both analog and digital signals
• Inexpensive as compared to fibre optic cables
• Easy to install and maintain

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables

• Expensive as compared to twisted pair cables

Fiber Optic Cable

• A fibre-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
• Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to send
the data by pulses of light.

• The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
• Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

 • Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
• Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the
fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
• Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as
compared to copper cable.
• Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is
immune to any temperature changes

Disadvantages of Fibre Optic Cable

• Installation and maintenance

• Unidirectional light propagation
• High Cost
•

Unguided Media

• An unguided media type transmission is used to transmit electromagnetic waves

without using any of the physical transmission media. Thus it is also called wireless
transmission.
• Unguided media type includes air as the media where electromagnetic energy can be
flown easily without any intrusion or hindrance

Radio waves

• Radio waves are very low-frequency electromagnetic waves that range from ‘3KHz to
1GHz’.
• They have the ability to get penetrated within the walls.
• This feature of radio waves prevents you from isolating communication inside and
outside the building.
• Since radio waves are omnidirectional (all directions), the antennas need not be in
aligned nor required to be set in a particular manner to send and receive signals.
• Suitable for longer distance communications.
• Radio waves are mainly used for Wide Area Networks (WAN) for example: Mobile
networks.

Infrared Transmission

• Infrared waves are highest frequency waves, frequency ranges from 300GHz to 400
THz.
• Suitable for short distance communication.
• Bandwidth is high so data transmit rate is high compared to other mediums.
• These waves cannot penetrate walls, thus they are ideal for isolated communications.

Microwave
 • Microwaves travel in straight lines and therefore the narrow focus concentrates all the
energy into a beam.
• In microwaves periodic repeaters are necessary for long distances and for transmitting
and receiving antennas are aligned accurately.
• Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from
1GHz to 1000 GHz.
• Microwaves are unidirectional.
• A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather condition. This means that any
environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.

Communication satellite

• Used for long distance transmission

• Satellite receive microwave signals from earth based stations,it then amplifies
the signal and retransmits them back to different earth based station.
• An important advantage of satellite communication is that a large volume of
data can be transmitted at once.

Light Waves

• A form of communication that utilizes Fiber optic technology.

• Pulses of Light transmitted over fiber will enable computer networks to
communicate over greater distances at higher rates of speed with complete
immunity to electrical Interference of any type.

Connection oriented and connectionless service

Connection-oriented service is related to the telephone system. It includes connection

establishment and connection termination. In a connection-oriented service, the Handshake
method is used to establish the connection
Between sender and receiver

Connection-less service is related to the postal system. It does not include any connection
establishment and connection termination. Connection-less Service does not give a guarantee
of reliability. In this, Packets do not follow the same path to reach their destination.
Difference between Connection-oriented and Connection-less Services:
S.NO Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service

Connection-oriented service is related to Connection-less service is related to

1. the telephone system. the postal system.

Connection-oriented service is preferred Connection-less Service is preferred

2. by long and steady communication. by bursty communication.

In connection-oriented Service, In connection-less Service,

3. Congestion is not possible. Congestion is possible.

Connection-oriented Service gives the Connection-less Service does not

4. guarantee of reliability. give a guarantee of reliability.

In connection-oriented Service, Packets In connection-less Service, Packets

5. follow the same route. do not follow the same route.

Ex: TCP (Transmission Control

6. Protocol) Ex: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
 S.NO Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service

Connection-oriented requires Connection-less Service does not

7. authentication. require authentication.

RFID
 RFID is a technology which is working on radio frequency radio waves.
 So this technology is used to automatically identifying the object or tracking the object.
 The object could be anything .The object could be books in library or it could be any
item which are purchasing from the shopping mall.
 In this RFID technology the RFID tag is used to get attached to the object which we
want to track.
 So this RFID reader is continuously sending radio waves. So whenever this object is in
the range of the reader then this RFID tag used to transmit its feed back signal to the
reader.
 RFID technology is not a line of sight technology so as far as this object is within the
range of the reader ,the object is able to identify the reader and it is able to send the feed
back signal back to the reader.
 So using this RFID technology, we can track multiple objects at the same time.
 RFID system contains two components- RFID reader and RFID tag.
 RFID tag can be passive or active. Passive RFID tags are powered by the reader and
do not have a battery.
 Active RFID tags are powered by batteries.

Sensor networks
 A sensor network comprises a group of small, powered devices called sensors,sensor
network can be wireless or wired.
 They record conditions in any number of environments including industrial facilities,
farms, and hospitals.
 The sensor network connects to the internet or computer networks to transfer data for
analysis and use.
 Wired sensor networks use ethernet cables to connect sensors.
 Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) use technologies such as Bluetooth, cellular, wifi
etc.
  Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less wireless network that is
deployed in a large number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used to
monitor the system, physical or environmental conditions.
 Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that manages and monitors
the environment in a particular area.
 They are connected to the Base Station which acts as a processing unit in the WSN
System.
 Base Station in a WSN System is connected through the Internet to share data.

Applications of WSN:

1. Surveillance and Monitoring for security, threat detection

2. Environmental temperature, humidity, and air pressure
3. Noise Level of the surrounding
4. Medical applications like patient monitoring
5. Agriculture
6. Landslide Detection

Protocol hierarchy

A protocol is simply defined as a set of rules and regulations for data communication. Rules
are basically defined for each and every step and process at time of communication among
two or more computers. Networks are needed to follow these protocols to transmit data
successfully. All protocols might be implemented using hardware, software, or combination
of both of them. There are three aspects of protocols given below :
 Syntax –
It is used to explain data format that is needed to be sent or received.
 Semantics –
It is used to explain exact meaning of each of sections of bits that are usually transferred.
 Timings –
It is used to explain exact time at which data is generally transferred along with speed at
which it is transferred.
  ProtocolHierarchies :
Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or contain a large number of pieces
of hardware and software.
 To just simplify network design, various networks are organized and arranged as a
stack of layers of hardware and software, one on top of another.
 The number, name, content, and function of each layer might vary and can be different
from one network to another.
 The main purpose of each of layers is just to offer and provide services to higher
layers that are present.
 Each and every layer has some particular task or function. In programming, this
concept is very common.
 The networks are organized and arranged as different layers or levels simply to reduce
and minimize complexity of design of network software.

OSI Model

o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer
is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model:

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues,
and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the
end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the software
applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data
link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The
physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical
medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the
physical medium.

Functions of the OSI Layers

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are
given below:

o Physical Layer
o Data-Link Layer
o Network Layer
o Transport Layer
 o Session Layer
o Presentation Layer
o Application Layer

1.Physical Layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one
node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

1. Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.

2. Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-

duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.

3. Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.

4. Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
 o The Physical Layer In a sending device, the physical layer is concerned with
transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.
o How the initial connection is established, how it is torn down when both sides are
finished, how many pins the network connector has, and what each pin is used for.
o These design issues largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and timing interfaces, as
well as the physical transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.
o In a receiving device, the physical layer is concerned with receiving the signals from
transmission media and interpreting 0s and 1s from it and provide it as a stream to the
upper data link layer.
2.Data link Layer
 The Data-link layer is the second layer from the bottom in the OSI (Open System
Interconnection) network architecture model.
 It is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of data. Its major role is to ensure error-
free transmission of information.
 DLL is also responsible to encode, decode and organize the outgoing and incoming
data.
 This is considered the most complex layer of the OSI model as it hides all the
underlying complexities of the hardware from the other above layers.

Sub-layers of Data Link Layer:

The data link layer is further divided into two sub-layers, which are as follows:

Logical Link Control (LLC):

This sublayer of the data link layer deals with multiplexing, the flow of data among
applications and other services, and LLC is responsible for providing error messages and
acknowledgments as well.

Media Access Control (MAC):

MAC sublayer manages the device’s interaction, responsible for addressing frames, and also
controls physical media access.
The data link layer receives the information in the form of packets from the Network layer,
it divides packets into frames and sends those frames bit-by-bit to the underlying physical
layer.
Functions of the Data-link Layer:
1. Framing: The packet received from the Network layer is known as a frame in
the Data link layer. At the sender’s side, DLL receives packets from the
Network layer and divides them into small frames, then, sends each frame bit-
by-bit to the physical layer.
2. It also attaches some special bits (for error control and addressing) at the
header and end of the frame. At the receiver’s end, DLL takes bits from the
Physical layer organizes them into the frame, and sends them to the Network
layer.
3. Addressing (Physical addressing, Mac addressing): The data link layer
encapsulates the source and destination’s MAC address/ physical address in
the header of each frame to ensure node-to-node delivery.
4. MAC address is the unique hardware address that is assigned to the device
while manufacturing.
5. Error Control: Data can get corrupted due to various reasons like noise,
attenuation, etc. So, it is the responsibility of the data link layer, to detect the
error in the transmitted data and correct it using error
detection and correction techniques respectively. DLL adds error detection
bits into the frame’s header, so that receiver can check received data is correct
or not.
6. Flow Control: If the receiver’s receiving speed is lower than the sender’s
sending speed, then this can lead to an overflow in the receiver’s buffer and
some frames may get lost. So, it’s the responsibility of DLL to synchronize
the sender’s and receiver’s speeds and establish flow control between them.
7. Access Control: When multiple devices share the same communication
channel there is a high probability of collision, so it’s the responsibility of
DLL to check which device has control over the channel.
8. CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA can be used to avoid collisions and loss of
frames in the channel.
 MAC address
o MAC address is the physical address, which uniquely identifies each device on a given
network. To make communication between two networked devices, we need two
addresses: IP address and MAC address. It is assigned to the NIC (Network Interface
card) of each device that can be connected to the internet.

3.Network Layer
o The Network Layer is the third layer of the OSI model.
o It handles the service requests from the transport layer and further forwards the service
request to the data link layer.
o The network layer translates the logical addresses into physical addresses
o It determines the route from the source to the destination and also manages the traffic
problems such as switching, routing and controls the congestion of data packets.
o The main role of the network layer is to move the packets from sending host to the
receiving host.

The main functions performed by the network layer are:

1. Routing: When a packet reaches the router's input link, the router will move the
packets to the router's output link. For example, a packet from S1 to R1 must be
forwarded to the next router on the path to S2.

2. Logical Addressing: The data link layer implements the physical addressing and
network layer implements the logical addressing. Logical addressing is also used to
distinguish between source and destination system. The network layer adds a header to
the packet which includes the logical addresses of both the sender and the receiver.

3. Internetworking: This is the main role of the network layer that it provides the
logical connection between different types of networks.

4. Fragmentation: The fragmentation is a process of breaking the packets into the

smallest individual data units that travel through different networks.

Services Provided by the Network Layer

o Guaranteed delivery: This layer provides the service which guarantees that the packet
will arrive at its destination.
 o Guaranteed delivery with bounded delay: This service guarantees that the packet
will be delivered within a specified host-to-host delay bound.
o In-Order packets: This service ensures that the packet arrives at the destination in the
order in which they are sent.
o Security services: The network layer provides security by using a session key between
the source and destination host.
Protocols in network layer

ARP

o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

o ARP is used to find the MAC address of the node from its logical address

RARP
o RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.
o The protocol which is used to find the IP address of a node from its MAC address

IP

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol, or set of rules, for routing and addressing packets of
data so that they can travel across networks and arrive at the correct destination.

ICMP Protocol

The ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is a network layer protocol. It is
used for error handling in the network layer, and it is primarily used on network devices such
as routers.

4. Transport Layer
 The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data
which is being sent over the network.
 The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission. It is an
unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
 User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the
sender that user datagram has been damaged.
UDP consists of the following fields:
  Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program
that has created the message.
 Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application
program that receives the message.
 Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
 Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
 It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the
duration of the transmission.
 TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the
transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment, and
each segment contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the frames to form
an original message.
At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence
numbers.

5. Session Layer

The Session Layer allows users on different machines to establish active communication
sessions between them.

It's main aim is to establish, maintain and synchronize the interaction between communicating
systems. Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different
applications.

Functions of Session Layer

1. Dialog Control : This layer allows two systems to start communication with each other
in half-duplex or full-duplex.

2. Token Management: This layer prevents two parties from attempting the same critical
operation at the same time.

3. Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered
as synchronization points into stream of data. Example: If a system is sending a file of
800 pages, adding checkpoints after every 50 pages is recommended. This ensures that
50 page unit is successfully received and acknowledged. This is beneficial at the time
of crash as if a crash happens at page number 110; there is no need to retransmit 1 to100
pages.

6.Presentation layer
The presentation layer (Layer 6) ensures that the message is presented to the upper layer in a
standardized format. It deals with the syntax and the semantics of the messages.

o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

The main functions of the presentation layer are as follows −

 Translation :It encodes the messages from the user dependent format to the common
format and vice versa, for communication among dissimilar systems.
 Encryption :It is responsible for data encryption and decryption of sensitive data
before they are transmitted over common channels.
 Compression :It is also responsible for data compression. Data compression is done at
the source to reduce the number of bits to be transmitted. It reduces the storage space
and increases the file transfer rate. It is particularly useful for transmission of large
multimedia files.

7. Application layer
 An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
 It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
 This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:
HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the
data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is
known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment
where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the
e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to
another e-mail address.
DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection
of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses.
Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between
the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a
terminal at the remote system.
FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.

The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike
seven layers in the OSI model. TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of
Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is based on standard protocols. The layers are:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer

1. The Network Interface Layer/Network Access layer

 Network Interface Layer is this layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model. This layer is also
called a network access layer.
 A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model
 This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer of
the OSI model
 The Network Access Layer defines the mechanism of how data is physically
transmitted via the network
 It also includes how bits should optically be signalled by hardware devices which
directly interfaces with a network medium, like coaxial, optical, coaxial, fiber, or
twisted-pair cables.
  they define how to use the network to transmit a frame

 It helps to define details of how data should be sent using the network.

2. Internet Layer
 An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
 An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
 The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network,
and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The
IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide
internetwork routing.

Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be

transmitted.

Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer
protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the
data into message known as IP datagram.

Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data
link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram
is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that
they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate
router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an original message.

Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN,
it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network, then the
IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through
various devices such as routers.

Other protocols in this layer are:

1.ARP Protocol o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP address.
The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
2. ICMP Protocol o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a network layer protocol used by network
devices to diagnose network communication issues.

3.Transport Layer
 The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of
data which is being sent over the network.
 The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission. It is an
unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
 User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to
the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
UDP consists of the following fields:
 Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program
that has created the message.
 Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application
program that receives the message.
 Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
 Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
 It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the
duration of the transmission.
 TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the
transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment, and
each segment contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the frames to form
an original message.
At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence
numbers.

4.Application Layer
 An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
 It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
 This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:
 HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the
data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is
known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment
where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the
e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to
another e-mail addres
DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection
of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses.
Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between
the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a
terminal at the remote system.
FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.
 MODULE 1 – PART 2
Transmission modes
Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as a
communication mode.
1. Simplex Mode –
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only
one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The
simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.

Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce
input, the monitor can only give the output.

2. Half-Duplex Mode –
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The
half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both
directions at the same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for
each direction.

Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are
sent in both directions.
3. Full-Duplex Mode –
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full_duplex
mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in
another direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time.
The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.

Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a

telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

Bandwidth
Bandwidth refers to the data capacity of a channel. It is defined as the total amount of data
which can be transferred over a network in a specific period of time.
For example, Kilobits per second (Kbps), Megabits per second (Mbps), Gigabits per
second (Gbps), etc.

Baud Rate
  The number of times a signal can change on a transmission line per second is referred
to as the baud rate
 Bit rate = Baud rate x the number of bit per baud.
Fig 1
Baud rate =1
No.of bit/baud 1
Bit rate=1X1=1

Fig 2
Baud rate =1
No.of bits /baud =2
Bit rate = 1X2=2
Bit rate
 It represents the speed of data transmission
 It is the number of bits transmitted per unit time
 Units are bps,Mbps,Gbps etc.

Modulation

 Modulation is the process of transforming a high frequency carrier signal so that it can
carry the information of a message signal. Any signal has three basic properties –
amplitude, frequency and phase.
 In the modulation process, one of the properties of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the message signal.
 There are two types of modulation – Analog and Digital
 In analog modulation, message signal is analog. If the message signal is in digital
form or in terms of 1s and 0s then it is known as digital modulation.
 Analog modulation is two types – continuous wave modulation and pulse
modulation.
  Continuous wave modulation is three types –Amplitude Modulation, frequency
modulation and phase modulation

Amplitude Modulation

 In case of amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave changes according
to the message signal.

Here shape of the carrier wave changes according to the message signal.

Frequency modulation
In case of frequency modulation,the frequency of the carrier wave changes according to the
message signal.

Phase modulation
In case of phase modulation, phase of the carrier wave changes according to the message
signal.
Digital Modulation
The modulation method in which discrete signals are used to modulate carrier waves and
remove noise from the waves is knows as digital modulation.
Digital Modulation types
Amplitude shift key
Frequency shift key
Phase shift key

Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital

information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier signal.
Amplitude Shift Keying ASK is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents the binary
data in the form of variations in the amplitude of a signal.
Phase-shift keying (FSK) is a phase modulation scheme in which digital information is
transmitted through variations in the phase of a carrier signal.

Multiplexing

 Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a
single medium.
 The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware used
for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
 Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n
input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n
input lines and one output line.
 Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX)
available at the receiving end.
 DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n outputs).
Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.
Why Multiplexing?

o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The
medium can only have one signal at a time.
o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in
such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. When
multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision and
requires more wires to send. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.

Concept of Multiplexing

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines the
signals to form a composite signal.
o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates a
signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective destinations.

AD

Advantages of Multiplexing:

o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.

o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Multiplexing Techniques

o Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

 It is an analog technique.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth of a
single transmission medium is subdivided into several frequency channels.

In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several frequency
channels, and each frequency channel is given to different devices. Device 1 has a frequency
channel of range from 1 to 5.

 The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation
techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
 FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

 Advantages Of FDM:
 FDM is used for analog signals.
 FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
 A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
  It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

 Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are
transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
 WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
 It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
 It is an analog multiplexing technique.
 Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light with
the help of multiplexer and this composite signal is transmitted through a fibre optical
cable.
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
 At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their
respective destinations.

Time Division Multiplexing

 It is a digital technique.
 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is
distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time
interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather
the data is transmitted one-by-one.
  In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames.

It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex
digital signals.

There are two types of TDM:

 Synchronous TDM
 Asynchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM

 A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every device.

 In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that
the device contains the data or not.
 If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
 In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames
 If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

Asynchronous TDM

 An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.

 An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the case of
Synchronous TDM.
 Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the data to send. Therefore,
we can say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only the data from
active workstations.
 The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many slots
in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized.
This leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of the capacity of
the channel.

Switching
In computer networks, switching is the process of moving data packets from one device to
another through a network switch:
 Function: A switch's main job is to receive data packets on one link and send them on
another. This is also known as forwarding.

 How it works: A switch uses a MAC address table to determine where to send a packet.

 Types: There are two types of switching: circuit switching and packet switching.

 Relation to routing: Switching is the process of sending packets within a Local Area
Network (LAN), while routing is the process of sending packets between two or more
LANs.

Switched Networks

A switched network basically consists of a series of interlinked nodes. These interlinked

nodes are known as switches.

 Thus in a switched network, connectivity is usually provided by making the use of

switches.
 Switches are those devices that are capable of creating temporary connections between
two or more devices that are linked to them.
 In this network, some switches are connected to the end system(like computer systems
or telephones) while other switches are used for routing.
 The network device switch is mainly a layer-2 device of the OSI model.
 Switching is done by the switch on the basis of the MAC address.

The Switch mainly transfers the data only to the device that has been addressed (means having
proper mac address). Because verification of destination address is done by the switch in order
to route the packet appropriately.

In the above figure; A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H are end systems or we can say communicating

devices. And there are 4 switches labeled as 1,2,3,4

There are three switching techniques:

  Circuit Switching
 Packet Switching
 Message Switching

On the basis of the above-given techniques, switched networks are broadly classified as
follows:

Advantages of Switched Networks/switching

Given below are some benefits of switched networks:

 There are fewer chances of frame collision.

 There is an increase in the performance of networks by using switches.
 There is an increase in the available bandwidth on the network by using switches.
 The workload on the individual PC gets reduced by using switches in the network.

Disadvantages of Switched Networks/switching

There are some drawbacks of using switches :

 As we are using switches in the switched network, so the network becomes expensive
because switches are expensive.
 It is difficult to trace the connectivity issues in the network through a switch.
 In order to handle multicast packets, proper design and configuration are needed.

Circuit Switching

 Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between

sender and receiver.
 In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
  Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
 A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
 In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice,
video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the
acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the
acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
 Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
 Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

 Circuit establishment
 Data transfer
 Circuit Disconnect

Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

 In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.

 It has fixed bandwidth.
 Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
 Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data
transmission.
 It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data
can be transmitted.
 It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required for
each connection.
 It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred,
then the capacity of the path is wasted.

Message Switching
 Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a
complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
 In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between
the sender and receiver.
 The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a
dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the
information available in the message.
 Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.
 Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node.
This type of network is known as store and forward network.
 Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

 Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the efficiency
of using available bandwidth.
 Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the
nodes.
 Message priority can be used to manage the network.
 The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it
supports the data of unlimited size.

Disadvantages Of Message Switching

 The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to store
the messages until the message is forwarded.
  The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the
message switching technique.

Packet Switching

 The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is divided into
smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
 The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique
number to identify their order at the receiving end.
 Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
 Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
 All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
 If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
 If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be
sent.

Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

 It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is
considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the
destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to the correct
destination.
 In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
 Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
 Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
Virtual Circuit Switching
 Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
 In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the
messages are sent.
 Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between sender
and receiver.
 In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

 Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require

massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent.
Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
 Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the
Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.
 Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any established
path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same communication channel
simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth very efficiently.

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

 The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires high
implementation cost.
 If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost packets.
It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are not recovered.