Hyperpoetry/ cyber poetry

- uses links, hyperlinks hypertext mark up

- needs a computer

blogs
- essay
- website containing short articles called posts that are changed regularly
- some are written by one person containing their own opinions, interests, and experiences
- others are written by many diferent people

Mobile phone text tula

- a particular example is tanaga kurakot
- tanaga - 4 lines with 7 syllables, hepta syllable
mono rhyming lines, it can also have other patterns

Chicklit - novels
- genre fiction which addresses issues of womanhood, often humorously and light heartedly
- became popular in late 1990s
- topping best seller lists and the creation of imprints devoted entirely to chick lit
- sometimes includes romantic elements, not considered direct subcategory of romance
- heroine relations with her family of friends is often just as important as her romantic relationships

speculative fiction
- umbrella term encompassing the more fantastical fiction genres

flash fiction (fast food fiction)

- style of fictional literature or fiction of extreme brevity
- no widely accepted definition of the length of the category
- as low as 300 words or a thousand

Literary Criticism ^___^

1. Feminism -
2. Psychoanalysis - self, repressed emotions,
3. Reader response -
4. Archetypal literary criticism -
5. Marxism -
6. Structuralism - semiotics [study of signs (signifier, signified)], Ferdinand
Saussure -

Deus ex machina

Deconstruction - text, language and how it becomes undecidable

(Unstable, undecidability)

a text can be open to different interpretation,

The road not taken poem

Binary opposites
As Britannica Encyclopedia defines it, LITERATURE is a body of written works. The name has
traditionally been applied to those imaginative works of poetry and prose distinguished by the
intentions of their authors and the perceived aesthetic excellence of their execution. Literature may be
classified according to various systems, including language, national origin, historical period, genre,
and subject matter. As it represents a language or a people's culture and tradition (T. Nicholas), it
introduces us to new worlds of experience. The art of literature is not reducible to the words on the
page; they are there solely because of the craft of writing. As an art, literature might be described as
the organization of words to give pleasure. Yet through words, literature elevates and transforms
experience beyond “mere” pleasure. Literature also functions more broadly in society to criticize and
affirm cultural values.

LITERATURE DEFINED...
 Derived from the Latin “litterae” which means “things made from letters”.
 Acquaintance with letters
 “A performance in words” (Robert Frost)
 “Writings which interpret the meanings of nature and life, in words of charm
and power, touched with the personality of the author in artistic forms of
permanent interest.” (Henry Van Dyke)
 Used to refer to compositions that deal with life experiences.

From: Sialongo, E. B. et.al.(2007). Literatures of the world. Sampaloc, Manila:

Rex Book Store, Inc.
 Language in use that provides insights and intellectual stimulation to the reader.
 A product of a particular culture that concretizes man’s array of values, emotions,
actions and ideas.
 An art that reflects the works of imagination, aesthetics, and creative writing
which are distinguished for the beauty of style or expression as in fiction, poetry, essay, or drama, in
distinction from scientific treatises and works which contain positive knowledge.

CREATIVE
(artistic, aesthetically appealing, conveys hidden truth and beauty and has intellectual value)
(product of human mind; choice of words detail the scene; follows distinct style as a poem)

SUGGESTIVE
(emotional power to convey nuances, symbolism, implied meanings, imagery and messages)
(relates/ reveals that the situation is very much challenging; lots of difficulties; mixed emotions)

UNIVERSAL
(shared experiences, common desires and expectations that can cross barriers)
(all are experiencing the same dillemma; no one is spared from the fangs of this crisis)

PERMANENT
(can stand the test of time, can be read by future generations)
(will be part of the history and will be known and read by future generations)

ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE
WRITTEN WORKS HAVING EXCELLENCE IN:

FORM
EXPRESSION
IDEAS
WIDESPREAD/ LASTING INTEREST
FUNCTIONS OF LITERATURE
 To express one’s self
 To instruct
 To delight
 To actively shape our culture
To construct and articulate socio-cultural realities and to involve you as
the reader in an invigorating interaction with these realities

 To empower one in an active engagement with the world

 To develop mature sensibility and compassion for the condition of all
creation
 To appreciate beauty
 To shape one’s own goals and values and clarify one’s own identity
 To develop wider perspective of events

IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE
“Literature helps us grow, both personally and intellectually. It links us with the broader society of
which we are a part. It allows us to recognize human dreams and struggles of different peoples and
places. It helps us develop mature sensibility and compassion for all creations in the universe. It gives
us the knowledge and perception to appreciate the beauty of order and arrangement. It enables us to
see the worthiness in the aspirations of all people. It exercises our emotions through interest,
concern, tension, excitement, hope, fear, regret, laughter and sympathy (actual lived experiences).”
(Patron, 2002)

LITERARY CONVENTIONS
 With these, meaning is so widely understood within a society that authors can expect their
audiences to accept.

LITERARY CANONS
 A group of works generally agreed upon by critics to be masterpieces; appears again and again in
anthologies of literature and course syllabi.

LITERARY CRITICISM
 Descriptions, analyses, interpretations, and evaluations of works of literature using different
(philosophical or ideological) theories or viewpoints.

"The world of literature is a sacred mirror that shows not the reality around us but the dreams
and fears that reality stimulates. It is not where we live. It is life itself." - Dennis Vickers, Only
Breath

DEEPENING ON THE DEFINITIONS OF LITERATURE

 Literature comes from the Latin word “LITERA” which literally means an acquaintance with letters,
the root definition of literature. It is a body of literary productions, either oral, written or visual,
containing imaginative language that realistically portrays thoughts, emotions, and experiences of the
human condition.
 The creation of literature is a uniquely human activity, born of man's timeless desire to understand,
express, and finally share experiences.
 Literature is language in use that provides insights and intellectual stimulation to the reader. As one
explores literature, he likewise discovers the beauty of language.
 When we speak of literature, however, we have in mind a special kind of language that differs from
the ordinary discourse with which we conduct our daily affairs. The term itself refers to language that
is deliberately structured in such a way as to have identifiable artistic qualities.
 The medium of translation, of course, is language, the written and spoken word.
 Literature is a product of a particular culture that concretizes man’s array of values, emotions,
actions and ideas. It is therefore a creation of human experience that tells about people and their
world.
 Literature is an art that reflects the works of imagination, aesthetics, and creative writing which are
distinguished for the beauty of style or expression as in fiction, poetry, essay or drama, in distinction
from scientific treatises and works which contain positive knowledge.
 Literature is "a concrete artifact -- a story, a poem, or a play".

LITERARY STANDARDS
Literature, as compared to any other forms of writing, possesses distinct qualities that separate it from
the rest. These include:

LITERARY SENSE

UNIVERSALITY
Literature appeals to everyone, regardless of culture, race, sex, and time, which are all considered
significant.

ARTISTRY
Literature has an aesthetic appeal and thus possesses a sense of beauty.

INTELLECTUAL VALUE
Literature stimulates critical thinking that enriches mental processes of abstract and reasoning,
making man realize the fundamental truths of life and its nature.

SUGGESTIVENESS
Literature unravels and conjures man’s emotional power to define symbolisms, nuances, implied
meanings, images and messages, giving and evoking visions above and beyond the plane of ordinary
life and experience.

SPIRITUAL VALUE
Literature elevates the spirit and the soul and thus has the power to motivate and inspire, drawn from
the suggested morals or lessons of the different literary genres.

PERMANENCE
Literature endures across time and draws out the time factor: timeliness, occurring at a particular
time, and timelessness, remaining invariable throughout time.

STYLE
Literature presents peculiar way/s on how man sees life as evidenced by the formation of his ideas,
forms, structures, and expressions which are marked by their memorable substance.
LITERARY MODELS

The study of Literature appeals in different aspects and importance. Some of the noted ones include:
1. Cultural Model
Literature aims to understand and appreciate cultures and ideologies different from one’s own in time
and space.

2. Language Model
Literature aims to promote language development like vocabulary and structure.

3. Personal Growth Model

Literature aims to help one achieve lasting pleasure and deep satisfaction in reading.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF LITERATURE

Literature is classified differently according to its usage. Some classifications include:

1. Structure
 Fiction is a literary work of imaginative narration, either oral or written, fashioned to entertain
and to make the readers think and more so, to feel.
 Non-Fiction is a literary work of “real life” narration or exposition based on history and facts
whose main thrust is intellectual appeal to convey facts, theories, generalizations, or concepts about
a particular topic.

2. Form
 Prose is a literary work that is spoken or written within the common flow of language in sentences
and paragraphs which give information, relate events, express ideas, or present opinions. It is a
literary medium that corresponds closely to everyday speech patterns and is used to provide detailed
descriptions of ideas, objects or situations.
 Poetry is a literary work expressed in verse, measure, rhythm, sound and imaginative language
and creates an emotional response to an experience, feeling, or fact.

3. Genre
 Fiction is a narrative in prose that shows an imaginative recreation and reconstruction of life and
presents human life in two levels: the world of objective reality made up of human actions and
experiences, and the world of subjective reality dealing with human apprehension and
comprehension categorized either as novel or short story.
 Poetry is a patterned form of verbal or written expression of ideas in concentrated, imaginative,
and rhythmical terms that often contain the elements of sense, sound, and structure.
 Essay is a prose composition in moderate length that presents a tentative or evaluation of a
subject and thus explains a viewpoint or anything that can be said on a particular subject.
 Drama is a composition in prose form that presents story told entirely in dialogue and action and
written with the intention of its eventual performance before an audience.

WHY DO WE READ LITERATURE? LITERARY SIGNALS/ EXPLANATIONS

READING FOR VICARIOUS ESCAPE Literature can offer "exciting narratives that can
be read uncritically simply because they allow us
to escape the problems and responsibilities of
our everyday lives and to participate, however
briefly, in a world of experience that differs
radically from our own."
 Examples: the spy or detective story; science
fiction; historical novels
We read for the fun of it.
"Many works of literature, classics as well as
paperback pulps, survive precisely because they
succeed in temporarily detaching us from time
and place and transporting us to some
imaginary world that we otherwise would never
know." "Although some people tend to regard
such a motive as adolescent or even anti-
intellectual, the fact remains that literature
flourishes, in part at least, because of the
freedom and escape it affords our imagination."

And for those works which do not seem like

"escape," we should ask what they have that
have led them to "survive" over time!

READING TO LEARN "Literature offers the reader 'knowledge' in the

form of information . . . information that at the
time is all the more fascinating because it is part
of the author's re-created world."

"Literature read in this way serves as a social

document, giving us insight into the laws,
customs, institutions, attitudes, and values of the
age in which it was written or in which it is set."

Literature "broadens our knowledge of the world.

However, not all of this 'knowledge' is
particularly valuable; and much of it will be
forgotten quickly. Some of it may, in fact, turn
out to be misleading or even false, and as such
must always be checked and verified against
other sources."

READING TO CONFRONT EXPERIENCE "One of the most compelling aspects of literature

is its relationship to human experience. Reading
is an act of engagement and participation. It is
also, simultaneously, an act of clarification and
discovery. Literature allows us, as perhaps no
other medium can, the chance to overcome the
limitations of our own subjectivity and those
limitations imposed by sex, age, social and
economic condition, and the times in which we
live. Literary characters offer us immediate
access to a wide range of human experiences
we otherwise might never know. As readers we
 observe these characters' private as well as
public lives, and become privy to their innermost
thoughts, feelings, and motivations. It is the very
intimacy of this access that explains why
psychologists have traditionally found
imaginative literature a rich source for case
studies to illustrate theories of personality and
behavior." [For example, the Oedipal complex!]

"The relationship between literature and

experience, however, is a reciprocal one. Just
as literature allows us to participate in the
experience of others, so too it has the power to
shape and alter our attitudes and expectations.
To know why we identify with one character and
not another may tell us about the kind of person
we are or aspire to be. If we are sensitive and
perceptive readers, we have much to learn from
these encounters, which can enrich the quality
and affect the direction of our lives, though the
precise effects of these encounters are
impossible to predict and will vary from one
reader to another. One mark of a 'great' work of
literature is its ability to have an effect on the
reader. In the same way, it is this affective
power of fiction, drama, and poetry that helps to
explain the survival of those works we regard as
classics. [Works] survive as classics because
they have offered generations of readers the
opportunity to clarify and perhaps even modify
their views of life and also because they shed
life on the complexity and ambiguity of human
existence, including the reader's own."
READING FOR AESTHETIC PLEASURE "Literature can also be read for the sheer
aesthetic pleasure we take in good
craftsmanship of any kind.

'A thing of beauty is a joy forever' is a phrase the

poet John Keats has given us; well-ordered and
well-chosen words are one of the few forms of
immortality. Despite its other uses, a poem, a
play, or a novel is a self-contained work of art,
with a definable and describable structure and
texture: it can be approached and appreciated
on terms that are uniquely its own.

What distinguishes literature from other forms of

artistic expressions is its reliance on structure
and style in language. Sensitive and
experienced readers will respond to well-chosen
words, though they may not be initially
conscious of exactly what they are responding
 to, or why. When that response is a positive one,
we speak of our sense of pleasure or delight, in
much the same way that we respond to a
painting, a piece of sculpture, or a musical
composition. If we push our inquiry farther and
try to analyze our response, we begin to move in
the direction of literary criticism."

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE plays a major role in compelling literary works. As it contrasts with literal
language, its primary purpose is to force readers to imagine or intuit what an author means with an
expression or statement. Multiple literary devices and elements are commonly used in the category of
figurative language- - - such for strength, depth, and quality, making pieces more masterful (N.
Kokemuller).

Figurative Language
A word or phrase that describes one thing in terms of another and that is not meant to be taken
literally.
Figures of speech always involve a comparison of two things that are basically very dissimilar.
Figurative Language
Figurative language is basic to everyday speech, i.e. “She is a tower of strength” or “He’s a pain in
the neck.”
Hundreds of figures of speech have been identified by scholars; the most common ones are simile,
metaphor, personification, and symbol.

Simile
A figure of speech that makes an explicit comparison between two unlike things, using a word such
as like, as, than, or resembles.
Ex. Her eyes were like sunshine.

Metaphor
A figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unlike things without the use of such
specific words of comparison as like, as, than, or resembles.
Three types of metaphors:
Directly stated
Implied
Extended

Metaphor
1. A directly stated metaphor states the comparison explicitly:
Ex.
“Fame is a bee” (Emily Dickinson).
Life is a roller coaster.

Metaphor
2. An implied metaphor does not state explicitly the two terms of the comparison.
n Ex. His sandpaper hands clumsily smoothed the satin sheets.

Metaphor
3. An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is extended or developed so that the metaphor takes on
a symbolic quality.
In “A Rose for Emily” Faulkner makes the comparison between Emily and the Southern way of life
throughout the whole story so that Emily is a symbol.

Personification
Personification is a figure of speech in which an object or animal is given human feelings, thoughts,
or attitudes.
Personification is a type of metaphor in which two dissimilar things are compared.

Personification
Ex. The heat pulsed under your dress, along your legs, with a stealthy and not unpleasant sense of
invasion.

Symbol
A person, place, things or event that has meaning in itself and that also stands for something more
than itself.
We can distinguish between public and private symbols.
The dove, for example is a public symbol of peace, accepted all over the world.

Symbol
The dove, for example is a public symbol of peace, accepted all over the world.
Most symbols used in literature are personal symbols; even though a symbol may be widely used, a
writer will usually adapt it in some imaginative, personal way so that it can suggest not just one, but a
myriad of meanings. For example, the journey.

Examples of Figurative Language

1. Simile - A poem as lovely as a tree
2. Metaphor - You are my angel.
3. Personification - Only the moon was the witness in the incident.
4. Hyperbole – She cried forever!
5. Irony - You’re so lovely today; you look like a Christmas tree.
6. Metonymy - I give you my heart
7. Oxymoron - She gave me a sour smile.
8. Apostrophe - Love, thy will be done.
9. Paradox - He who hurries is delayed.
10. Allusion - Some call Marcos a modern-day Hitler.
11. Antithesis - “Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heav’n
12. Litotes - William Shakespeare was not a bad playwright at all.
13. Onomatopoeia - The rustling leaves kept me awake.
14. Assonance - the "ee" sound: "the squeaky wheel gets the grease.”
15. Alliteration - Bob brought the box of bricks to the basement.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
Refers to the use of words in a way that deviates from the conventional order and meaning in order to
convey a complicated meaning, colorful writing, clarity, or evocative comparison.
Uses an ordinary sentence to refer to something without directly stating it.
Go beyond the literal meanings of the words to give readers new insights

TAYUTAY (Filipino)
Buhat sa salitang taytay (bamboo plank o bridge); tulay o andamyo sa salita na ang layunin ay
maging maganda ang pagpapahayag-pasalita o pagsulat
Ito ay mga salita o mga pahayag na ginagamit upang bigyan-diin ang isang kaisipan o damdamin
Isang sinadyang paglayo sa karaniwang paggamit ng mga salita upang madaling maunawaan,
mabisa at kaakit-akit ang pagpapahayag. Nakadaragdag ito sa kalinawan, kapamagitan at
kagandahan ng isang katha, pasalita man o pasulat
Isang salita o grupo ng mga salita na ginagamit upang makapagpahayag ng emosyon o upang
makalikha ng mas malalim na kahulugan. Ang mga salita sa tayutay ay hindi literal, bagkus ito ay
patalinghaga at ginagamit bilang simbolo

TYPES OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

1. SIMILE – comparison of two things, indicated by some connective
2. METAPHOR – statement that one thing is something else
3. PERSONIFICATION – something is made human
4. APOSTROPHE – a way of addressing someone/something invisible or not ordinarily spoken to
5. HYPERBOLE – overstatement; a statement containing exaggeration

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
6. METONYMY– the name of a thing is substituted for that of another closely associated with it.
7. IRONY – saying one thing but means the opposite
8. OXYMORON – combining of contraries (opposites) to portray a particular image or to produce a
striking effect
9. PARADOX – A statement of expression which sounds absurd or illogical at first but true after closer
evaluation
10. ONOMATOPOEIA – Word or phrase that actually imitates/suggests the sound of what it
describes

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
11. ALLUSION - a text references another external text—or maybe a person, place or event. It can be
either explicit or implicit.
12. ALLITERATION - Experts also consider alliteration an example of figurative language, even
though it does not involve figures of speech; A sound device that layers some additional meaning on
top of the literal language of the text. It occurs when a series of words start with the same letter sound
13. ASSONANCE - The repetition of vowel sounds repeat in nearby words
14. ANTITHESIS – Disparity of ideas
15. Litotes – Deliberate sarcasm used to affirm by negating its opposite

Talking about the scope of the historical development of all writings entails a much broader and
deeper understanding of literature and its relationship to history and culture. This is so because any
changes that take place in culture contribute to the changes in literature in its forms and structure.
While there are already (and are still existing) established norms, conventions, and standards in
most of the literary texts, some of the emerging literature nowadays are brought by the influence of
diverse culture, the advent of technology, and the continuous effect of globalization, thus contributing
to a much broader scope and characteristics of what we now know as the 21st-century literary texts.

The emancipation of literary genres in the 21st century brings writers “leeway” to deviate from
conventions but remain in an acceptable form, pattern, and structure. Additionally, the historical shift
that brings not only literary fiction but generally all literary genres in the "market" (as much of these
have been published online) brings much growth in the literary landscape. For instance, hypertext
poetry and hypertext fiction have emerged as new genres of literature that use the digital environment
and computer screen as the “medium.” The nonlinearity of context provided by these genres provides
a much wider reader interaction. Additionally, graphic poetry, as the name suggests, “combines
words with images.” The “non-standard” format and structure create a meaningful visual effect for the
readers. These and other 21st-century literary genres create a wider readership that cultivates a
deeper appreciation of literature.

This part of the module aims to explore the changes in literature in terms of types, characteristics,
contents, scope, functions/roles, genres, and classification, resulting in deepening one’s appreciation
of literature and its role in their life. Overall, the literary text is characterized by the following:

1. A literary text is a sample of language used to be read and understood;

2. The illustration and expression of artistic sensibility embedded in a specific literary genre (fiction,
poetry, drama) having its history and its formal laws;

3. An artifact to be related to its socio-historical context of which the writer’s biography is one
element;

4. A semiotic construct with a set of devices and codes which definitely marks it off as literary and
which, therefore, amenable to interpretation and evaluation;

Talking about the scope of the historical development of all writings entails a much broader and
deeper understanding of literature and its relationship to history and culture. This is so because any
changes that take place in culture contribute to the changes in literature in its forms and structure.
While there are already (and are still existing) established norms, conventions, and standards in
most of the literary texts, some of the emerging literature nowadays are brought by the influence of
diverse culture, the advent of technology, and the continuous effect of globalization, thus contributing
to a much broader scope and characteristics of what we now know as the 21st-century literary texts.

The emancipation of literary genres in the 21st century brings writers “leeway” to deviate from
conventions but remain in an acceptable form, pattern, and structure. Additionally, the historical shift
that brings not only literary fiction but generally all literary genres in the "market" (as much of these
have been published online) brings much growth in the literary landscape. For instance, hypertext
poetry and hypertext fiction have emerged as new genres of literature that use the digital environment
and computer screen as the “medium.” The nonlinearity of context provided by these genres provides
a much wider reader interaction. Additionally, graphic poetry, as the name suggests, “combines
words with images.” The “non-standard” format and structure create a meaningful visual effect for the
readers. These and other 21st-century literary genres create a wider readership that cultivates a
deeper appreciation of literature.

This part of the module aims to explore the changes in literature in terms of types, characteristics,
contents, scope, functions/roles, genres, and classification, resulting in deepening one’s appreciation
of literature and its role in their life. Overall, the literary text is characterized by the following:

1. A literary text is a sample of language used to be read and understood;

2. The illustration and expression of artistic sensibility embedded in a specific literary genre (fiction,
poetry, drama) having its history and its formal laws;

3. An artifact to be related to its socio-historical context of which the writer’s biography is one
element;

4. A semiotic construct with a set of devices and codes which definitely marks it off as literary and
which, therefore, amenable to interpretation and evaluation;
 LITERATURE
21st CENTURY COUNTERPARTS
GENRE
Blog (website short articles- online post-web log); Short Memoir (first-person
ESSAY
narrative drawn from the author's own life)
Illustrated Novels; Graphic Novels (narratives in comic book
format); Manga; Text-talk Novels (stories told almost completely in dialogue
NOVEL
simulating Social Network Exchanges); Speculative Fiction (fantastical fiction/
science fiction); Chick Lit (womanhood genre)
Doodle Fiction (hand scribed font and images); Digi- Fiction (Triple media
SHORT
Literature); Speculative Fiction (fantastical fiction/ science fiction); Chick Lit
STORY
(womanhood genre); Flash Fiction (micro-narrative/ sudden-fiction)
DRAMA Theatrical Adaptation; Film as Literature
Hyperpoetry (cyberpoetry- with links using hypertext mark-up); Text Tula (short
poem in tanaga format using mobile phone); Fliptop/ Rap Battle (poetic debate/
POETRY
poetic wrestling); Spoken Word Poetry (poetry to be performed on a live
audience); Graphic Poetry

"…every literature, in its main lines, reflects the chief characteristics of the people for whom, and
about whom, it is written.”- Edith Wharton, in The New Frenchwoman.

Speaking of the abovementioned evolution, certain text follows certain conventions, and all forms of
narratives and discourse adhere to certain standards. Even in the emergence of new literary forms,
content, and structure distinguish one form from the other such as "graphic novel, language poetry,
performance art, and [other] emerging forms of digital culture". The following points provide a
supplemental summary of the characteristics of literary texts that are not specific to any form but
generally capture explicit features of some forms:

The predominance of the poetic function over the referential function because it is not limited to
communicating; it is about influencing the reader’s mood, making him live with emotions and feelings.
The author shares his experiences with the reader, recreating them in him.
It is absolutely ambiguous; this feature is where the multiple interpretation possibilities reside.
It is obviously connotative; it produces many possibilities of interpretation depending on the literary
and personal context of the reader. Connotation is the essence of literary language.
The richness of poetic resources such as literary figures. It is plentiful in images.
The syntax is more flexible. The order of the elements may vary.
Vocabulary is precise and irreplaceable. A word cannot replace another word because the expressive
power changes even if the idea remains the same.
Words are chosen by their euphony.
It has emotional weight.
Harmonic disposition of its elements, produced by a good combination of words.
The message creates a reality of its own, different from the surrounding reality.
It can be explained and described but not proven.
It is symbolic.

"Literary Criticism has about it neither rigor nor proof. Where it is honest, it is passionate,
private experience seeking to persuade."- George Steiner
Literary Criticism

By reading and discussing literature, we expand our imagination, our sense of what is possible, and
our ability to empathize with others. Improve your ability to read critically and interpret texts while
gaining appreciation for different literary genres and theories of interpretation. Read samples of
literary interpretation. Write a critique of a literary work.

Texts that interpret literary works are usually persuasive texts. Literary critics may conduct a close
reading of a literary work, critique a literary work from the stance of a particular literary theory, or
debate the soundness of other critics’ interpretations. The work of literary critics is similar to the work
of authors writing evaluative texts. For example, the skills required to critique films, interpret laws, or
evaluate artistic trends are similar to those skills required by literary critics.

Why Write Literary Criticism?

People have been telling stories and sharing responses to stories since the beginning of time. By
reading and discussing literature, we expand our imagination, our sense of what is possible, and our
ability to empathize with others. Reading and discussing literature can enhance our ability to write. It
can sharpen our critical faculties, enabling us to assess works and better understand why literature
can have such a powerful effect on our lives.
“Literary texts” include works of fiction and poetry. In school, English instructors ask students to
critique literary texts, or works. Literary criticism refers to a genre of writing whereby an author
critiques a literary text, either a work of fiction, a play, or poetry. Alternatively, some works of literary
criticism address how a particular theory of interpretation informs a reading of a work or refutes some
other critics’ reading of a work.

Diverse Rhetorical Situations

The genre of literary interpretation is more specialized than most of the other genres addressed in
this section, as suggested by the table below. People may discuss their reactions to literary works
informally (at coffee houses, book clubs, or the gym) but the lion’s share of literary criticism takes
place more formally: in college classrooms, professional journals, academic magazines, and Web
sites.

Students interpret literary works for English instructors or for students enrolled in English classes. In
their interpretations, students may argue for a particular interpretation or they may dispute other
critics’ interpretations. Alternatively, students may read a text with a particular literary theory in mind,
using the theory to explicate a particular point of view. For example, writers could critique The Story
of an Hour by Kate Chopin from a feminist theoretical perspective. Thanks to the Internet, some
English classes are now publishing students’ interpretations on Web sites. In turn, some students and
English faculty publish their work in academic literary criticism journals.

Over the years, literary critics have argued about the best ways to interpret literature. Accordingly,
many “schools” or “theories of criticism” have emerged. As you can imagine–given that they were
developed by sophisticated specialists–some of these theoretical approaches are quite sophisticated
and abstract.

Below is a summary of some of the more popular literary theories. Because it is a summary, the
following tends to oversimplify the theories. In any case, unless you are enrolled in a literary criticism
course, you won’t need to learn the particulars of all of these approaches. Instead, your teacher may
ask you to take an eclectic approach, pulling interpretative questions from multiple literary theories.
Note: If you are interested in learning more about these theories, review either Skylar Hamilton Burris’
Literary Criticism: An Overview of Approaches or Dino F. Felluga’s Undergraduate Guide to Critical
Theory

Schools of Literary Criticism

New Criticism: Focuses on “objectively” evaluating the text, identifying its underlying form. May study,
for example, a text’s use of imagery, metaphor, or symbolism. Isn’t concerned with matters outside
the text, such as biographical or contextual information. Online Examples: A Formalist Reading of
Sandra Cisneros’s “Woman Hollering Creek” , Sound in William Shakespeare’s The Tempest by
Skylar Hamilton Burris
Reader-Respons: Criticism Focuses on each reader’s personal reactions to a text, assuming meaning
is created by a reader’s or interpretive community’s personal interaction with a text. Assumes no
single, correct, universal meaning exists because meaning resides in the minds of readers. Online
Examples:Theodore Roethke’s “My Papa’s Waltz”: A Reader’s Response (PDF)
Feminism: Criticism Focuses on understanding ways gender roles are reflected or contradicted by
texts, how dominance and submission play out in texts, and how gender roles evolve in texts. Online
Example: “The Yellow Wall-Paper”: A Twist on Conventional Symbols, Subverting the French
Androcentric Influence by Jane Le Marquand
New Historicism Focuses on understanding texts by viewing texts in the context of other texts. Seeks
to understand economic, social, and political influences on texts. Tend to broadly define the term
“text,” so, for example, the Catholic Church could be defined as a “text.” May adopt the perspectives
of other interpretive communities–particularly reader-response criticism, feminist criticism, and
Marxist approaches–to interpret texts. Online Example Monstrous Acts by Jonathan Lethem
Media Criticism Focuses on writers’ use of multimedia and hypertexts. Online Examples The
Electronic Labyrinth by Christopher Keep, Tim McLaughlin, and Robin Parmar
Psychoanalytical Criticism Focuses on psychological dimensions of the work. Online Examples: A
Freudian Approach to Erin McGraw’s “A Thief” by Skylar Hamilton Burris
Marxist Criticism Focuses on ways texts reflect, reinforce, or challenge the effects of class, power
relations, and social roles. Online Example: A Reading of Shirley Jackson’s “The Lottery” by Peter
Kosenko
Archetypal Criticism Focuses on identifying the underlying myths in stories and archetypes, which
reflect what the psychologist Carl Jung called the “collective unconsciousness.” Online Example: A
Catalogue of Symbols in The Awakening by Kate Chopin by Skylar Hamilton Burris
Postcolonial Criticism Focuses on how Western culture’s (mis)representation of third-world countries
and peoples in stories, myths, and stereotypical images encourages repression and domination.
Online Example: Other Voices
Structuralism/Semiotics Focuses on literature as a system of signs where meaning is constructed in a
context, where words are inscribed with meaning by being compared to other words and structures.
Online Example: Applied Semiotics [Online journal with many samples]
Post-Structuralism/Deconstruction Focuses, along with Structuralism, on viewing literature as a
system of signs, yet rejects the Structuralist view that a critic can identify the inherent meaning of a
text, suggesting, instead that literature has no center, no single interpretation, that literary language is
inherently ambiguous
Powerful works of literature invoke multiple readings. In other words, we can all read the same story
or poem (or watch the same movie or listen to the same song) and come up with different, even
conflicting, interpretations about what the work means. Who we are reflects how we read texts. Our
experiences inspire us to relate to and sympathize with characters and difficult situations. Have we
read similar stories? Have we actually faced some of the same challenges the characters in the story
face?
In addition, literary theories have unique ways to develop and substantiate arguments. Some theories
draw extensively on the work of other critics, while others concentrate on the reader’s thoughts and
feelings. Some theories analyze a work from an historical perspective, while others focus solely on a
close reading of a text.

Accordingly, as with other genres, the following key features need to be read as points of departure
as opposed to a comprehensive blueprint:

Focus

Examine a subject from a rhetorical perspective. Identify the intended audience, purpose, context,
media, voice, tone, and persona.Distinguish between summarizing the literary work and presenting
your argument. Many students fall into the trap of spending too much time summarizing the literature
being analyzed as opposed to critiquing it. As a result, it would be wise to check with your teacher
regarding how much plot summary is expected. As you approach this project, remember to keep your
eye on the ball: What, exactly (in one sentence) is the gist of your interpretation?

Development

You can develop your ideas by researching the work of other literary critics. How do other critics
evaluate an author’s work? What literary theories do literary critics use to interpret texts or particular
moments in history? Reading sample proposals can help you find and adopt an appropriate voice and
persona. By reading samples, you can learn how others have prioritized particular criteria.

Below are some of the questions invoked by popular literary theories. Consider these questions as
you read a work, perhaps taking notes on your thoughts as you reread. You may focus on using one
theory to “read and interpret” text or, more commonly, you may compare the critical concerns of
different theories.

New Criticism/Formalism

Character: How does the character evolve during the story? What is unique or interesting about a
character? Is the character a stereotypical action hero, a patriarchal father figure, or Madonna? How
does a character interact with other characters?
Setting: How does the setting enhance tension within the work? Do any elements in the setting
foreshadow the conclusion of the piece?
Plot: What is the conflict? How do scenes lead to a suspenseful resolution? What scenes make the
plot unusual, unexpected, suspenseful?
Point of View: Who is telling the story? Is the narrator omniscient (all knowing) or does the narrator
have limited understanding?
Reader-Response Criticism

How does the text make you feel? What memories or experiences come to mind when you read? If
you were the central protagonist, would you have behaved differently? Why? What values or ethics
do you believe are suggested by the story? As your reading of a text progresses, what surprises you,
inspires you?

Feminist Criticism

How does the story re-inscribe or contradict traditional gender roles? For example, are the male
characters in “power positions” while the women are “dominated”? Are the men prone to action,
decisiveness, and leadership while the female characters are passive, subordinate? Do gender roles
create tension within the story? Do characters’ gender roles evolve over the course of the narrative?

New Historicism Cristicism

How does the story reflect the aspirations and conditions of the lower classes or upper classes? Is
tension created by juxtaposing privileged, powerful positions to subordinated, dominated positions?
What information about the historical context of the story helps explain the character’s motivations?
Who benefits from the outcome of the story or from a given character’s motivation?

Media Criticism

How does the medium alter readers’ interactions with the text? Has the reader employed multimedia
or hypertext? What traditions from print and page design have shaped the structure of the text? In
what ways has the author deviated from traditional, deductively organized linear texts?

Cite from the Work

Literary criticism involves close reading of a literary work, regardless of whether you are arguing
about a particular interpretation, comparing stories or poems, or using a theory to interpret
literature.Do not summarize the story. The purpose of the document is not to inform the readers, but
to argue a particular interpretation. You only need to cite parts of the work that support or relate to
your argument and follow the citation format required by your instructor (see Using and Citing
Sources).

Below is an example from Sample Essays for English 103: Introduction to Fiction, Professor Matthew
Hurt. Note how the writer uses block quotes to highlight key elements and paraphrase and
summarizes the original works, using quotation marks where necessary.

…Twain offers a long descriptive passage of Huck and Jim’s life on the raft that seems, at first
glance, to celebrate the idyllic freedom symbolized by the river and nature. . . A close reading of this
passage, however, shows that the river is not a privileged natural space outside of and
uncontaminated by society, but is inextricably linked to the social world on the shore, which itself has
positive value for Huck. Instead of seeking to escape society, Huck wants to escape the dull routines
of life.

The passage abounds with lyrical descriptions of the river’s natural beauty. For example, Huck’s long
description of the sunrise over the river captures the peaceful stillness and the visual beauty of the
scene:

The first thing to see, looking away over the water, was a kind of dull line — that was the woods on
t’other side — you couldn’t make nothing else out; then a pale place in the sky; then more paleness,
spreading around; then the river softened up, away off, and warn’t black any more, but gray; . . .
sometimes you could hear a sweep screaking; or jumbled up voices, it was so still, and sounds come
so far; and by-and-by you could see a streak on the water which you know by the look of the streak
that there’s a snag there in the swift current which breaks on it and makes the streak look that way;
and you see the mist curl up off of the water, and the east reddens up, and the river, and you make
out a log cabin in the edge of the woods, away on the bank on t’other side of the river, . . . then the
nice breeze springs up, and comes fanning you from over there, so cool and fresh, and sweet to
smell, on account of the woods and the flowers; . . . and next you’ve got the full day, and everything
smiling in the sun, and the song-birds just going at it! (129-130)
Here Huck celebrates the beauty of the natural world coming to life at the beginning of a new day.
The “paleness” gradually spreading across the sky makes new objects visible which he describes in
loving detail for the reader. The “nice breeze” is “cool and fresh” and “sweet to smell,” and the world
seems to be “smiling in the sun” as the song-birds welcome the new day.

However, Huck includes a number of details within this passage that would seem to work against the
language of natural beauty. After describing the gradually brightening sky, Huck notes that “you could
see little dark spots drifting along, ever so far away — trading scows, and such things; and long black
streaks — rafts.” The sun rise reveals not only natural objects (the brightening sky, the “snag,” the
“mist”), but also brings into view man-made objects (“trading scows” and “rafts”) that signify human
society’s presence in this natural environment. Similarly, Huck speculates that the picturesque “log
cabin” on the distant shore is a “woodyard, likely, and piled by them cheats so you can throw a dog
through it anywheres.” Here the marker of human society takes on a sinister tone of corruption as
Huck describes how unscrupulous wood sellers stack wood loosely to cheat their customers. Finally,
although the breeze is “sweet to smell,” Huck assures the reader that this isn’t always the case: “but
sometimes not that way, because they’ve left dead fish laying around, gars, and such, and they do
get pretty rank.”

These signs of society’s presence on the river are largely negative. The woodyard is “piled by cheats”
and the stacked fish pollute the “sweet” smell of the breeze. At this point, the opposition between
“good nature” and “bad society” remains intact. The signs of human presence suggest a corruption of
nature’s beauty. In the paragraphs that follow, however, this opposition is subtly reversed. After
Huck’s account of the sunrise over the river, he describes how he and Jim watch the steamboats
“coughing along up stream.” But when there are no steamboats or rafts to watch, he describes the
scene as “solid lonesomeness” (130). No songbirds, no sweet breezes. Without human activities to
watch, the scene suddenly becomes empty and “lonesome,” and nothing captures Huck’s attention
until more rafts and boats pass by and he can watch them chopping wood or listen to them beating
pans in the fog.

Cite Other Critics’ Interpretations of the Work

Criticism written by advanced English majors, graduate students, and literary critics may be more
about what other critics have said than about the actual text. Indeed, many critics spend more time
reading criticism and arguing about critical approaches than actually reading original works. However,
unless you are enrolled in a literary theory course, your instructor probably wants you to focus more
on interpreting the work than discussing other critical interpretations. This does not mean, however,
that you should write about a literary work “blindly.” Instead, you are wise to find out what other
students and critics have said about the work.

Below is a sample passage that illustrates how other critics’ works can inspire an author and guide
him or her in constructing a counter argument, support an author’s interpretation, and provide helpful
biographical information.

In her critical biography of Shirley Jackson, Lenemaja Friedman notes that when Shirley Jackson’s
story “The Lottery” was published in the June 28, 1948 issue of the New Yorker it received a
response that “no New Yorker story had ever received”: hundreds of letters poured in that were
characterized by “bewilderment, speculation, and old-fashioned abuse.”1 It is not hard to account for
this response: Jackson’s story portrays an “average” New England village with “average” citizens
engaged in a deadly rite, the annual selection of a sacrificial victim by means of a public lottery, and
does so quite deviously: not until well along in the story do we suspect that the “winner” will be stoned
to death by the rest of the villagers.
Organization

The format for literary critiques is fairly standard:

State your claim(s).

Forecast your organization.
Marshal evidence for your claim.
Reiterate argument and elaborate on its significance.
In English classes, you may be able to assume that your readers are familiar with the work you are
critiquing. Perhaps, for example, the entire class is responding to one particular work after some class
discussions about it. However, if your instructor asks you to address a broader audience, you may
need to provide bibliographical information for the work. In other words, you may need to cite the title,
publisher, date, and pages of the work (see Citing Sources ).

Literary critiques are arguments. As such, your instructors expect you to state a claim in your
introduction and then provide quotes and paraphrased statements from the text to serve as evidence
for your claim. Ideally, your critique will be insightful and interesting. You’ll want to come up with an
interpretation that isn’t immediately obvious. Below are some examples of “thesis statements” or
“claims” from literary critiques:

In “The Yellow Wallpaper,” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman, the protagonist is oppressed and represents
the effect of the oppression of women in society. This effect is created by the use of complex symbols
such as the house, the window, and the wall-paper which facilitate her oppression as well as her self
expression. [“‘The Yellow Wall-Paper’: A Twist on Conventional Symbols” by Liselle Sant]
“The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Gilman is a sad story of the repression that women face in the
days of the late 1800’s as well as being representative of the turmoil that women face today. [Critique
of “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Brandi Mahon]
“The Yellow Wallpaper,” written by Charlotte Perkins Gilman, is a story of a woman, her psychological
difficulties and her husband’s so called therapeutic treatment of her aliments during the late 1800s. . .
Gilman does well throughout the story to show with descriptive phrases just how easily and effectively
the man “seemingly” wields his “maleness” to control the woman. But, with further interpretation and
insight I believe Gilman succeeds in nothing more than showing the weakness of women, of the day,
as active persons in their own as well as society’s decision making processes instead of the strength
of men as women dominating machines. “The View from the Inside” by Timothy J. Decker
In Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain creates a strong opposition between the freedom of
Huck and Jim’s life on the raft drifting down the Mississippi River, which represents “nature,” and the
confining and restrictive life on the shore, which represents “society.” [ “‘All I wanted was a change’:
Positive Images of Nature and Society in Chapter 19 of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” from
Professor Matthew Hurt’s “Sample Essays for English 103: Introduction to Fiction”]
In Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s short story, “A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings,” an unexpected
visitor comes down from the sky, and seems to test the faith of a community. The villagers have a
difficult time figuring out just how the very old man with enormous wings fits into their lives. Because
this character does not agree with their conception of what an angel should look like, they try to
determine if the aged man could actually be an angel. In trying to prove the origin of their visitor, the
villagers lose faith in the possibility of him being an angel because he does not adhere to their
ordered world. Marquez keeps the identity of the very old man with enormous wings ambiguous to
critique the villagers and, more generally, organized religion for having a lack of faith to believe in
miracles that do not comply with their master narrative. [“Prove It: A Critique of the Villagers’ Faith in
‘A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings'” from Sample Essays for English 103: Introduction to Fiction,
Professor Matthew Hurt]
Style
Literary criticism is a fairly specialized kind of writing. Instead of writing to a general lay audience, you
are writing to members of a literary community who have read a work and who developed opinions
about the work–as well as a vocabulary of interpretation.

Following are some common words used by literary critics. More specialized terms can be learned by
reading criticism or by referring to a good encyclopedia for criticism or writing, including the Writer’s
Encyclopedia:

Protagonist: The protagonist is the major character of the story; typically the character must
overcome significant challenges.
Antagonist: The protagonist’s chief nemesis; in other words, the character whom the protagonist must
overcome.
Symbols: Metaphoric language; see A Catalogue of Symbols in The Awakening by Kate Chopin
Viewpoint: Stories are told either in the first person or third person point of view. The first person is
limited to a single character, although dialog can let you guess at other characters’ intentions. The
third person allows readers inside the character’s mind so you know what the character feels and
thinks.Viewpoint can be “limited,” where the character knows less than the reader, or “omniscient,”
where the reader can hear the thoughts and feelings of all characters. Occasionally writers will use
multiple character viewpoint, which takes you from one character’s perspective to another.
Plot: Plots are a series of scenes, typically moving from a conflict situation to a resolution. To surprise
readers, authors will foreshadow “false plants,” which lead readers to anticipate other resolutions. The
term “denouement” refers to the unraveling of the plot in the conclusion.

DEFINITIONS OF LITERARY CRITICISM

 It addresses ways of looking at literature beyond the typical plot-theme-character-setting studies.
 It is the study, discussion, evaluation, and interpretation of literature.
 It asks what literature is, what it does, and what it is worth. (Encyclopedia Britannica)
 It is the method used to interpret any given work of literature. The different schools of literary
criticism provide us with lenses which ultimately reveal important aspects of the literary work.

IMPORTANCE OF LITERARY CRITICISM

 One of the views likely to affirm your perspective and speak to what you see in the literature you
are studying.
 Studying a view different from yours – not to disagree with it, but to understand it – helps you
understand those who hold that view.
 Studying a view from more than one view gives you deeper understanding of the authors’ work and
a better appreciation for the richness of it.

LITERARY THEORIES TAGS GUIDE QUESTIONS

BIOGRAPHICAL Author’s Life Experiences   What aspects of the
author’s personal life are
relevant to this story?
  Which of the author’s
stated beliefs are reflected in
the work?
  Does the writer challenge
or support the values of her
contemporaries?
  What seem to be the
 author’s major concerns? Do
they reflect any of the writer’s
personal experiences?
  Do any of the events in the
story correspond to events
experienced by the author?
  Do any of the characters in
the story correspond to real
people?

HISTORICAL Historical Period’s   How does it reflect the time

Connection in which it was written?
  How accurately does the
story depict the time in which
it was set?
  What literary or historical
influences helped to shape
the form and content of the
work?
  How does the story reflect
the attitudes and beliefs of
the time in which it was
written or set? (Consider
beliefs and attitudes related
to race, religion, politics,
gender, society, philosophy,
etc.)
  What other historical
literary works may have
influenced the writer?
  What historical events or
movements might have
influenced this writer?

PSYCHOLOGICAL Psychology/ Level of   What forces are motivating

Sensibility & Consciousness the characters?

  Which behaviors of the

characters are conscious

ones? Which are

unconscious?

  What conscious or
unconscious conflicts exist

between the characters?

  Given their backgrounds,

 how plausible is the

characters’ behavior?

  Are the theories of Freud or

other psychologists

applicable to this work? To

what degree?

  Do any of the characters

correspond to the parts

of the tripartite self? (Id, ego,

superego)

  What roles do
psychological disorders and
dreams

play in this story?

  How does the work reflect

the writer’s personal

psychology?

  What do the characters’

emotions and behaviors

reveal about their

psychological states?

  How does the work reflect

the unconscious

dimensions of the writer’s

mind?

PHILOSOPHICAL Author’s Philosophy and  What view of life does the story
Ideals present? Which character best
articulates this viewpoint?
 According to this work’s view of
life, what is mankind’s relationship to
God? To the universe?
 What moral statement, if any,
does this story make? Is it explicit or
implicit?
 What is the author’s attitude
 toward his world? Toward fate?
Toward God?
 What is the author’s conception of
good and evil?
 What does the work say about the
nature of good
or evil?
 What does the work say about
human nature?
FEMINIST Women Empowerment;   How are women’s lives
Equal Status portrayed in the work?

  Is the form and content of

the work influenced by

the writer’s gender?

  How do male and female

characters relate to one

another? Are these

relationships sources of

conflict? Are these conflicts

resolved?

  Does the work challenge or

affirm traditional

views of women?

  How do the images of

women in the story reflect

patriarchal social forces that

have impeded

women’s efforts to achieve

full equality with men?

  What marital expectations

are imposed on the
characters? What effect do
these expectations

have?

  If a female character were

male, how would the

story be different (and vice

 versa)?

  How does the marital

status of a character affect

her decisions or happiness?

MARXIST Social Status and Ideologies   Whom does it benefit if the

work or effort is
accepted/successful/believed,
etc.?
  What is the social class of
the author?
  Which class does the work
claim to represent?
  What values does it
reinforce?
  What values does it
subvert?
  What conflict can be seen
between the values the

work champions and those it

portrays?

  What social classes do the

characters represent?
  How do characters from
different classes interact

or conflict?

ARCHETYPAL Archetypes, Allusions and   What aspects of the work

Symbols create deep universal
responses to it?
  How does the work reflect
the hopes, fears, and
expectations of entire cultures
(for example, the ancient
Greeks)?

How do myths attempt to

explain the unexplainable:
origin of man? Purpose and
destiny of human beings?

  What common human

concerns are revealed in the
 story?
  How do stories from one
culture correspond to those of
another? (For example,
creation myths, flood myths,
etc.)
  How does the story reflect
the experiences of death and
rebirth?
  What archetypal events
occur in the story? (Quest?
Initiation? Scapegoating?
Descents into the
underworld? Ascents into
heaven?)
  What archetypal images
occur? (Water, rising sun,
setting sun, symbolic colors)
  What archetypal characters
appear in the story? (Mother
Earth? Femme Fatal? Wise
old man? Wanderer?)
  What archetypal settings
appear? (Garden? Desert?)
  How and why are these
archetypes embodied in the
work?

POST-COLONIALISM Impacts of Colonial How does the literary text, explicitly

Domination or allegorically, represent various
aspects of colonial oppression?

  What does the text reveal

about the problems of post-
colonial identity, including the
relationship between personal
and cultural identity and such
issues as double
consciousness and hybridity?

  What person(s) or groups

does the work identify as
"other" or stranger? How are
such persons/groups
described and treated?

  What does the text reveal

about the politics and/or
psychology of anti-colonialist
 resistance?

 What does the text reveal about

the operations of cultural difference -
the ways in which race, religion,
class, gender, sexual orientation,
cultural beliefs, and customs
combine to form individual identity -
in shaping our perceptions of
ourselves,

others, and the world in which we

live?

  Are there meaningful

similarities among the

literatures of different post-

colonial populations?

  How does a literary text in

the Western canon reinforce
or undermine colonialist
ideology through its
representation of colonization
and/or

its inappropriate silence about

colonized peoples?

ECOCRITICISM Green Analysis with   How is nature represented

emphasis on Natural World in this text?
and Modern Environmental
Concerns   How has the concept of
nature changed over

time?

  How is the setting of the

play/film/text related to

the environment?

  What are the influences on

metaphors and

representations of the land and the

environment
on how we treat it?

  How do we see issues of

environmental disaster

and crises reflected in

popular culture and literary

works?

  How are animals

represented in this text and
what

is their relationship to
humans?

  How do the roles or

representations of men and

women towards the

environment differ in this

play/film/text/etc.

  Where is the environment

placed in the power

hierarchy?

  How is nature empowered

or oppressed in this

work?

  What parallels can be

drawn between the

sufferings and oppression of

groups of people (women,
minorities, immigrants, etc.)
and treatment of the land?

  What rhetorical moves are

used by environmentalists,
and what can we learn from
them about our cultural
attitudes towards nature?
A Simple Guide into Ecocriticism

Ecocriticism is a term used for the observation and study of the relationship between the literature
and the earth’s environment. It takes an interdisciplinary point of view by analysing the works of
authors, researchers, and poets in the context of environmental issues and nature. Since the
purpose, scope, and methodology of this theory are a bit confusing, it is difficult to have all ecocritics
agreed to this. However, some of them also propose the solutions to the current environmental
issues.

In the context of scope, the critics call this term as a broad approach that is also by several other
names, i.e. Environmental literary criticism, green studies, and ecopoetics. It is also referred to by
some other fields such as ecology, social ecology, biopolitics, sustainable design, environmental
history, environmentalism, and others.

Ecocriticism was first defined by Cheryll Glotfelty in simple words making it clear for the other critics
and writers. Considering the definition, it can be called an “increasingly heterogeneous movement”
that takes an entirely earth-centered approach. It is mainly about the literature on the environment.
So, it is mostly seen in association with the “Association for the Study of Literature and Environment”
this is also referred to as ASLE and it holds biennial meetings for the scholars writing about the
environmental issues in their literature.

Definition of Ecocriticism

This form of criticism has been relatively successful keeping itself away from the moral and
philosophical disputes compared to the other forms of criticism. The work and efforts of Glotfelty
played a significant role in convincing other scholars for using this term to refer to the line of studies
known as green studies previously. Due to her efforts, this field of criticism gained a recognition and
popularity as a theory. Therefore, scholars acknowledge her as a major contributor to the emergence
of this name as a theory with a broad scope.

It is especially notable that the scope of this theory is not limited to the books and essays on nature,
romantic poetry or canonical literature and have a great impact on the other areas of the physical
world. It has spread in the other mediums like film, television, and theatre, stories, and narratives of
animal life, science, and architecture in addition to the range of other literary forms. It has also made
itself rich by adopting the proven methodologies approaches the fields of studies like literary, scientific
and sociology.

Ecocriticism as a literary theory

Generally, the traditional theory considers the linguistics or the cultural background or the social
background as an important factor, eco-critics takes nature as a dominant factor as they believe that
our evolution as a society is largely dependent on the forces of nature. Because, according to them,
the world in which we live is not made only with the language and social elements.

It is only one of the many factors responsible for the existence and development of humans. Life
including the human life is heavily affected by the role nature and environment plays and thus nature
is the most important consideration of this theory.
After converting into the field of theory, the green criticism was split into parts and one part developed
itself as a branch dedicated to rereading and analyzing the role of nature, representation and the
natural elements in the literary works produced by the scholars from the worldwide. Green studies are
merely the regional literature as it takes into consideration the differences of nature in different
places. But the central source of thoughts, research, and findings in this field will always be the
authors and poets well-known and established in the world of literature.

Approaches and tropes of literature

There are several approaches and literary tropes proposed by the scholars to understand the theory
and works of ecocritics and the relationship between nature and literature created by many famous
writers and thinkers. Some of them are discussed in detail below.

Definition of Ecofeminism

This approach combines the ecology and feminism and explains the feminist nature to help
understand the ecology. Feminists have given the concept of gender theory to analyze the
relationship between the human and nature. So, it can be considered a branch of ecocriticism and is
the field of studying the interconnection between the oppression of women and nature.

The land is often considered as a feminine in nature because of its fertility that nurtures the life and is
owned by the man as a property. So, the feminists draw the lines of comparison to understand the
similarity of dominant nature of man over women and the domination of land in the context of gender
relationships.

The term was originally coined in the book Le Féminisme ou la Mort (1974) written by the French
author Françoise d’Eaubonne. But the term is being used in different ways and meanings in the
modern time, they are ecofeminist theory, ecofeminist art, social and political philosophy, social
justice, religion, poetry and contemporary feminism. Because of different types and beliefs of
feminism among the feminists, different versions of ecofeminism is available in the current literature.

There are two sections of this approach where first is referred to as a radical camp which is largely
focused on reversing the domination of man over woman and uncontrolled use of nature. This is
because nature and women are close to each other biologically, emotionally and spiritually. The
second section of the field follows the first which refuses to accept the concept of feminine essence
that is considered responsible for the assumption that women and nature are connected to a great
extent.

Modern science is evaluated in the book by Vandana Shiva and Maria Mies in their book
Ecofeminism. According to them, the modern science is largely dominated by men and this has, to a
great extent, affected the natural childbirth process by the use of birth control medicines.

It has made the birth process and ultimately the health and life of women dependent on the
specialized medical technologies that are controlled by men. This can be seen as one of many
ecofeminism examples in the literature that are created as an effort to contributing towards improving
the situations of women in a natural context.
Pastoral

This is basically a lifestyle of shepherds and strongly states the duality of urban and rural life and is
deep-rooted in the western culture. This trope has presented itself in the genres of literature, art, and
music which shows the rural life in such an idealized manner that can attract the attention of urban
audiences. The author displays the complex life or pastoralism of the rural areas in a simple way in
the literature by using various techniques.

Since the pastoral literature maintains a firm view towards nature, authors like Paul Alpers describes
it as a mode instead of a genre. It is apparent in different types of literature like poetry, drama as a
mode and pastoral elegy as a genre.

Well-known literary theorist Terry Gifford in his book Pastoral has defined the pastoral in three ways.
The first way is the historical literary perspective which recognizes the lifestyle of shepherds and
discusses their hardship. The second way is about the literature that explains the country life in an
opposite context to the urban life explicitly or implicitly. The third way is about the way of classification
of the country life that can be said as that of derogative manner.

Greg Gerrard, a best seller author of ecocriticism, has divided the pastoral theory into three branches.
The first branch is Classic Pastoral which takes into consideration nature as a place where human
gets peace of mind and identifies the self. The second branch is Romantic Pastoral that describes the
post-industrial revolution period that signifies the importance of rural independence which is more
desirable instead of the urbanization.

And the third is American Pastoral which explains the farmland as a boundary between the
wilderness and urban area. This considers the land as a resource which can be used for farming.
Many authors including Greg has worked to define pastoral in literature that is very helpful for the
aspiring students of ecology and nature.

Wilderness

Wilderness is the environment naturally existing around us on the Earth that is not affected by the
human activities yet. In a more comprehensive meaning, they are the areas which humans does not
control and where they have not created any disturbance by making roads and installing pipelines or
developing infrastructures for the industries and are still intact as there were. In recent times, the
marine wilderness has also gained attention as its area is continuously being affected by human
activities.

However, efforts are also being done to maintain them and protect from the intervention, and some
governments have already started paying attention to them. Governments and global organizations
are actively working to restrict the motorized activities of human on the lands that are not yet modified
for the use of cultivation or transportation or industrial production.

Literature has paid enough attention to develop and define trope to understand the wilderness. How
the wilderness is developed and plays a valuable role in nature and life on the Earth is the subject of
examination in this approach. This has also successfully attracted the attention of ecocritics.
However, it is also seen with two different beliefs in the American and the British cultures. According
to the first belief, wilderness is considered as a threat. This is evident in the early British culture and
Biblical tales of creation. According to the early American pieces of literature, wild-land is mentioned
as the place for demonic activities.

But in the modern literature, it is seen as a sanctuary where animals can be kept safe and in their
natural way of life. People of the modern world has documented the encounters with the wilderness to
help understand it from a more positive perspective. Many novels have described the life in the wild
which has changed the way the world used to see the wild-land and its environment.

We have tried here to describe and discuss the ecocriticism as an approach to seeing and
interpreting the cultural attitude towards nature and environment in the literature. We hope this article
will be useful for those curious about this theory and the students of the literature covering ecology
and green studies.

1. But if we wish to avoid the impoverishment of our imagination, and the disappearance of the precious
dissatisfaction that refines our sensibility and teaches us to speak with eloquence and rigor, and the weakening
of our freedom, then we must act. More precisely, we must _________.
a. read
b. believe
c. speak
d. write

2. Nothing teaches us better than literature to see, in ethnic and cultural differences, the richness of the human
patrimony, and to prize those differences as a manifestation of humanity's multi-faceted __________.
a. ability
b. individuality
c. creativity
d. responsible

3. The specialization of knowledge requires _____________ and increasingly arcane codes, as information
becomes more and more specific and compartmentalized.
a. literary devices
b. imaginative codes
c. specialized languages
d. evocative words

4. What is the most important benefit gained from reading the novels "Noli Me Tangere" and "El
Filibusterismo" in school?
a. Drives the critical minds of people.
b. Enhances language
c. Learns about Philippine literature in-depth
d. Understands the malady of religion

5. It refers to the author's attitude toward his or her subject such as being pessimistic, optimistic, or angry.
a. emotion
b. tone
c. sound
d. mood
6. It is the means by which an author establishes and directly or indirectly describes the appearance and
personality of character through action or dialogue (characterization!!)
a. plot
b. character
c. conflict
d. character motivation

7. What figurative language is used in the statement "Time is a dressmaker specializing in alterations." (Faith
Baldwin)?
a. personification
b. hyperbole
c. simili
d. metaphor

8. The repetition of the same sounds at the beginning of two or more adjacent words or stressed syllables as
expressed in the following example: "furrow followed free" (from The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel
Taylor Coleridge) is called:
a. alliteration
b. assonance
c. onomatopoeia
d. imagery

9. For Llosa, to have literary taste is to have a feeling and an inclination for what is fine and beautiful in
literature, to savor and to appreciate it, and to dislike and reject what is vulgar and tawdry in it.
True or False

10. It is the opposition of persons or forces that brings about dramatic action central to the plot of a story.
a. plot
b. conflict
c. characterization
d. character motivation

11. The means by which an author establishes and directly or indirectly describes the appearance and
personality of character or show it through action or dialogue.
a. conflict
b. plot
c. characterization
d. character motivation

12. Which of the following is the characteristic of the literary device "stream of consciousness"?
a. question posed for its persuasive effect without the expectation of a reply
b. recognize common things in an unfamiliar or strange way, to enhance perception of the unfamiliar
c. internal monologue characterized by leaps in syntax and punctuation that trace a character's
fragmentary thoughts and sensory feelings
d. Detailed or mimetically rendering gestures and dialogue to make scene more visual or imaginatively present
to an audience

13. Attributing human qualities to a nonhuman thing or to an abstract idea involves the use of
a. paradox
b. parallelism
c. personification
d. perfectionism

14. This literary criticism involves the role economics plays in texts as well as the writer's representation of
class struggles. It argues that historically the poor have been unfavorably represented as most texts have focused
on the wealthy classes.
a. feminism
b. historical
c. psychoanalysis
d. Marxism

15. Defining literature according to genre means it is a study of

a. poetry
b. prose
c. prose, poetry and drama
d. prose and proetry

16. A literary text has emotional power. This is known as the __________ literary standard
a. permanence
b. suggestiveness
c. artistry
d. universality

17. Aristotle's view of literature is that it involves purging or releasing of negative emotions like pity and fear.
This emotional cleansing power of literature is known as
a. catharsis
b. mimesis
c. censorship
d. function

18. Life is mirrored in various literary texts which imitate reality as we know it. This imitation according to
Plato is known as
a. catharsis
b. mimesis
c. censorship
d. function

19. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Historical Criticism?

a. Examine how the text was initially received by readers as well as how its reception has changed over time
b. Understand a literary text as a product of the social, cultural, and intellectual context in which it was created
c. Examine a text in relation to its historical or cultural backdrop
d. Teach morality and to probe philosophical issues

20. What literary technique is used in the poem that contributes to its total meaning?
Ripe Plums
From The Book of Songs
Ripe plums are dropping,
Now there are only seven.
May a fine lover come for me
Now while there is yet time.

Ripe plums are dropping,

Now there are only three.
May a fine lover come for me
Now while there is yet time.

Ripe plums are dropping,

I lay them in a shallow basket.
May a fine lover come for me
Tell me his name.

a. unusual sound effects

b. contrasting elements
c. constant repetitions
d. meaningful vocabulary

21. Which literary technique is illustrated through repeating the "d" and the "h" sounds in these lines from
stanza two of Hicky's poem?
"Carved lyric ways through dawn and dusk and rain/
And soared to heights our hearts have only dreamed..."
a. onomatopoeia
b. alliteration
c. assonance
d. rhyme

22. Which of the following is the goal of Mythological Criticism?

a. To understand how the story constructs meaning in the human existence through archetypes.
b. To examine a text as independent from its time period, social setting, and author's background.
c. To understand the process of creating meaning and experiencing a text as we read
d. To look at the motivation of the characters or the author

23. Literature is classified according to form, structure, and genre.

True or False

24. This genre of literature is a narrative in prose that shows an imaginative recreation and reconstruction of life
and presents human life in two levels: the world of objective reality made up of human actions and experiences,
and the world of subjective reality dealing with human apprehension and comprehension categorized either as
novel or short story.
a. drama
b. discourse
c. prose
d. fiction

25. In this literary criticism, the reader is as much a producer as a consumer of meanings. Since both authors
and readers bring their own viewpoints to the text, the meaning of the text is built by encountering and
negotiating with the author and the text.
a. feminism
b. historical
c. reader-response
d. biographical

26. This genre of literature relates to a prose composition in moderate length that presents a tentative or
evaluation of a subject and thus explains a viewpoint or anything that can be said on a particular subject.
a. blog
b. essay
d. journal
d. article

28. It is patterned form of verbal or written expression of ideas in concentrated, imaginative, and rhythmical
terms that often contain the elements of sense, sound, and structure.
a. prose
b. drama
c. poetry
d. monologue

29. In this structure of literature, literary work is perceived as work of "real life" narration or exposition based
on history and facts whose main thrust is intellectual appeal to convey facts, theories, generalizations, or
concepts about a particular topic.
a. prose
b. drama
c. poetry
d. Non-fiction

31. Which is NOT a characteristic of literature of power?

a. lasting impact
b. imaginative
c. didactic
d. requires higher understanding

32. What application does literary criticism require?

a. literary standards
b. literary theories
c. literary values
d. literary devices

33. According to this author, defining literature as anything printed is such a thoughtless definition because it
lacks one essential element which is some relation to a general and common interest of man.
a. Mario Vargas Llosa
b. Paz Latorena
c. Terry Eagleton
d. Thomas de Quincey

34. This author believes that since literature can be taught, there should be literary standards to guide teachers in
the selection of literary texts to teach in school.
a. Mario Vargas Llosa
b. Paz Latorena
c. Terry Eagleton
d. Thomas de Quincey

35. When current issues such as orthodoxy of the church, capitalism and ecological imbalance are reflected in
classical literacy pieces, what literary standard is manifested?
a. artistry
b. intellectual
c. spiritual
d. suggestiveness
36. Which of the following is NOT considered standard for literary criticism?
a. spiritual value of the text
b. ethical value of the text
c. intellectual value of the text
d. emotional value of the text