UNIT IV ROUTING

Routing and protocols: Unicast routing - Distance Vector Routing - RIP - Link State Routing – OSPF–
Path-vector routing - BGP - Multicast Routing: DVMRP – PIM.
UNIT IV - PART A
1. Give any two Transport layer service. (Dec 12)
Multiplexing: Transport layer performs multiplexing/de-multiplexing function. Multiple
applications employ same transport protocol, but use different port number. According to
lower layer n/w protocol, it does upward multiplexing or downward multiplexing.
Reliability: Error Control and Flow Control.

2. Mention the various adaptive retransmission policy of TCP.

 Simple average
 Exponential / weighted average
 Exponential RTT backoff
 Jacobson’s Algorithm
3. How IANA has divided port numbers?
IANA (Internet Assigned Number Authority) has divided port numbers into three ranges: 1) Well
Known ports 2) Registered ports 3) Dynamic Ports.
4. List few well known ports for UDP.
Port Protocol Description
7 Echo Echoes a received datagram back to the sender
9 Discard Discards any datagram received
11 Users Active Users
13 Daytime Returns Date and Time
5. Define congestion. (Nov 11)
Congestion in a network occurs if user sends data into the network at a rate greater than that
allowed by network resources. Any given node has a number of I/O ports attached to it.
There are two buffers at each port. One to accept arriving packets & another one to hold packets
that are waiting to depart. If packets arrive too fast node than to process them or faster than
packets can be cleared from the outgoing buffers, then there will be no empty buffer. Thus
causing congestion and traffic in the network.
6. What is Tiny gram?
A very small packet of data is called a tiny gram. Too many tiny grams can congest a
network connection.
7. Give the datagram format of UDP?
The basic idea of UDP is for a source process to send a message to a port and for the destination
process to receive the message from a port.
Source port address: It is the address of the application program that has created the
message.
Destination port address: It is the address of the application program that will receive the
message.
Total Length: It defines the total length of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: It is a 16 bit field used in error correction.
Source Port Address 16 bits Destination Port Address 16 bits
Total Length 16 bits Checksum 16 bits
8. What is the main difference between TCP & UDP? (Nov 21)
TCP UDP
It provides Connection oriented service Provides connectionless service.

Connection Establishment delay will be there No connection establishment delay

Provides reliable service Provides unreliable, but fast service
 It is used by FTP, SMTP It is used by DNS, SNMP, audio, video
and multimedia applications.
9. What is TCP? (Nov 11)
Transmission Control Protocol provides Connection oriented and reliable services. TCP
guarantees the reliable, in order delivery of a stream of bytes. It is a full-duplex protocol,
meaning that each TCP connection supports a pair of byte streams, one flowing in each
direction. It is used by FTP, SMTP.
10. List out various congestion control techniques.
1) AIMD (Additive Increase Multiplicative Decrease)
2) Slow start 3) Fast retransmit 4) Recovery
11. What are the advantages of using UDP over TCP? (Nov 10)
UDP is very useful for audio or video delivery which does not need acknowledgement. It is
useful in the transmission of multimedia data. Connection Establishment delay will occur in
TCP.
12. What is the difference between service point address, logical address and physical
address?
Service point addressing Logical addressing Physical addressing
The transport layer header If a packet passes the If the frames are to be
includes a type of address network boundary we need distributed to different
called a service point address or another addressing to systems on the network, the
port address, which makes a differentiate the source and data link layer adds the
data delivery from a specific destination systems. The header, which defines the
process on one computer to a network layer adds a source machine’s address
specific process on header, which indicates the and the destination
another logical address of the Machine’s address.
computer. sender and receiver.
13. What is the use of UDP’s Pseudo header?
The pseudo header consists of three field from the IP header protocol number ,source IP address
and destination IP address plus the UDP length field (which is included twice
in checksum calculation).The pseudo header is used to check whether the message is
delivered between 2 endpoints.
14. Suppose TCP operates over a 1-Gbps link, utilizing the full bandwidth continuously. How
long will it take for the sequence numbers to wrap around completely? Suppose an added
32-bit timestamp field increments 1000 times during this wrap around time, how long it will
take timestamp filed to wrap around?
(May 13)
Once a segment with sequence x survives in Internet, TCP cannot use the same sequence no.
How fast 32-bit sequence no space can be consumed? 32-bit sequence no is adequate for today’s
network. Wrap Around Time for T3-45Mbps (232 x 8)
/45Mbps=763.55sec=12.73 min.
15. Write short notes on congestion control. (Nov 12)
It involves preventing too much data from being injected into the network, thereby causing
switches or links to become overloaded. Thus flow control is an end to an end issue, while
congestion control is concerned with how hosts and networks interact.
16. What do you mean by slow start in TCP congestion? (May 16)
TCP slow start is an algorithm which balances the speed of a network connection. Slow start
gradually increases the amount of data transmitted until it finds the network’s maximum carrying
capacity.
17. Differentiate congestion control and flow control. (Nov 13,15)
Congestion Control Flow Control
 Congestion control means preventing the Flow control means preventing the source
source from sending data that will end up from sending data that the receiver will
getting dropped by a router because its end up dropping because it
queue is full. runs out of buffer space.
This is more complicated, because packets from This is fairly easy with a sliding window
different sources travelling different paths can protocol
converge on the same queue.
18. What are the four aspects related to the reliable delivery of data? (May 12)
The four aspects are Error control, Sequence control, Loss control and Duplication control.

19. What is UDP?

It stands for User Datagram Protocol. It is part of the TCP/IP suite of protocols used for
data transferring. UDP is a known as a "stateless" protocol, meaning it doesn't acknowledge
that the packets being sent, have been received.
20. List the different phases used in TCP Connection. (May 16)
The different phases used in TCP connection are Connection establishment Phase, Data transfer
and Connection Termination Phase.
21. List the advantages of Connection oriented services over connectionless services.
(May 17) (Nov 21)
Connection Oriented:
Advantages:
1. Buffers can be reserved in advance
2. Sequencing can be guaranteed.
3. Short headers.
22. How do fast retransmit mechanism of TCP works?(May 17)
Fast Retransmit is an enhancement to TCP that reduces the time a sender waits before
retransmitting a lost segment. A TCP sender uses a timer to recognize lost segments. If an
acknowledgement is not received for a particular segment within a specified time, the sender
will assume the segment was lost in the network, and will retransmit the segment. Duplicate
acknowledgement is the basis for the fast retransmit mechanism which works as follows: after
receiving a packet (e.g. with sequence number 1), the receiver sends an acknowledgement by
adding 1 to the sequence number (i.e., acknowledgement number 2) which means that the
receiver received the packet number 1 and it expects packet number 2 from the sender. Let's
assume that three subsequent packets have been lost. In the meantime the receiver receives
packet numbers 5 and 6. After receiving packet number 5, the receiver sends an
acknowledgement, but still only for sequence number 2. When the receiver receives packet
number 6, it sends yet another acknowledgement value of 2. Because the sender receives more
than one acknowledgement with the same sequence number (2 in this example) this is called
duplicate acknowledgement.

23. Define SCTP

SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol) is a reliable, message oriented transport
layer protocol. It combines the best features of UDP and TCP. It is mostly designed for
internet applications.
24. What is the use of SCTP Multiple stream service?
SCTP allows multi stream service in each connection, which is called association in SCTP
terminology. If one of the streams is blocked, the other streams can still deliver their data. The
idea is similar to multiple lanes on a highway. The figure shows the idea of multi stream
delivery.

25. Define Multihoming Concept of SCTP

Multihoming is the ability of an SCTP association to support multiple IP paths to its peer
endpoint. The benefit of multihoming associations is that it makes the association more fault-
tolerant against physical network failures and other issues on the interfaces.

26. What is piggybacking ? (Nov 19)

Piggybacking is used to improve the efficiency of bidirectional transmission. When a
frame is carrying data from A to B, it can also carry control information
about frames from B; when a frame is carrying data from B to A, it can also carry control
information about frames from A.
27. Outline stop-wait ARQ Mechanism. (Nov 19)
A stop-and-wait ARQ sender sends one frame at a time; it is a special case of the general
sliding window protocol with transmit and receive window sizes equal to one in both
cases. After sending each frame, the sender doesn't send any further frames until it
receives an acknowledgement (ACK) signal.
28. Why the congestion occur in network? (Nov 20 (May 21 )
Congestion occurs because the switches in a network have a limited buffer size to store
arrived packets. And also because the packets arrive at a faster rate than what the receiver
can receive and process the packets.
29. What happens in the three way handshaking between any two devices? (Nov 20) (May 21 )
Three-way handshake process is designed in such a way that both ends help you to initiate,
negotiate, and separate TCP socket connections at the same time. It allows you to transfer
multiple TCP socket connections in both directions at the same time.
 Message Description

SYN Used to initiate and establish a connection. It also helps you to

synchronize sequence numbers between devices.
ACK Helps to confirm to the other side that it has received the SYN.
SYN-ACK SYN message from local device and ACK of the earlier packet.
FIN Used to terminate a connection.
UNIT IV - PART B
1. Write short notes on (May 12)
(i) TCP segment format (ii) Silly window syndrome (Or) discuss the silly window
syndrome and explain how to avoid it.
2. With neat architecture, Explain TCP and its sliding window algorithm for flow control.
(Nov 15)
3. Describe with examples the three mechanisms by which congestion control is achieved in
TCP. (Nov 13,15)(May 15,16)/ What are the 2 broad categories of Congestion control
mechanisms? Briefly explain all techniques.(Nov 19,20) (May 21 )
4. Why TCP does uses adaptive retransmission and describes its mechanism. (Nov 13) Illustrate the
features of TCP that can be used by the sender to insert record boundaries into the byte stream.
Also mention their original purpose.(May 13)
5. Explain connection establishment and connection closing in TCP (Or) Describe how
reliable and ordered delivery is achieved through TCP. (Nov 13,21)(May 15)
6. Explain the significance of Clark’s solution and Nagle’s algorithm. (Or) What is the need
for Nagle’s algorithm? How does it determine when to transmit data? (May 13)
7. Discuss about queuing disciplines.
8. Define UDP. Discuss the operations of UDP. Explain UDP checksum with one example.
(May 16) (Nov 21)
9. i) Explain the adaptive flow control and retransmission techniques used in TCP.
ii) With TCPs slow start and AIMD for congestion control show how the window size
will vary for a transmission where every 5th packet is lost. Assume an advertised window
size of 50 MSS. (May 17)
10. Explain SCTP in Detail (May 17,21) (Nov 20 )
11. Explain the Association establishment of SCTP through four-way handshake in detail.
(Nov 20) (May 21 )
12. i) Compare the features of TCP and UDP. (8) (Nov 19)
ii) Explain the TCP Header format . (5)
13. Illustrate with example.
i. Stop -and-wait protocol
ii. Go-Back-N Protocol
iii. Selective -Repeat protocol(Nov 21)