MODULE – 1

SELF REULATION AND IMPROVING ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

PERSONAL SWOT ANALYSIS

A personal Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) analysis is a tool used to
measure the strengths and weaknesses of an individual. It may be performed by an individual
with the aim of finding out his or her talents in order to facilitate career objectives. It may also be
performed by an organization on its employees with the aim of finding out the best attributes of
the employees, so as to effectively assign them to positions in which their talents can best be
utilized. This may be done by filling a questionnaire asking specific questions relating to the
SWOT of the individual.

How to do a personal SWOT analysis

List down the “strengths”

The first step is to list down your strengths. Knowing these will help you to be more confident in
an interview or when looking for a job promotion. Because you have listed down things
beforehand you’ll have an easier time recalling things as well. Here are few questions to ask
yourself when filling this part.

 What are the professional qualifications/certifications you have that makes you stand out
from the rest?

 Can your expertise in some area make a difference to the organization?

 What projects/campaigns have you completed successfully?

 Do you have powerful industry contacts ? Especially useful in areas like advertising,
marketing, and insurance.

 What other skills make you stand out from the rest? For examples things like leadership
and dedication to work.

 What do others think as your strengths?

Important: The “stand out from the rest” part is very important in SWOT. For example in a
software company having a degree in software engineering is not a strength, because everyone
else has one. Masters in mathematics might be a different story.

Know your “weaknesses”

The second step is to identify your weaknesses. As mentioned before SWOT is used by
individuals to assess and improved themselves. Identifying weaknesses is the best way to
improve them.
This also helps you to be prepared to answer or counter them if they come up during an interview
or performance review. Ask yourself these questions when filling this.

 Do you have the necessary skills/qualifications to be successful in your current or future

roles?

 Do you have bad habits? For example frequently getting late, poor communication
skills, bad time reporting etc.

 What other traits can you improve to be more efficient?

 What do others think as your weaknesses? Even if you don’t consider it as a weakness.

Important: Be honest and realistic when answering the questions. After all, it’s a self-
assessment which only you will see. Use it as a stepping stone for future improvements.

Find matching “opportunities”

We often miss opportunity because it’s dressed in overalls and looks like work – Thomas A.
Edison

Opportunities come in different shapes and forms. Sometimes opportunities past by you without
you even noticing them. So here are few things to be on the lookout for.

 Are there any significant changes/advancements in your industry that you can take
advantage of?

 Has new technology or industry trend emerged that you can make use of future?

 Is a new position advertised in your company that matches your skill set? Or did a
position became vacant?

 Is there a new project in your organization that you can join which will benefit your
career

 Can acquiring new skills give you a competitive advantage? For example in the airline
industry knowing another language to your mother tongue is an advantage.
The list of questions can go on and on. The most important thing it to be one the lookout for
opportunities.

Important: It’s great if an opportunity matches your strengths. But sometimes great
opportunities arise in areas that don’t match your skill set. Do consider the pros and cons before
disregarding them.

Be aware of “threats”

When doing a personal SWOT analysis you need to think of yourself as a company or a product
and assess yourself against others. This way it makes it easy for you to identify threats. So here’s
how to identify threats.

 Is one of your peers doing a better job than you in a similar role? Are both of you fighting
for the same promotion?

 Is popularity of new technologies or demise of old technologies threatening your career?

For example, it is common for software engineers careers to become stale because they
didn’t spend the time to learn the latest technologies.

 Are your personal traits hurting your career advancements?

 What are the obstacles that prevent you from achieving your targets? Could be at work or
in your personal lives.

Identify the threats and try to eliminate the ones you can.

Important: When it comes to eliminating threats one of the easiest to fix is negative personality
traits. Get professional help if necessary. For example, if time management is an issue you can
hire a productivity coach.

When to do a personal SWOT analysis?

It is a self-assessment, so anytime is a good time. But there are few specific instances where it
can really benefit you.
  When going to an interview – So you can focus on your strengths and talk about them
more. It will help in preparing the CV as well. If you have a very good idea about the job
requirements beforehand you can modify the CV to match them as well. Remember
that recruiters spend on average 6 seconds to decide whether you fit in or not.

 When applying for a promotion – helps you to assess yourself against other candidates.
You’ll have a good understanding of your strengths against your competitors so you can
focus on them rather than your general strengths.

 Before a career switch – helps you to figure out whether your skills match the
opportunities in your new career or whether they are much suited for your current job.

ADVANTAGES OF PERSONAL SWOT ANALYSIS

There are many benefits and advantages of using SWOT Analysis for personal development. It is
good for your success and betterment. Some of the most common benefits of conducting a
personal SWOT analysis have been mentioned below.

 Helps to develops strategies to attain your goals

 You can be better than your friends and colleagues

 Shows where you currently stand on the path of success

 Measures your scopes of reaching desired goals

 Boosts your career, life and personality

 Helps to better understand who you really are as a person

 Maximizes your strengths and diminishes your weaknesses

 Explores and also enhances your soft skills and hard skills

 It helps you understand your preferences and personality traits.

 Focuses on your attitudes, abilities, skills, capabilities and capacities

 SELF - DEVELOPMENT

I. Self-esteem

Self-esteem is an individual's subjective evaluation of their own worth. Self-esteem encompasses

beliefs about oneself as well as emotional states, such as triumph, despair, pride, and shame. Smith and
Mackie defined it by saying "The self-concept is what we think about the self; self-esteem, is the positive
or negative evaluations of the self, as in how we feel about it."

Positive self esteem is feeling that you have worth and that you are capable. People who have
positive self esteem are not easily discouraged and are confident in their abilities. They are confident that
they can do whatever they do well.

Negative self esteem is not feeling like you have worth, that you are incapable, etc. People who
have negative self esteem are easily discouraged and are not confident in their abilities. They often feel
like they cannot do anything well.

Self esteem is important because:

1. You believe you are worthy of happiness , you feel worthy of respect.

2. Is the first step in believing in you, it builds self-confidence. If you do not respect yourself do you
think that others will?.

3. Your self-esteem has a profound effect on your thinking, emotions, happiness, desires, values,
and goals.

4. You can still feel respect and be proud even if you make a mistake.

5. You never compare to others, and your Self confidence is strong.

6. You have a sense of control and direction and approach problems with a different perspective.
Allows you to make correct choices and take action and be proud.

7. Allows to act independently and to assume responsibility for your actions, goals, and desires.

8. You can take new challenges quickly and handle criticism.

9. You consider yourself a valuable person, and you live for a reason.
 10. Gives the clarity to recognize your qualities. Strong faith in yourself and know that you are
lovable and capable.

11. It is an integral part of personal happiness, fulfilling relationships and achievement of your
desires.

12. Allow you to be in control of your own life and able to do what you want, is the source of your
mental health , this is the core to the importance of self esteem.

II. Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to organize information and execute a course of
action to navigate a prospective situation.

 Self-efficacy refers to the set of beliefs we hold about our ability to complete a particular
task.

 According to psychologist Albert Bandura, the first proponent of the concept, self-
efficacy is the product of past experience, observation, persuasion, and emotion.

 Self-efficacy is linked to academic achievement and the ability to overcome phobias.

III. Self-control

Self-control, an aspect of inhibitory control, is the ability to regulate one's emotions, thoughts,
and behavior in the face of temptations and impulses. As an executive function, self-control is a
cognitive process that is necessary for regulating one's behavior in order to achieve specific
goals.
The Science of Self-Control: Ways to Improve
1. Increase your capacity for pressure: Learn how to manage stress.
2. Encourage yourself to stick to your plan.
3. Get more sleep to help your brain manage energy better.
4. Meditate .
5. Better exercise and nutrition: The most ignored route to higher willpower.

Benefits of Self-Control
1. Increases decision making capacity

When we exercise self-control after making a decision it becomes more difficult. When we
practice self-control first, it becomes easier to make decisions because our minds switch to
simpler processes.

2. Increases chances of success

Research at Duckworth Lab at the University of Pennsylvania’s positive psychology center

concluded that when self-control was measured against talent over time the ones that practiced
grit rather than relying on talent came out as more successful. For example, in an experiment
carried out between two groups at West Point, those that relied on self-control had a better
chance at being able to move past the first summer of intense trials over those that had domain
relevant talents such as physical fitness.

IV. Self - Monitoring

Self-monitoring is a concept introduced during the 1970s by Mark Snyder, that shows how
much people monitor their self-presentations, expressive behavior, and nonverbal affective
displays.

EMOTIONAL QUOTIENT (EQ)

According to Dr Goleman, ’emotional intelligence is defined as a set of skills or competencies,

which provide human resource professionals, managers, and anyone in the world of work, with a
comprehensive tool to define, measure and develop emotional skills’. Emotional intelligence can
also be defined as the capacity to recognize our own feelings and those of others for motivating
ourselves and managing emotions well in our social interactions.

Emotional quotient consists of five important dimensions:

1. Knowing one’s emotions.

2. 3. Recognizing emotions in others (empathy).

4. Controlling emotions in others.

5. Improvement in emotional control.

Components of Emotional Intelligence:

Daniel Goleman has identified a set of emotional competencies that differentiate individuals with
their emotional intelligence.

1. Self-awareness:

The capacity for understanding one’s emotions, strengths, weaknesses and self- confidence.

2. Self-management:

The capacity for efficiently managing one’s motives and regulating one’s behaviour, self-control,
adaptability, achievement, orientation and initiative.

3. Social awareness:

The capacity for understanding what others are saying and feeling. And why they feel and act as
they do.

4. Social skills:

The capacity for acting in such a way that one is able to get the desired results from others and
reach personal goals, developing others, leadership, conflict management and teamwork.

Benefits of Emotional Intelligence:

Judicious applications of emotional intelligence can lead to the following results:

1. Understanding and enhancing emotional intelligence enhances management skills.

2. It can provide team effectiveness.

3. It assists managers to have flexible planning.

4. Emotional intelligence assists managers in motivating others.

5. Better decision-making comes from a balance between head and heart.

6. It can help a person achieve a whole range of career development factors such as leadership,
decision-making, open communication, trusting relationship and customer loyalty.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is a number that signifies the relative intelligence of a person; the ratio
multiplied by 100 of the mental age as reported on a standardized test to the chronological age.
IQ is primarily used to measure one’s cognitive abilities, such as the ability to learn or
understand new situations; how to reason through a given problem/scenario; the ability to apply
knowledge to one’s current situations. It involves primarily the neo cortex or top portion of the
brain.

 Over 140 – Genius or almost genius

 120 – 140 – Very superior intelligence (Gifted)

 110 – 119 – Superior intelligence

 90 – 109 – Average or normal intelligence

 80 – 89 – Dullness

 70 – 79 – Borderline deficiency in intelligence

 Under 70 – Feeble-mindedness

Intelligence Quotient or IQ is a number or a count of the intelligence of a person. In a standard

IQ test, a person’s quotient of intelligence is compared and determined on the basis of the scores
of other on the same test. These days more and more people are relying on IQ tests for a lot of
reasons. IQ tests have become a parameter for educational institutes and corporate offices in
conjunction with personality tests. Intelligence Quotients are used by people to find out a
person’s mental age, which is the persons understanding levels and performance capabilities at a
particular age. A Standard IQ test would consist of tasks that involve the use of mental ability
and vary on their difficulty levels. The test includes gauging of memory, reasoning power,
numerical capability, definitions and scope of recalling data. Psychologists have determined a
given age at which people can correctly answer questions in an IQ test.
SPIRITUAL QUOTIENT

The term spiritual intelligence and spiritual quotient is mostly attributed to Danah Zohar and Ian
Marshall based on their pioneering book, SQ: Connecting with Our Spiritual Intelligence. They
describe SQ as ‘our most fundamental intelligence. It is what we use to develop our capacity for
meaning, vision and value. It allows us to dream and to strive. It underlies the things we believe
in and the role our beliefs and values play in the actions that we take. Spiritual intelligence
explores how accessing our SQ helps us to live up to our potential for better, more satisfying
lives.’

Three aspects of spirituality

 Responsibility – You might have asked yourself what is your purpose in life or who are
you responsible for. Thinking about these makes us realise that we should have a vision
of how we are to spend our lives. After all, we are not here forever and we should make
some form of contribution to the next generation.

 Humility – When you think about it, we are just a speck in the universe. We are just one
of the 7 billion people on Earth; just one among those 108 billion people who have ever
lived. So what makes us think that our existence is more important than others?

 Happiness – The world has progressed and it has offered us convenience. But can we
truly say that we are a lot happier now. What exactly are the things that make us
happy? We all want to be happy. But how, exactly, do you go about it?

Difference between IQ, EQ and SQ

 IQ – Intelligence quotient is an attempt to gauge human intelligence. While people have

different cognitive strengths and weaknesses, psychologists have found that there is a
common component called ‘general intelligence’ or ‘G’. General intelligence has been
defined in various ways. But I personally prefer this definition of Robert Feldman: ‘the
capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when
faced with challenges’.
  EQ – Emotional quotient is your way of managing your own emotion in positive ways
so you could effectively deal with the vicissitudes of life. It was developed by Daniel
Goleman in the mid-1990s. Studies reveal that those with EQ scores find it easier to
create interpersonal relationships and to fit into group situations. People with higher
emotional intelligence are also better at understanding their own psychological state,
which can include managing stress effectively and being less likely to suffer from
depression.

 SQ – Spiritual quotient is going beyond your cognitive and emotional skills. It is

acknowledging your mortality and thinking of what you could offer humanity. It is living
in humility; bearing in mind that you are just a tiny compared to the vastness of the
universe. A robust understanding of SQ motivates people to balance their work
commitments, time with family and inner growth.

STUDY HABBITS

study habits is the habitual practices one uses to help them study and learn. Good study habits
can help students achieve and/or maintain good grades.

Many students develop the practice of keeping and archiving all graded assignments. Not only
can these assignments be used in the same fashion as study notes, but they can also be analyzed
in retrospect to assist in determining areas of strength and weakness.

In addition, asking a lot of questions is often considered a good study habit. Good students
commonly ask for clarification, ask for extra credit and ask for after-school or lunchtime
assistance.

IMPORTANT STUDY HABBITS

How you approach studying matters.

Too many people look at studying as a necessary task, not an enjoyment or opportunity to learn.
That’s fine, but researchers have found that how you approach something matters almost as
much as what you do. Being in the right mindset is important in order to study smarter.
Sometimes you can’t “force” yourself to be in the right mindset, and it is during such times you
should simply avoid studying. If you’re distracted by a relationship issue, an upcoming game, or
finishing an important project, then studying is just going to be an exercise in frustration. Come
back to it when you’re not focused (or obsessed!) by something else going on in your life.

Where you study is important.

A lot of people make the mistake of studying in a place that really isn’t conducive to
concentrating. A place with a lot of distractions makes for a poor study area. If you try and study
in your dorm room, for instance, you may find the computer, TV, or a roommate more
interesting than the reading material you’re trying to digest.

The library, a nook in a student lounge or study hall, or a quiet coffee house are good places to
check out. Make sure to choose the quiet areas in these places, not the loud, central gathering
areas. Investigate multiple places on-campus and off-campus, don’t just pick the first one your
find as “good enough” for your needs and habits. Finding an ideal study place is important,
because it’s one you can reliably count on for the next few years.

Bring everything you need, nothing you don’t.

Unfortunately, when you find an ideal place to study, sometimes people bring things they don’t
need. For instance, while it may seem ideal to type notes into your laptop to refer back to later,
computers are a powerful distraction for many people because of their versatility. Playing games,
checking your feeds, texting, and watching videos are all wonderful distractions that have
nothing to do with studying. So ask yourself whether you really need your laptop to take notes, or
whether you can make do with old-fashioned paper and pen or pencil. Keep your phone in your
purse or backpack to keep distraction at bay as much as possible.

Don’t forget the things you need to study for the class, exam, or paper you’re focusing on for the
study session. Nothing is more time-consuming and wasteful than having to run back and forth
regularly because you forget an important book, paper, or some other resource you need to be
successful. If you study best with your favorite music playing, try and limit your interaction with
your phone while changing tracks. Your phone is a potential time-sink and one of the worst
enemies of concentration.
Outline and rewrite your notes.

Most people find that keeping to a standard outline format helps them boil information down to
its most basic components. People find that connecting similar concepts together makes it easier
to remember when the exam comes around. The important thing to remember in writing outlines
is that an outline only words as a learning tool when it is in your own words and structure. Every
person is unique in how they put similar information together (called “chunking” by cognitive
psychologists). So while you’re welcomed to copy other people’s notes or outlines, make sure
you translate those notes and outlines into your own words and concepts. Failing to do this is
what often causes many students to stumble in remembering important items.

Use memory games (mnemonic devices).

Memory games, or mnemonic devices, are methods for remembering pieces of information
using a simple association of common words. Most often people string together words to form a
nonsense sentence that is easy to remember. The first letter of each word can then be used to
stand for something else – the piece of information you’re trying to remember. The most
common mnemonic device example is “Every Good Boy Deserves Fun.” Putting the first letters
of every word together — EGBDF — gives a music student the five notes for treble clef.

The key to such memory devices is the new phrase or sentence you come up with has to be more
memorable and easier to remember than the terms or information you’re trying to learn. These
don’t work for everyone, so if they don’t work for you, don’t use them.

Mnemonic devices are helpful because you use more of your brain to remember visual and active
images than you do to remember just a list of items. Using more of your brain means better
memory.

Practice by yourself or with friends.

Some people enjoy reviewing their materials with a group of friends or classmates. Such groups
work best when they’re kept small (4 or 5 others), with people of similar academic aptitude, and
with people taking the same class. Different formats work for different groups. Some groups like
to work through chapters together, quizzing one another as they go through it. Others like to
compare class notes, and review materials that way, ensuring they haven’t missed any critical
points. Such study groups can be helpful for many students, but not all.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF READING NEWSPAPERS

• Your vocabulary and English skills can be improved if you maintain reading newspapers on a
regular basis.
• General knowledge and valuable information can be acquired.
• Different useful details can be known on sports, economic condition, entertainment, games,
commerce, and trade.
• You can develop a great reading habit which will help you to enjoy your recreational
moments in a cool and peaceful mind.
• Your knowledge wild is enriched and on the other hand, your outlook will be widened.
• You can remain well-informed as a result of which your knowledge reserve will get enhanced
to a great extent.
• Current affairs of the world can be easily known and you can also have a healthy discussion
on the basis of the same.
• Your general knowledge can be improved to a great extent and this knowledge can help you
to make proper interaction with other fellows so that current politics and events can be discussed.
• You can get a greater clarity that can make your understanding better. Your rational senses
can be boosted up with newspaper information.
• Government plans, decisions, regulations, and principles can also be known from newspapers
in accordance to which social norms can be framed.
• You can also come to know about the condition of the corporate world. Different updated
business details and news can be easily extracted. In this respect, you have you check out the
advertisement section of the newspaper.
• Newspaper advertisements can help you to know about varied products or services. You will
surely be able to know about different business brands that have emerged recently. If you have
got any requirements, then you can also make open advertisement of the same in newspapers.
READING

Reading plays an important role in our day-to-day life. It is also an important aspect in the life of
students. The massive content included in the study curriculum can be tricky, particularly when
the subject is unfamiliar. Before you start reading a new topic, stop for a moment and start
questioning yourself as to what you need to find out, and then select the reading that relates to
your questions.

Reading has many motives, and there are many ways to read:

 To locate specific information means skimming rapidly over text until you find what
you're looking for, e.g. reading a newspaper, a magazine, a novel etc.

 To understand reasons and facts and to learn, read slowly and deliberately.

 To enjoy words and descriptions, as in poetry and some prose, slow or repeated reading is
needed to get the feel of the language or to picture a scene. Here reading along with - "the
power of imagination" plays a vital role.

 To escape into a novel, you might skip the dull parts and pick up enough detail to see
what happens and how it ends, skimming some parts and dwelling on others. In short,
reading what you like to read.

 Reading plays an important role in our day-to-day life. It is also an important aspect in
the life of students. The massive content included in the study curriculum can be tricky,
particularly when the subject is unfamiliar. Before you start reading a new topic, stop for
a moment and start questioning yourself as to what you need to find out, and then select
the reading that relates to your questions.

Ask yourself: Why are you reading?

How you read depends on your motive. Generally for many of us our education system demands
a great amount of reading. Although students are rarely asked to read up all the references and
bibliographies for that matter, but if the whole idea of reading itself seems to be daunting,
suggestion would be that don't hesitate to ask your professor for help. The whole motive of most
of your reading will be to seek related to an assignment or course material.

Reading has many motives, and there are many ways to read:

 To locate specific information means skimming rapidly over text until you find what
you're looking for, e.g. reading a newspaper, a magazine, a novel etc.

 To understand reasons and facts and to learn, read slowly and deliberately.

 To enjoy words and descriptions, as in poetry and some prose, slow or repeated reading is
needed to get the feel of the language or to picture a scene. Here reading along with - "the
power of imagination" plays a vital role.

 To escape into a novel, you might skip the dull parts and pick up enough detail to see
what happens and how it ends, skimming some parts and dwelling on others. In short,
reading what you like to read.

TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE READING

 Pay attention to the question or the theme in the passage that you are reading.

 Read with a motive, and have an idea of the information you are looking for before you
begin reading.

 Use the Table of Contents and Index Page: It enables you to directly locate relevant
information.

 Previewing: Take a minute to preview a chapter or article. Don't take any notes, don't
underline, just scan the material. Preview the material by reading abstracts, listed
objectives, headings, subheadings, introductions and conclusions. Note any pictures,
graphs or charts.

 Skimming: It is the process of quickly locating specific information from a large

quantity of written material.
  Follow few steps while using the skimming technique: Allow your eyes to move
quickly over a page until you find a relevant section.
Look for key words or names. Phrases such as "on the other hand" and "finally" often
signify a summary of the author's main arguments or conclusions. When you locate
information requiring attention, slow down to read the relevant section more thoroughly

TYPES OF READING

Scanning

Scanning types of reading is used to find the relative piece of information that student intends to
get. Scanning is a very quick form of reading text books or other materials. Here student reads
text just to find out the information that he is seeking for. When he gets that information, he just
stops reading the text. Students find this type of reading very helpful when they visit
any education and career trip. He just scans his guide book to find relative information and
closes the book.

Skimming

Skimming is like scanning and sometimes it is referred as gist reading. Here you don’t find a
specific piece of information. You target of skimming any text book or newspaper is just to read
the main points of the concept or news. Students find it very useful when they read newspapers
and magazines. It is somewhat more complex than scanning because students need to memorize
all the information he read. Skimming is not a good type of reading for ESL students who
are learning English grammar.

Intensive Reading

It is more time consuming than scanning and skimming. In intensive reading, students look
inside the text. It is very important for ESL students as they can identify key vocabulary by the
help of intensive reading. Students can improve their English vocabulary skills with this type of
reading. It is totally classroom based type of reading and students cannot get its help in exam
time. The text learned in intensive reading is not more than 500 words. It is not for long term
uses because students forget everything after a particular period of time.
Extensive Reading

It is the master of all types of reading. If you ask me then I will suggest extensive reading as the
best of all other. In this reading, students read the information for their pleasure. Students read all
the information given in the text because they feel happiness in gaining the knowledge. There is
not limit of texts that students read. Student read individually and silently. There is no pressure
of reading boring texts. One can read whatever he or she wants to read. Mostly researchers use
these types of reading for a particular topic.

RESEARCH ARTICLE

A research article reports the results of original research, assesses its contribution to the body of
knowledge in a given area, and is published in a peer-reviewed scholarly journal. A given
academic field will likely have dozens of peer-reviewed journals. For university professors,
publishing their research plays a key role in determining whether they are granted tenure. Once,
research articles had only a limited audience consisting mainly of other scholars and graduate
students. Today, websites such as Google Scholar and the proliferation of electronic academic
journals have broadened the potential audience for research articles.

Features

Research articles generally consist of the following components: a title and abstract, an
introduction, a methodology, results, discussion, and references. Before they are published, the
editor of the journal to which the manuscript was submitted sends it to experts in the same field
for review. These scholars will review the article for, among other things, the appropriateness of
its methodology and its relevance to the field. They may suggest revisions. The peer review
process is lengthy. It may be a year or longer between the time an article is submitted and its
publication.

Title and Abstract

The title and abstract are key factors in determining whether the entire article will be read. A title
should be descriptive, giving the reader an idea of the focus of the study. Because the Internet
has made it possible to access so many research articles online, a title should contain enough
keywords for an interested reader to find the article. The abstract, meanwhile, serves as a mini-
summary of the study. Many readers will review the abstract and, based on the findings, will
decide whether to read the entire article.

Introduction

The introduction of a research article should state the problem being studied and the reason for
the study. To place the research in proper context, the introduction should contain a brief
summary of the previous research in the area covered by the study. This literature review should
include references, which should be listed in the references section at the end of the article. By
presenting an overview of the previous research, the article's author(s) can explain how the study
presented in the article will contribute to and advance the body of knowledge.

Methods

This section of the research article should outline the methodology the author(s) used in
conducting the study. Including information on methods used allows readers to determine
whether the study used appropriate research methods for the question being investigated. It also
makes it possible for other researchers to replicate the study and see if they obtain the same
results.

Results

The results section will present the data, the meat of the study. It is easy to confuse the results
section with the discussion section that follows, in which the article's author interprets the results
of the study. The results section should only report the results from the data analysis, regardless
of whether the study is qualitative or quantitative.

Discussion

The discussion section presents an interpretation of the results of the study. The authors will
summarize the findings and assess them in the larger context of the existing knowledge, pointing
out the ways in which their findings relate to those from prior studies. Any unusual or
unexpected results will be discussed in this section as well. Finally, the authors will consider the
larger theoretical implications of the study's results.

Citations
The citations (references) come at the end of the article and should list all books, articles, and
other resources used and cited in the article. The references -- and the entire article -- should be
written in the appropriate style (Modern Languages Association, American Psychological
Association, Chicago, etc.).

PERSONAL MEMORY

Personal memory is the memory we have of particular items—people, places, things,

events, situations—that we have personally experienced.

TIPS TO IMPROVE PERSONAL MEMORY

 Get on a regular sleep schedule. Go to bed at the same time every night and get up at
the same time each morning. Try not to break your routine, even on weekends and
holidays.

 Avoid all screens for at least an hour before bed. The blue light emitted by TVs,
tablets, phones, and computers trigger wakefulness and suppress hormones such as
melatonin that make you sleepy.

 Cut back on caffeine. Caffeine affects people differently. Some people are highly
sensitive, and even morning coffee may interfere with sleep at night. Try reducing your
intake or cutting it out entirely if you suspect it’s keeping you up.

 Avoid stress

Stress is one of the brain’s worst enemies. Over time, chronic stress destroys brain cells and
damages the hippocampus, the region of the brain involved in the formation of new memories
and the retrieval of old ones. Studies have also linked stress to memory loss.

STRESS

Stress is your body's way of responding to any kind of demand. It can be caused by both good
and bad experiences. When people feel stressed by something going on around them, their bodies
react by releasing chemicals into the blood. These chemicals give people more energy and
strength, which can be a good thing if their stress is caused by physical danger. But this can also
be a bad thing, if their stress is in response to something emotional and there is no outlet for this
extra energy and strength. This class will discuss different causes of stress, how stress affects
you, the difference between 'good' or 'positive' stress and 'bad' or 'negative' stress, and some
common facts about how stress affects people today.

Signs and symptoms of stress

The most dangerous thing about stress is how easily it can creep up on you. You get used to it. It
starts to feel familiar, even normal. You don’t notice how much it’s affecting you, even as it
takes a heavy toll. That’s why it’s important to be aware of the common warning signs and
symptoms of stress overload.

Cognitive symptoms:

 Memory problems

 Inability to concentrate

 Poor judgment

 Seeing only the negative

 Anxious or racing thoughts

 Constant worrying

Emotional symptoms:

 Depression or general unhappiness

 Anxiety and agitation

 Moodiness, irritability, or anger

 Feeling overwhelmed

 Loneliness and isolation

 Other mental or emotional health problems

Physical symptoms:

 Aches and pains

 Diarrhea or constipation

 Nausea, dizziness

 Chest pain, rapid heart rate

 Loss of sex drive

 Frequent colds or flu

Behavioral symptoms:

 Eating more or less

 Sleeping too much or too little

 Withdrawing from others

 Procrastinating or neglecting responsibilities

 Using alcohol, cigarettes, or drugs to relax

 Nervous habits (e.g. nail biting, pacing)

COMMON CAUSES OF STRESS

Stress at work

While some workplace stress is normal, excessive stress can interfere with your productivity and
performance, impact your physical and emotional health, and affect your relationships and home
life. It can even determine the difference between success and failure on the job. Whatever your
ambitions or work demands, there are steps you can take to protect yourself from the damaging
effects of stress, improve your job satisfaction, and bolster your well-being in and out of the
workplace.
Job loss and unemployment stress

Losing a job is one of life’s most stressful experiences. It’s normal to feel angry, hurt, or
depressed, grieve for all that you’ve lost, or feel anxious about what the future holds. Job loss
and unemployment involves a lot of change all at once, which can rock your sense of purpose
and self-esteem. While the stress can seem overwhelming, there are many steps you can take to
come out of this difficult period stronger, more resilient, and with a renewed sense of purpose.

Caregiver stress

The demands of care giving can be overwhelming, especially if you feel that you’re in over your
head or have little control over the situation. If the stress of caregiving is left unchecked, it can
take a toll on your health, relationships, and state of mind — eventually leading to burnout.
However, there are plenty of things you can do to rein in the stress of caregiving and regain a
sense of balance, joy, and hope in your life.

Grief and loss

Coping with the loss of someone or something you love is one of life’s biggest stressors.
Often, the pain and stress of loss can feel overwhelming. You may experience all kinds of
difficult and unexpected emotions, from shock or anger to disbelief, guilt, and profound sadness.
While there is no right or wrong way to grieve, there are healthy ways to cope with the pain that,
in time, can ease your sadness and help you come to terms with your loss, find new meaning, and
move on with your life.

TYPES OF STRESS

Acute stress

Acute stress is the type of stress that throws you off-balance momentarily. This is the type of
stress that comes on quickly and often unexpectedly and doesn’t last too long, but requires a
response and shakes you up a bit, like an argument with someone in your life, or an exam for
which you don’t feel adequately prepared.
Your body's stress response is triggered with acute stress, but you can reverse it with quick
relaxation techniques, and then go back to your day feeling less stressed again. These stress
relievers can help you to relax and more quickly recover from acute stress.

 Breathing Exercises: Great for acute stress because they work quickly.

 Cognitive Reframing: Learn to change the way you look at the situation to manage your
stress levels.

 Progressive Muscle Relaxation: Like breathing exercises, PMR will give you a moment
to regroup and calm down.

 Mini-Meditation: Take breathing exercises a step further with this quick, 5-minute
meditation technique to calm down in the moment.

Chronic Stress

Chronic stress is the type of stress that tends to occur on a regular basis. This type of stress may leave you
feeling drained, and can lead to burnout if it’s not effectively managed. This is because, when the stress
response is chronically triggered and the body is not brought back to a relaxed state before the next wave
of stress hits, the body can stay triggered indefinitely.

The following long-term habits can help you to better manage general stress that you may
feel from the chronic stressors in your life.

 Exercise Regularly: Exercise and stress management are closely linked for several
reasons.

 Maintain a Healthy Diet: Fueling your body well can help with overall stress levels
because your entire system will function better.

 Cultivate Supportive Relationships: Having a solid support system is a crucial coping

mechanism.

 Meditate Regularly: While quick meditations are great for dealing with acute stress, a
regular meditation practice will help build your overall resilience to stress.
  Listen to Music: Music can act as a wonderful, stress-reducing backdrop to everyday
tasks.

EMOTIONAL STRESS

The pain of emotional stress can hit harder than some other types of stress. For example, the stress that
comes from a conflicted relationship tends to bring a greater physical reaction and a stronger sense of
distress than the stress that comes from being busy at work.

Therefore, it is important to be able to manage emotional stress in effective ways. Strategies that
help you to process, diffuse, and build resilience toward emotional stress can all work well, and
different approaches can work in different situations. Here are some ways to manage emotional
stress.

 Write in a Journal: There are several different journaling strategies to try, all with benefits.
 Talk to a Friend: Learn about the several different types of social support friends can offer you.
 Listen to Music
 Practice Mindfulness: Mindfulness can help keep you rooted in the present moment.
 Talk to a Therapist

Burnout

Burnout is the result of the prolonged chronic stress of situations that leave people feeling a lack
of control in their lives. Certain conditions of a job can create a greater risk of burnout, including
not only a high level of demands, but also unclear expectations, lack of recognition for
achievements, and a high level of risk of negative consequences when mistakes are made.

Once you reach a state of burnout, it is difficult to maintain motivation to work and accomplish
what you need to accomplish, and you can feel chronically overwhelmed. In addition to the
strategies that work well for chronic stress and emotional stress, the following strategies can help
you to come back from a state of burnout—or prevent it entirely.

 Take Some Time Off: If you never take your vacation time, here's why you should start.
 Get More Laughter Into Your Life: Laughter can lead to better overall health and bring joy into
your day.
  Indulge in Hobbies: Don't wait until your life calms down to engage in your hobbies.
 Get More Enjoyment Out of Your Current Job : If you landed in a job you don't love, all is not
lost. Learn how to make your job more fulfilling.
 Make Your Weekends Count: Learn how to bring some of your weekend into your work week for
less stress.

STRESS MANGEMENT

A predetermined strategy for coping with psychological or emotional turmoil. As part of a health benefits
package, a company may offer stress management therapy to improve job performance.

Tips to manage stress

 Keep a positive attitude.

 Accept that there are events that you cannot control.

 Be assertive instead of aggressive. Assert your feelings, opinions, or beliefs instead of

becoming angry, defensive, or passive.

 Learn and practice relaxation techniques; try meditation, yoga, or tai-chi for stress
management.

 Exercise regularly. Your body can fight stress better when it is fit.

 Eat healthy, well-balanced meals.

 Learn to manage your time more effectively.

 Set limits appropriately and learn to say no to requests that would create excessive stress
in your life.

 Make time for hobbies, interests, and relaxation.

 Get enough rest and sleep. Your body needs time to recover from stressful events.

 Don't rely on alcohol, drugs, or compulsive behaviors to reduce stress.

 Seek out social support. Spend enough time with those you enjoy.
  Seek treatment with a psychologist or other mental health professional trained in stress
management or biofeedback techniques to learn healthy ways of dealing with the stress in
your life.

MIND MAPPING

What is a Mind Map?

A mind map is an easy way to brainstorm thoughts organically without worrying about order and structure. It
allows you to visually structure your ideas to help with analysis and recall.

A mind map is a diagram for representing tasks, words, concepts, or items linked to and arranged around a
central concept or subject using a non-linear graphical layout that allows the user to build an intuitive
framework around a central concept. A mind map can turn a long list of monotonous information into a
colorful, memorable and highly organized diagram that works in line with your brain's natural way of doing
things.

A mind map can be used as a simplified content management system (CMS). It allows you to store all your
data in a centralized location to stay organized. With the various mind mapping software programs out today,
you can attach files to different branches for even more flexibility. You can also change to various different
views in order to find one that suits you best.

There are several fundamental principles, for mind mapping:

Pictures
What you see, you will remember! You have an enormous capacity to remember pictures and
images. The brain constantly takes "photos" of your life and stores these in a gigantic photo
album inside your head, and you can actually retrieve them at any given moment. This is very
critical for mind mapping, since it is much easier to remember a picture than it is to remember
long lines of pure text.

Headlines
It is far more easy to remember single words, short phrases and striking headlines, than to
remember pure text. This is quite self explanatory - you could try to quote this entire chapter
through hundreds of hours of studying - and surely fail anyway. Or you could simply write down
a headline for each important point, and still remember 95% of the important information. it's up
to you.
Connection
Your consciousness always analyzes how things are connected to each other. And when that is
done, the mind creates an image to symbolize the structure. A lot of the brain's work is based on
association and it automatically links different subjects together to create a system. It is
important to let your brain work the way it wants and help it, instead of forcing it to take a
certain direction. Your brain will be much happier, and when it appreciates your help it rewards
you with knowledge and the power to remember… :-)

Example of a Mind map about Time Management

Advantages of Mind Maps

Wide Adaptability

As is known to all that mind maps grow from a central topic and develop in a radiant structure,
organizing relevant ideas in a creative and visualized map. The human brain works exactly the
way how a mind map grows, thus allowing mind maps to be used in many occasions involving
learning and arrangement, such as preparing an exam, taking notes, making a book summary,
planning things and organizing structured tasks, etc.

Convenient Editing

Comparing with traditional linear texts on notebooks, a mind map can theoretically develop into
unlimited branches and levels in the structure. For this reason, it’s easy and convenient to add
ideas and information at any time later rather than squeezing texts into margins of the paper with
messily distributed lines and arrows.

Enhance Memory

In addition to the radiant structure, the mapper can use images and symbols to his map as he
likes. These personalized elements are prone to make things easier to memorize.

Get People Focused

When you read a book, the texts are displayed line by line. However, things are different in the
layout of a mind map, they delve from hypernym into hyponym. Such a structure help you focus
on the links and relationships between ideas. In this case, you get comprehensive information
instead of scattered facts.

Concise Information

Since the topic texts of mind maps are keywords and short phrases that can conclude the content
of the corresponding idea, mind maps are a great aid in condensing plenty of information. For
example, when you are preparing the final exam, it is much more time-saving to review
knowledge on a mind map than read the whole book.
Disadvantages of Mind Maps

Texts Limitation

As has mentioned above, mind map topic texts consist of keywords and short phrases which limit
the number of texts you want to put in. On a hand-drawn mind map, large chunks of text will
make the map look messy. However, if you choose to use a mind map tool, it’s no longer a
problem. You can insert notes, tags, comments, attachments, and hyperlinks to add more
information without displaying them.

Time-consuming (Sometimes)

If you need to make a delicate mind map with excellent pictures and accompanying texts, it
may take some time. However, such mind maps work well in helping you review and recall
information and will check your understanding.

OBSERVATION

Observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source. In living beings, observation
employs the senses. In science, observation can also involve the perception and recording of data via the use
of scientific instruments. The term may also refer to any data collected during the scientific activity.
Observations can be qualitative, that is, only the absence or presence of a property is noted, or quantitative if a
numerical value is attached to the observed phenomenon by counting or measuring.

Different Types of Observation

Below are the different types of observations

Participant observation

Participant observation was first introduced by Prof. Edward Winder Man. It means the activities
of a group in which an observer himself participate and note the situation. He willingly mixes
with the group and perform his activities as an observer not merely a participator who criticize
the situation. In other words he takes place and share the activities with his group. For example
when we study the rural and urban conditions of Asian people, we have to go there and watched
what is going on. The best philosophy of participant observation is that we watch the phenomena
not to ask. The actual behavior of the group can be observed only by participant observation not
by any other method.

Merits

1. The observer is personally involved in group activities and shares their feelings and
prejudices.

2. He participate himself and get insight into the behavior of the group.

3. It motivates and stimulates mutual relationship b/w the observer and observe.

4. He can get more information’s with accuracy and precision.

5. The information’s are recorded in front of the group people.

Demerits

1. The observer may develop emotional attachment to his group which will lose the
objectivity of the study.

2. Cannot observe a certain phenomenon in a short time available to him.

3. Cannot cover a wide area through this method.

Non-Participant Observation

The non-participant observation has a lack of participation of the observer in his group activities.
He either watch the phenomena from a distance or participate in the group but never in its
activities. He only sit in the group but do not interest in the process.

The difference between participant & non-participant observation is that, in the former the
observer himself take part in a group and become the member of that group also participate in
their activities with full fledge while the latter refers to the less or no participation of the
observer in his group, their membership and activities. He watch from a distance but do not have
active eye sight that what is going on in the field of research.
Merits

1. Although observer himself never attach to the group but the objectivity maintained.

2. Less emotional involvement of the observer leads to accuracy and greater objectivity.

3. having secondary relationship with his group, so the information’s are collected entirely.

4. Through non-participant observation the research remains very smooth.

Demerits

1. Do not have full knowledge about the group activities.

2. Cannot understand the whole phenomena.

3. Cannot get real and deep insight into the phenomena.

Controlled Observation

Here observer and observe or subject both are controlled. For systematic data collection control
is imposed on both for accuracy and precision. When observation is pre-planned and definite,
then it is termed as controlled observation. In control observation, mechanical devices are used
for precision and standardized. So, control increase accuracy, reduce bias, ensure reliability and
standardization. Some of the devices are as under.

1. Observational plan.

2. Observational schedule.

3. Mechanical appliances like, camera, maps, films, video, tape recorder etc.

4. Team of observers.

5. Socio Matric Scale.

Un-Controlled Observation

Uncontrolled observation takes place in natural setting without the influence of external or
outside control. The observer does not plan in advance but this is related to day-to-day
happenings and socio-cultural problems. It studies some of our life situations.

Structured and Un-Structured Observation

It this type careful information’s are recorded in a standardized way. It is a planned observation
of a phenomena and to follow certain patterns, rules and designs for the purpose what, how and
when to observe, . Unstructured observation is opposite to structured. This is not systematic and
un-planned observation. A researcher do not set a plan in advance but he get the information’s
freely. There is no rules to follow by the researcher.

General or Layman Observation

General or layman observation make by people in day-to-day happenings. They see many things
daily but there is no objectivity of their study. For example a person see the children playing in a
garden is general observation.

Scientific Observation

Scientific observation is based on some scientific rules and deliberate thinking. The observer
must know what to observe. He have proper planning, objectivity, hypothesis and observation
schedule in his study. Scientific observation is reliable and more standardized than general
observation.

What Are The Advantages Of Observation?

>> Collect data where and when an event or activity is occurring.

>> Does not rely on people’s willingness or ability to provide information.
>> Allows you to directly see what people do rather than relying on what people say they did.
What Are The Disadvantages Of Observation?

>> Susceptible to observer bias.

>> Susceptible to the “Hawthorne effect,” that is, people usually perform better when they
know
they are being observed, although indirect observation may decrease this problem.
>> Can be expensive and time-consuming compared to other data collection methods.
>> Does not increase your understanding of why people behave as they do.

TIME MANAGEMENT

What is Time Management ?

 Time Management refers to managing time effectively so that the right time is allocated
to the right activity.

 Effective time management allows individuals to assign specific time slots to activities as
per their importance.

 Time Management refers to making the best use of time as time is always limited.

Ask yourself which activity is more important and how much time should be allocated to the
same? Know which work should be done earlier and which can be done a little later.

Time Management plays a very important role not only in organizations but also in our personal
lives.

Time Management components or Tips to Time Management

i. Effective Planning

ii. Setting goals and objectives

iii. Setting deadlines

iv. Delegation of responsibilities

 v. Prioritizing activities as per their importance

vi. Spending the right time on the right activity

 Effective Planning

Plan your day well in advance. Prepare a To Do List or a “TASK PLAN”. Jot down the
important activities that need to be done in a single day against the time that should be allocated
to each activity. High Priority work should come on top followed by those which do not need
much of your importance at the moment. Complete pending tasks one by one. Do not begin fresh
work unless you have finished your previous task. Tick the ones you have already completed.
Ensure you finish the tasks within the stipulated time frame.

 Setting Goals and Objectives

Working without goals and targets in an organization would be similar to a situation where the
captain of the ship loses his way in the sea. Yes, you would be lost. Set targets for yourself and
make sure they are realistic ones and achievable.

 Setting Deadlines

Set deadlines for yourself and strive hard to complete tasks ahead of the deadlines. Do not wait
for your superiors to ask you everytime. Learn to take ownership of work. One person who can
best set the deadlines is you yourself. Ask yourself how much time needs to be devoted to a
particular task and for how many days. Use a planner to mark the important dates against the set
deadlines.

 Delegation of Responsibilities

Learn to say “NO” at workplace. Don’t do everything on your own. There are other people as
well. One should not accept something which he knows is difficult for him. The roles and
responsibilities must be delegated as per interest and specialization of employees for them to
finish tasks within deadlines. A person who does not have knowledge about something needs
more time than someone who knows the work well.

 Prioritizing Tasks
Prioritize the tasks as per their importance and urgency. Know the difference between important
and urgent work. Identify which tasks should be done within a day, which all should be done
within a month and so on. Tasks which are most important should be done earlier.

 Spending the right time on right activity

Develop the habit of doing the right thing at the right time. Work done at the wrong time is not
of much use. Don’t waste a complete day on something which can be done in an hour or so. Also
keep some time separate for your personal calls or checking updates on Facebook or Twitter.
After all human being is not a machine.

For Effective Time Management one needs to be:

Organized - Avoid keeping stacks of file and heaps of paper at your workstation. Throw what
all you don’t need. Put important documents in folders. Keep the files in their respective drawers
with labels on top of each file. It saves time which goes on unnecessary searching.

Don’t misuse time - Do not kill time by loitering or gossiping around. Concentrate on your work
and finish assignments on time. Remember your organization is not paying you for playing
games on computer or peeping into other’s cubicles. First complete your work and then do
whatever you feel like doing. Don’t wait till the last moment.

Be Focused - One needs to be focused for effective time management.

Develop the habit of using planners, organizers, table top calendars for better time management.
Set reminders on phones or your personal computers.
MODULE - II COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Communication

Communication can be defined as the process of transmitting information and common

understanding from one person to another . The word communication is derived from the Latin
word, communis, which means common

Elements of communication process

(1) Sender:

The person who intends to convey the message with the intention of passing information and
ideas to others is known as sender or communicator.

(2) Ideas:

This is the subject matter of the communication. This may be an opinion, attitude, feelings,
views, orders, or suggestions.

(3) Encoding:

Since the subject matter of communication is theoretical and intangible, its further passing
requires use of certain symbols such as words, actions or pictures etc. Conversion of subject
matter into these symbols is the process of encoding.

(4) Communication Channel:

The person who is interested in communicating has to choose the channel for sending the
required information, ideas etc. This information is transmitted to the receiver through certain
channels which may be either formal or informal.

(5) Receiver:

Receiver is the person who receives the message or for whom the message is meant for. It is the
receiver who tries to understand the message in the best possible manner in achieving the desired
objectives.
(6) Decoding:

The person who receives the message or symbol from the communicator tries to convert the
same in such a way so that he may extract its meaning to his complete understanding.

(7) Feedback: Feedback is the process of ensuring that the receiver has received the message
and understood in the same sense as sender meant it.

Types of Communication

People communicate with each other in a number of ways that depend upon the message and its
context in which it is being sent. Choice of communication channel and your style of
communicating also affects communication. So, there are variety of types of communication.

Types of communication based on the communication channels used are:

Verbal Communication

Nonverbal Communication

Verbal Communication

Verbal communication refers to the the form of communication in which message is transmitted
verbally; communication is done by word of mouth and a piece of writing. Objective of every
communication is to have people understand what we are trying to convey. In verbal
communication remember the acronym KISS(keep it short and simple).

When we talk to others, we assume that others understand what we are saying because we know
what we are saying. But this is not the case. usually people bring their own attitude, perception,
emotions and thoughts about the topic and hence creates barrier in delivering the right meaning.

So in order to deliver the right message, you must put yourself on the other side of the table and
think from your receiver’s point of view. Would he understand the message? how it would sound
on the other side of the table?

Verbal Communication is further divided into:

Oral Communication

Written Communication

Oral Communication

In oral communication, Spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face conversations, speech,
telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice over internet. In oral communication,
communication is influence by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking.

Advantages of Oral communication are:

It brings quick feedback.

In a face-to-face conversation, by reading facial expression and body language one can guess
whether he/she should trust what’s being said or not.

Disadvantage of oral communication

In face-to-face discussion, user is unable to deeply think about what he is delivering, so this can
be counted as a

Written Communication

In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate. A written message
may be printed or hand written. In written communication message can be transmitted via email,
letter, report, memo etc. Message, in written communication, is influenced by the vocabulary &
grammar used, writing style, precision and clarity of the language used.

Written Communication is most common form of communication being used in business. So, it
is considered core among business skills.

Memos, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, and electronic mail are the types
of written communication used for internal communication. For communicating with external
environment in writing, electronic mail, Internet Web sites, letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes,
postcards, contracts, advertisements, brochures, and news releases are used.
Advantages of written communication includes:

Messages can be edited and revised many time before it is actually sent.

Written communication provide record for every message sent and can be saved for later study.

A written message enables receiver to fully understand it and send appropriate feedback.

Disadvantages of written communication includes:

Unlike oral communication, Written communication doesn’t bring instant feedback.

It take more time in composing a written message as compared to word-of-mouth. and number of
people struggles for writing ability.

Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages. We can say that
communication other than oral and written, such as gesture, body language, posture, tone of
voice or facial expressions, is called nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication is all
about the body language of speaker.

Nonverbal communication helps receiver in interpreting the message received. Often, nonverbal
signals reflects the situation more accurately than verbal messages. Sometimes nonverbal
response contradicts verbal communication and hence affect the effectiveness of message.

Nonverbal communication have the following three elements:

Appearance

Speaker: clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics

Surrounding: room size, lighting, decorations, furnishings

Body Language

facial expressions, gestures, postures

Sounds
Voice Tone, Volume, Speech rate

Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style

Based on style and purpose, there are two main categories of communication and they both bears
their own characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose are:

Formal Communication

Informal Communication

Formal Communication

In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed while
communicating message. Formal communication occurs in formal and official style. Usually
professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences undergoes in formal pattern.

In formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct pronunciation is
required. Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal communication.

Informal Communication

Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal communication
channels. It’s just a casual talk. It is established for societal affiliations of members in an
organization and face-to-face discussions. It happens among friends and family. In informal
communication use of slang words, foul language is not restricted. Usually. informal
communication is done orally and using gestures.

Informal communication, Unlike formal communication, doesn’t follow authority lines. In an

organization, it helps in finding out staff grievances as people express more when talking
informally. Informal communication helps in building relationships.

Barriers to Effective Communication

Process Barriers

Every step in the communication process is necessary for effective and good communication..
Blocked steps become barriers. Consider the following situations:
• Sender barrier. A new administrator with an innovative idea fails to speak up at a meeting,
chaired by the superintendent, for fear of criticism.

• Encoding barrier. A Spanish-speaking staff member cannot get an English speaking

administrator to understand a grievance about working conditions. • Medium barrier. A very
upset staff member sends an emotionally charged letter to the leader instead of transmitting her
feelings face-to-face.

• Decoding barrier. An older principal is not sure what a young department head means when he
refers to a teacher as "spaced out."

• Receiver barrier. A school administrator who is preoccupied with the preparation of the annual
budget asks a staff member to repeat a statement, because she was not listening attentively to the
conversation.

• Feedback barrier. During a meeting, the failure of school administrators to ask any questions
causes the superintendent to wonder if any real understanding has taken place.

Because communication is a complex, give-and-take process, breakdowns anywhere in the cycle

can block the transfer of understanding.

Physical Barriers

Any number of physical distractions can interfere with the effectiveness of communication,
including a telephone call, drop-in visitors, distances between people, walls, and static on the
radio. People often take physical barriers for granted, but sometimes they can be removed. For
example, an inconveniently positioned wall can be removed. Interruptions such as telephone
calls and drop-in visitors can be removed by issuing instructions to a secretary. An appropriate
choice of media can overcome distance barriers between people.

Semantic Barriers

The words we choose, how we use them, and the meaning we attach to them cause many
communication barriers. The problem is semantic, or the meaning of the words we use. The same
word may mean different things to different people. Words and phrases such as efficiency,
increased productivity, management prerogatives, and just cause may mean one thing to a school
administrator, and something entirely different to a staff member. Technology also plays a part in
semantic barriers to communication. Today's complex school systems are highly specialized.
Schools have staff and technical experts developing and using specialized terminology—jargon
that only other similar staff and technical experts can understand. And if people don't understand
the words, they cannot understand the message.

Psychosocial Barriers

• Sincerity. Nearly all communication theorists assert that sincerity is the foundation on which
all true communication rests. Without sincerity—honesty, straightforwardness, and authenticity
—all attempts at communication are destined to fail.

• Empathy. Research shows that lack of empathy is one of the major obstacles to effective
communication. Empathy is the ability to put one's self into another's shoes. The empathetic
person is able to see the world through the eyes of the other person.

• Self-perception. How we see ourselves affects our ability to communicate effectively. A

healthy but realistic self-perception is a necessary ingredient in communicating with others.

• Role perception. Unless people know what their role is, the importance of their role, and what
is expected of them, they will not know what to communicate, when to communicate, or to
whom to communicate.

• Efforts to distort the message. Pitfalls in communication often occur in our efforts—both
consciously and unconsciously—to distort messages.

• Images. Another obstacle to successful communication is the sender's image of the receiver and
vice versa. For example, on the one hand, school administrators are sometimes viewed as not too
well informed about teaching, seen as out of touch with the classroom, and looked on as paper
shufflers. On the other hand, some school administrators view teachers as lazy, inconsiderate of
administrative problems, and unrealistic about the strengths and weaknesses of their students.
Such views lead to a SCHOOLING "we-they" attitude.

• Vehicle for message. The vehicle by which we choose to send messages is important in
successful communication. In most cases, the vehicle to be used is defined by the situation. •
Ability to communicate. Some of the ways we communicate raise barriers by inhibiting
discussion or causing others to feel inferior, angry, hostile, dependent, compliant, or subservient.

• Listening ability. Frequently, people fail to appreciate the importance of listening, do not care
enough to become actively involved with what others are saying, and are not sufficiently
motivated to develop the skills necessary to acquire the art of listening.

• Culture. Our cultural heritage, biases, and prejudices often serve as barriers to communication.
The fact that we are African-American or white, young or old, male or female have all proved to
be obstacles in communicating effectively.

• Tradition. Past practice in a school helps determine how, when, and what we send and receive.
For example, a school administrator who has an authoritative style may find that his staff will not
share information readily. If a new administrator with a collaborative style replaces the
authoritarian one, the new administrator may find that it takes a while for his colleagues to speak
out on important issues.

• Conditioning. The manner in which communication is conditioned by the environment

influences the accuracy of messages sent and received. If we work for administrators who set a
climate in which we are encouraged to share information, we soon become conditioned to
communicate accordingly.

• Noise. A major barrier to communication is what communication experts call noise. Noise
consists of the external factors in the channels and the internal perceptions and experiences
within the source and the receiver that affect communication.

• Feedback. Faculty and staff tell their leaders that they want feedback. However, feedback
improperly given can impede communication rather than improve it. Administrators and
followers both need more training in how to use feedback more productively.

What is effective communication?

Communication is about more than just exchanging information. It's about understanding the
emotion and intentions behind the information. Effective communication is also a two-way
street. It’s not only how you convey a message so that it is received and understood by someone
in exactly the way you intended, it’s also how you listen to gain the full meaning of what’s being
said and to make the other person feel heard and understood.

More than just the words you use, effective communication combines a set of skills including
nonverbal communication, engaged listening, managing stress in the moment, the ability to
communicate assertively, and the capacity to recognize and understand your own emotions and
those of the person you’re communicating with.

Effective communication is the glue that helps you deepen your connections to others and
improve teamwork, decision making, and problem solving. It enables you to communicate even
negative or difficult messages without creating conflict or destroying trust.

While effective communication is a learned skill, it is more effective when it’s spontaneous
rather than formulaic. A speech that is read, for example, rarely has the same impact as a speech
that’s delivered (or appears to be delivered) spontaneously. Of course, it takes time and effort to
develop these skills and become an effective communicator. The more effort and practice you
put in, the more instinctive and spontaneous your communication skills will become.

Key skills for effective communication

Become an engaged listener

People often focus on what they should say, but effective communication is less about talking
and more about listening. Listening well means not just understanding the words or the
information being communicated, but also understanding the emotions the speaker is trying to
communicate.

There’s a big difference between engaged listening and simply hearing. When you really listen—
when you’re engaged with what’s being said—you’ll hear the subtle intonations in someone’s
voice that tell you how that person is feeling and the emotions they’re trying to communicate.
When you’re an engaged listener, not only will you better understand the other person, you’ll
also make that person feel heard and understood, which can help build a stronger, deeper
connection between you.
By communicating in this way, you’ll also experience a process that lowers stress and supports
physical and emotional well-being. If the person you’re talking to is calm, for example, listening
in an engaged way will help to calm you, too. Similarly, if the person is agitated, you can help
calm them by listening in an attentive way and making the person feel understood.

Pay attention to nonverbal signals

When we communicate things that we care about, we do so mainly using nonverbal signals.
Nonverbal communication, or body language, includes facial expressions, body movement and
gestures, eye contact, posture, the tone of your voice, and even your muscle tension and
breathing. The way you look, listen, move, and react to another person tells them more about
how you’re feeling than words alone ever can.

Developing the ability to understand and use nonverbal communication can help you connect
with others, express what you really mean, navigate challenging situations, and build better
relationships at home and work.

 You can enhance effective communication by using open body language—arms

uncrossed, standing with an open stance or sitting on the edge of your seat, and
maintaining eye contact with the person you’re talking to.

 You can also use body language to emphasize or enhance your verbal message—patting a
friend on the back while complimenting him on his success, for example, or pounding
your fists to underline your message.

 Keep stress in check

 To communicate effectively, you need to be aware of and in control of your emotions.
And that means learning how to manage stress. When you’re stressed, you’re more likely
to misread other people, send confusing or off-putting nonverbal signals, and lapse into
unhealthy knee-jerk patterns of behavior.
 How many times have you felt stressed during a disagreement with your spouse, kids,
boss, friends, or coworkers and then said or done something you later regretted? If you
can quickly relieve stress and return to a calm state, you’ll not only avoid such regrets,
but in many cases you’ll also help to calm the other person as well. It’s only when you’re
 in a calm, relaxed state that you'll be able to know whether the situation requires a
response, or whether the other person’s signals indicate it would be better to remain
silent.
 In situations such as a job interview, business presentation, high-pressure meeting, or
introduction to a loved one’s family, for example, it’s important to manage your
emotions, think on your feet, and effectively communicate under pressure.

 Assert yourself
 Direct, assertive expression makes for clear communication and can help boost self-
esteem and decision-making. Being assertive means expressing your thoughts, feelings,
and needs in an open and honest way, while standing up for yourself and respecting
others. It does NOT mean being hostile, aggressive, or demanding. Effective
communication is always about understanding the other person, not about winning an
argument or forcing your opinions on others.

Differentiate between intrapersonal and interpersonal Communication; compare their

merits & demerits.

Interpersonal communication:

Introduction: interpersonal communication is that kind of communication which takes place

within or among more than two people with use of different mediums of communication. With
betterment and advancement of the communication mediums, it has brought the community
more closely and as a family.

Definition:

When communication which takes place from one to another, face to face, both communicator
and communicated persons reflects personal characteristics as well as social role and
relationship. Some theorists may include particularly the role of mediator of the communication.

Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal communication takes place within one person. It is meant to reflect oneself to
clarify something. There are three concept of intrapersonal communication namely as following:
 1. Self-conception

It is the one of the concepts of intrapersonal communication because it determines how he sees
himself and which to oriented to others. It is also known as self-awareness. There are several
factors effecting the communication.

a) Belief

It is self-orientation to know what is true or false, good or bad. It might be descriptive or

prescriptive.

b) Values

Values are integral part of belief to determine what is right or wrong. It is a deep seated
foundation lying within the person’s mind and concept.

c) Attitude

It is a learned idea of the person and it is generally consistent with value. It is often emotional.

1. Perception

When the self-concept lies internally and perception focuses outward. It is deep rooted in belief,
values and attitude. It related and closely intertwined with self concept to create better
understanding of both within and outside world.

2. Expectation

It is futuristic oriented message dealing with long term occurrence. People form expectation on
the base of the strength of ones learned ideas within the society.

There are different types of intrapersonal communications as following

1. Internal discourse

Internal discourse relates to thinking, concentrating and analyzing within one self. It might of
day dreaming, praying or meditating.

2. Solo-vocal
 It is that communication which takes place while one shouts loudly for clarifying one-self or
rehearsing, when you are talking to yourselves when students don’t do homework properly, you
might talk yourself to remind on the next time to redo it.

3. Solo-written communication

It deals with writing for oneself and not for others. Like writing notes for your future use.

Merits and Demerits of interpersonal communication

1. Irreversibility of communication

Merits: Once when interpersonal communication has taken place, it could not be hold back.
When it has conveyed properly and in better way, there is always good impact

Demerits: It is by contrast, when the communication was not properly flowed with good impact,
it is always bad impression.

2. Communication does not only be verbal communication

Merits: When you are in good mood, you may convey to others in better way.

Demerit: The communication might be of body language and it is really hard stop when
something goes on emotionally, at that point of time, you may resort to have violence interaction.

3. Situation
Merits: The communication can also be depending on the situation, when situation will be
calm both in psychologically and sociologically then communication would be flowed
smoothly

Demerits: It is by contrast, when the situation of discourse is in harsh and not good, the
communication might not be good flow
Merits and Demerits of intrapersonal communication

Merits of Intrapersonal Communication

Self-awareness
It allows the person to be aware of every aspect of their own personality. Through introspection,
the person becomes aware of the qualities that help shape his personality which in turn makes
him aware of his motivations, aspirations, and expectations from the world. If one's
understanding of self is absolute, it would help in easily communicating his wants and needs to
others.
Self-confidence
A self-aware state makes one secure and increases confidence.

Self-management
The fact that one is conscious of the indwelling strengths and shortcomings, it equips him to
manage his daily affairs efficiently using his strengths to the maximum which in turn
compensates for his weaknesses.
Self-motivation
The absolute knowledge of what one wants out of life will enable the person to strive to achieve
those aims and goal while continuously motivating themselves.
Focused
The qualities of self-motivation and self-management will help develop deeper concentration and
direct his focus towards the task at hand.
Independence
Self-awareness allows the person to be independent.
Adaptability
The person is highly adaptable to his surroundings as the knowledge of his own qualities allows
him to confidently and calmly take decisions and change his approach accordingly in response to
situational stimuli.
Demerits of Intrapersonal Communication

Introverted
Since the person prefers working alone, he is perceived as shy or anti-social by others.
Wrong assumptions
Since there is absence of a feedback, that is, the conversation is in a one-way flow, it could lead
to the development of misconceptions and faulty assumptions.

Incorrect decisions
Prejudices formed based on wrong assumptions made by an individual could lead to incorrect
choices or decisions.
Categorical thinking
There is a possibility of an individual categorizing and viewing certain individuals or events with
a biased opinion causing one's thought pattern to be one-tracked and lopsided.
Over-thinking
Over analysis of situations and prolonged thinking about them will lead to the imagination of
unrealistic and unnecessary scenarios, and in extreme cases, may even lead to self-doubt.
Arrogance
Due to an independent nature and specific approach towards an issue, one may be incorrectly
perceived as being arrogant. This is further reinforced by one's tendency to pay attention to every
minute detail.

Team work
 This means a sense of unity, of enthusiasm for common interests and responsibilities, as
developed among a group of persons closely associated in a task, cause, enterprise, etc.
 Teamwork can be likened to two compounds, almost essential to modern life. It’s the
glue which keeps a team together, a bond which promotes strength, unity, reliability and
support.
 Teamwork is also the oil that makes the team work. It can enable smoother movement
towards targets, can prolong forward momentum, and can help teams to overcome
obstacles.
  Teamwork has the potential to underpin so much of what is valuable in work. In fact,
the benefits to be gained from teamwork synergies are essential for the effective
management of resources.

Importance of team work

 Creates synergy – where the sum is greater than the parts.

 Supports a more empowered way of working, removing constraints which may prevent
someone doing their job properly.
 Promotes flatter and leaner structures, with less hierarchy.
 Encourages multi-disciplinary work where teams cut across organizational divides.
 Fosters flexibility and responsiveness, especially the ability to respond to change.
 Pleases customers who like working with good teams (sometimes the customer may be
part of the team).
 Promotes the sense of achievement, equity and camaraderie, essential for a motivated
workplace.
 When managed properly, teamwork is a better way to work!

Public speaking

Know the needs of your audience and match your contents to their needs. Know your
material thoroughly. Put what you have to say in a logical sequence. Ensure your speech will be
captivating to your audience as well as worth their time and attention. Practice and rehearse your
speech at home or where you can be at ease and comfortable, in front of a mirror, your family,
friends or colleagues. Use a tape-recorder and listen to yourself. Videotape your presentation and
analyze it. Know what your strong and weak points are. Emphasize your strong points during
your presentation.

When you are presenting in front of an audience, you are performing as an actor is on
stage. How you are being perceived is very important. Dress appropriately for the occasion. Be
solemn if your topic is serious. Present the desired image to your audience. Look pleasant,
enthusiastic, confident, proud, but not arrogant. Remain calm. Appear relaxed, even if you feel
nervous. Speak slowly, enunciate clearly, and show appropriate emotion and feeling relating to
your topic. Establish rapport with your audience. Speak to the person farthest away from you to
ensure your voice is loud enough to project to the back of the room. Vary the tone of your voice
and dramatize if necessary. If a microphone is available, adjust and adapt your voice
accordingly.

Tips to make public speech effective

Body language is important. Standing, walking or moving about with appropriate hand
gesture or facial expression is preferred to sitting down or standing still with head down and
reading from a prepared speech. Use audio-visual aids or props for enhancement if appropriate
and necessary. Master the use of presentation software such as PowerPoint well before your
presentation. Do not over-dazzle your audience with excessive use of animation, sound clips, or
gaudy colors which are inappropriate for your topic. Do not torture your audience by putting a
lengthy document in tiny print on an overhead and reading it out to them.

Speak with conviction as if you really believe in what you are saying. Persuade your
audience effectively. The material you present orally should have the same ingredients as that
which are required for a written research paper, i.e. a logical progression
from INTRODUCTION (Thesis statement) to BODY (strong supporting arguments, accurate
and up-to-date information) to CONCLUSION (re-state thesis, summary, and logical
conclusion).

Do not read from notes for any extended length of time although it is quite
acceptable to glance at your notes infrequently. Speak loudly and clearly. Sound confident.
Do not mumble. If you made an error, correct it, and continue. No need to make excuses or
apologize profusely.

Maintain sincere eye contact with your audience. Use the 3-second method, e.g. look
straight into the eyes of a person in the audience for 3 seconds at a time. Have direct eye contact
with a number of people in the audience, and every now and then glance at the whole audience
while speaking. Use your eye contact to make everyone in your audience feel involved.

Speak to your audience, listen to their questions, respond to their

reactions, adjust and adapt. If what you have prepared is obviously not getting across to your
audience, change your strategy mid-stream if you are well prepared to do so. Remember
that communication is the key to a successful presentation. If you are short of time, know what
can be safely left out. If you have extra time, know what could be effectively added. Always be
prepared for the unexpected.

Pause. Allow yourself and your audience a little time to reflect and think. Don't race
through your presentation and leave your audience, as well as yourself, feeling out of breath.

Add humor whenever appropriate and possible. Keep audience interested throughout
your entire presentation. Remember that an interesting speech makes time fly, but a boring
speech is always too long to endure even if the presentation time is the same.

When using audio-visual aids to enhance your presentation, be sure all necessary
equipment is set up and in good working order prior to the presentation. If possible, have an
emergency backup system readily available. Check out the location ahead of time to ensure
seating arrangements for audience, whiteboard, blackboard, lighting, location of projection
screen, sound system, etc. are suitable for your presentation.

Have handouts ready and give them out at the appropriate time. Tell audience ahead
of time that you will be giving out an outline of your presentation so that they will not waste time
taking unnecessary notes during your presentation.

Know when to STOP talking. Use a timer .

Importance of self confidence

The concept self-confidence as commonly used is self-assurance in one's personal judgment,

ability, power, etc. One increases self-confidence from experiences of having mastered particular
activities. It is a positive belief that in the future one can generally accomplish what one wishes
to do. Self-confidence is not the same as self-esteem, which is an evaluation of one’s own worth,
whereas self-confidence is more specifically trust in one’s ability to achieve some goal.

Self confidence can change your whole life to the better while lack of confidence will
definitely have a negative effect on your social relations, career, achievements and even
your mood. The following list will give you a better idea of the importance of self-
confidence:
 The more confident you are the less disappointed you will feel upon being rejected.
whether it was a rejection letter, relationship rejection or personal rejection. What makes
many people feel down when they get rejected is their own lack of confidence in their
abilities and not the rejection itself.
 The more self-confident you become the more risks you will be willing to take and so the
more opportunities you will encounter
 The more confidence you have the less will criticism affect you. Instead of feeling bad
when being criticized you will just ignore it and laugh
 The more Self-confidence you have the less anxious you will be. One of the major
reasons for experiencing anxiety is that we doubt our ability to handle a situation. If we
were confident that we can handle it correctly we wouldn’t have felt anxious.
 When being lonely you won't feel that bad compared to someone who is not confident.
Confident people have a better power of solitude which is the ability to feel good even
when you are alone.
 If you are a confident person, you will feel that you are worthy, regardless of your social
or economic status. Even if you currently don't have someone who loves you or even if
you aren't rich you will still feel adequate.
 People will love you: people love confident ones and look up to them. By being self-
confident you will be a role model for many other people.
 One of the fundamental factors that can help in developing depression is a low self
esteem. In my book, The ultimate guide to getting over depression i explained how lack
of self confidence can be one of the main factors that triggers depression. This doesn't
mean that depression affects people who lack self confidence but it means that building
self confidence will make you less likely to get depressed.
 The less confident you are the easier you will experience jealousy.
 The more confident you are the less likely you will feel insecure about a relationship or
about your job.
 The more confident you become the more convincing you will become and the more
likely you will win debates.

confidence-boosting tips.
  Play dress-up. One of the quickest and easiest ways to boost your confidence is to
fake it. ...
 Put on a happy face. ...
 Do a good deed. ...
 Challenge yourself. ...
 Do something you love. ...
 Stop procrastinating. ...
 Relax. ...
 Celebrate your achievements.
Self introduction

A self introduction speech is often called for at a first meeting of. a group. It could be a work
based seminar, a hobby group, your new class at the start of the term ...The possibilities are
endless.

Points to be noted while preparing Self Introduction

 Since you know you are likely to encounter this, it makes sense to prepare in
advance.
 Having said so, it should not look like you are repeating something learnt by
rote. Rehearse saying it in a normal fashion as well.
 You must sound excited talking about yourself to have any sort of positive impact on
anyone else.
 Try to have at least one major point that would catch attention within the first 20
seconds or so.
 Since the expected length can vary immensely (perhaps, 30 seconds to 5 minutes) and
it may not be possible to know in advance, have a short, crisp version than lasts less
than a minute.
 However, do have a more detailed extension ready too, and use it if needed.
 Avoid facts which add no value. For instance, avoid saying "I was born in town X"
unless it adds value to the discussion or is interesting in some way.
 While giving your background, you can go chronologically or reverse
chronologically. Think which would be more appropriate to the purpose at hand. For
 example, for a job interview for a role similar to your current one, reverse chronology
seems better. In any case, do not jump back and forth in time too many times.
 Things to talk about: work, educational background, achievements, passions .
Debate

Debate is contention in argument; strife, dissension, quarrelling, controversy; especially a formal

discussion of subjects before a public assembly or legislature, in Parliament or in any
deliberative assembly.

Debate is a method of formally presenting an argument in a structured manner. Through logical

consistency, factual accuracy and some degree of emotional appeal to the audience are elements
in debating, where one side often prevails over the other party by presenting a superior "context"
and/or framework of the issue. The outcome of a debate may depend upon consensus or some
formal way of reaching a resolution, rather than the objective facts. In a formal debating contest,
there are rules for participants to discuss and decide on differences, within a framework defining
how they will interact.

What is Debating?

A debate is a structured argument. Two sides speak alternately for and against a particular
contention usually based on a topical issue. Unlike the arguments you might have with your
family or friends however, each person is allocated a time they are allowed to speak for and any
interjections are carefully controlled. The subject of the dispute is often prearranged so you may
find yourself having to support opinions with which you do not normally agree. You also have
to argue as part of a team, being careful not to contradict what others on your side have said.

Why debate?
It is an excellent way of improving speaking skills and is particularly helpful in providing
experience in developing a convincing argument. Those of you who are forced to argue against
your natural point of view realize that arguments, like coins, always have at least two sides.

The Basic Debating Skills

Style

Style is the manner in which you communicate your arguments. This is the most basic part of
debating to master. Content and strategy are worth little unless you deliver your material in a
confident and persuasive way.

Speed

It is vital to talk at a pace which is fast enough to sound intelligent and allow you time to say
what you want, but slow enough to be easily understood.

Tone

Varying tone is what makes you sound interesting. Listening to one tone for an entire
presentation is boring.

Volume

Speaking quite loudly is sometimes a necessity, but it is by no means necessary to shout through
every debate regardless of context. There is absolutely no need speak any more loudly than the
volume at which everyone in the room can comfortably hear you. Shouting does not win
debates. Speaking too quietly is clearly disastrous since no one will be able to hear you.

Clarity

The ability to concisely and clearly express complex issues is what debating is all about. The
main reason people begin to sound unclear is usually because they lose the “stream of thought”
which is keeping them going. It is also important to keep it simple. While long words may make
you sound clever, they may also make you incomprehensible.

Use of notes and eye contact

Notes are essential, but they must be brief and well organized to be effective. There is absolutely
no point in trying to speak without notes. Of course, notes should never become obtrusive and
damage your contact with the audience, nor should they ever be read from verbatim. Most
people sketch out the main headings of their speech, with brief notes under each.

When writing notes for rebuttal during the debate, it is usually better to use a separate sheet of
paper so you can take down the details of what the other speakers have said and then transfer a
rough outline onto the notes you will actually be using.

Eye contact with the audience is very important, but keep shifting your gaze. No one likes to be
stared at.

Narration – incidents, events, experiences.

In writing or speech, narration is the process of recounting a sequence of events, real or

imagined. Also called storytelling. Aristotle's term for narration was prosthesis. The person who
recounts the events is called a narrator. The account itself is called a narrative. The perspective
from which a speaker or writer recounts a narrative is called point of view.

Steps to Narrative Writing

Decide on a topic --- what is the story you want to tell?

Look over the list of suggestions or brainstorm a few of your own. Remember, a narrative is a
story with characters, setting, problem, and solution. Be sure to choose a story that has all the
parts of a good narrative.

Establish the setting

Answer the questions Who? What? Where? When? And Why? These questions help to
narrow and describe the setting before the problem or action takes place.

Use the center block of Four Square to jot ideas for:

· Who was there before the action?

· What were they doing before the action?

· Where were they before the action?

· When does the story take place?

· Why are these people there?

Setting is important in many ways. Not only does it affect the action and events in the story, but
it can also affect the way characters act.

Decide on the events of the story. These events should be actions with strong, active verbs. If
there is no action, there is no story.

Use the first three squares of the Four Square to outline the events that create the plot. The
fourth and final square is reserved for the “Big Ending” ! The “big ending” should give the
outcome or solution to the problem that is identified in the plot.

Details, Details, Details

Details are the way to elaborate on the events that create the plot. These important bits are the
way to explain “what happened” and “how it happened”. Think of how it would be if a friend
tried to tell you what happened in a movie you have not seen without any details of what and
how things happened. You would not understand the movie. Details help the reader to see what
you see.

Remember that each square of the Four Square represents a new event, and you should take the
time to really detail each event before moving to the next.

Connect the events

Connectors are a good way to connect the events in the story. They are used to show the time
relationship between the events. Connectors have a dramatic effect. In one story it may be
meaningful if something happens immediately. In another story, if something happens 10 years
later, it may be equally shocking.

Add the connector words to the top, left corner of each of the squares in the Four Square.

Add “vivids”
“Vivids” are those words that add life to your writing. They bring the reader to the scene of the
story. Vivid language lets the reader know what the writer sees, hears, feels, smells and tastes.
Vivids include clear, concise and “vivid” adjectives to describe people or things. Clear adverbs
help to clarify when, where, why or how certain actions or events occurred. Specific nouns let
the reader see what you see, strong, select verbs demonstrate the actions of the characters just as
you want them to be. Remember to include dialogue to express mood, feeling, emotion and
point of view. Figurative language and sensory imagery are also excellent examples of vivids.
To help select your vivids, ask yourself “like what?” when telling about an event. Choose vivids
that show, not tell. Select appropriate vivids at appropriate times in the story. Don’t force vivids
in, just to have them in your story; they are only useful when they add strength to the writing.
Vivids are placed just below each of the details outlined for each event in the Four Square.

“Hook” your reader

Remember the purpose of the narrative is to entertain the reader. It is important to attract the
reader’s attention right from the start so they want to read the story. On way to attract the reader
is to use a “hook”. A “hook” is a one-sentence device placed at the beginning of the story and
generate curiosity in the reader. The “hook” is then followed by the setting paragraph, the event
paragraphs and the conclusion paragraph.

Some examples of “hooks” include:

· The Question – What could be worse than spending the night in a haunted house?

· Dialogue --- “Run and don’t look back!” shouted Sammy.

· A strong opinion or feeling --- There are no such things as ghosts!

· A single word or sentence fragment --- Me? Scared?

· Figurative language --- That pumpkin was as big as a school bus!

· Leave ‘em wondering --- There was a sound coming from the attic, and I knew it wasn’t a
mouse.

Bio sketch
A biosketch or biography sketch is a shorter and more specific version of a biography. It focuses
mostly on the most basic information of a person with the goal of giving the reader an idea of his
or her character. Bio sketch writing is all about highlighting the most basic information about a
certain person so that the reader can get to know them even at a glance. Although this may sound
easy at first, especially if you will be writing about yourself, when you get down to it, you’ll find
that it’s harder to choose what information to include in your sketch that will convey to your
readers what your true character is.

DEFINITION: A bio-sketch is a short, one or two-paragraph summary of YOU. A complete

biography includes all aspects of a person's character, life, and achievements, while a
biographical sketch is much shorter and more specific. A bio-sketch should inform the reader
about the person, and give them an overall sense of the person's character. Your bio-sketch will
give the reader information about yourself, and can be used as a career development tool.

STEPS IN BIOSKETCH PREPRATION

1. Warning: this may be one of the hardest tasks that you’ve been asked to tackle recently.
Writing a biographical sketch requires polished and developed writing skills, but also focused
self–analysis with a professional and effective presentation of that analysis.

2. Gather information about yourself: the Individualized Learning Plan should help you to
identify the elements that you will want to include in your Bio-sketch. 3. Building an “effective”
presentation of yourself: This short document will represent and “market” you in a totally honest
way. This is your “personal brand” marketing tool that can create a good first impression. It
should grab the reader’s attention, make the reader want to know more (and in the case of
residency programs, make them want to meet you).

4. Introduce yourself as though your reader has never met you. Include

a) your name;

b) your training level (OMS 1, 2, etc.);

c) your most recent accomplishments (don’t list them – describe them verbally);
d) write in third person perspective because people will describe you via your bio-sketch
language, using that perspective (a good biographical summary will state that “Jane Smith is a
third-year student at PNWU” not “I am a third year medical student at PNWU”).

5. Include your contact information – usually at the end.

6. Have two or three people read your finished product and ask each of them to summarize
verbally the emphasis of your bio-sketch. Use the feedback to refine your work.

7. Keep it current: if you wrote a good summary a year ago, check to be sure that it is fresh, and
that it still fits with who you are right now.

8. Be sure to include some of your most meaningful clinical experiences, your reactions to those
situations, and how they have helped to define who you are right now.

9. Use no more than two paragraphs, with no more than six sentences each. Use the answers to
your ILP questions as a guide for reflection. You don’t really want to list your weaknesses, but
you can acknowledge that you are looking for opportunities to fill in gaps in your training.

10. Focus on who you are, what you have to offer, how you got to this point in your training,
why you are reliable and trustworthy, and the interests that you share with your reader.

Meetings: Types, Purpose, Advantages and Disadvantages.

A meeting is a coming together of (generally) three or more people to exchange information in a
planned manner and discuss issues set out before them to arrive at decisions, solve problems, etc.

A meeting can be formal or informal. As regards a formal meeting there is set rules for
convening it and conducting it, with a written record of its proceedings. It requires a notice
which is a call, an invitation to attend it.

It has an agenda or list of things to deal with, and the outcome is systematically written in the
form of minutes. An informal meeting can be without any written notice, for instance a staff
union meeting in the lunch room to discuss a picnic.

A meeting has a convener who calls it and a leader or chairperson who directs it.
Types of meeting:
Meetings are broadly of three types:
(i) Informative, where the purpose is to give information to the participants about a new scheme,
product, etc.

(ii) Consultative, in which the members are consulted to solve a problem.

(iii) Executive, in which decisions are taken by those empowered to do so.

In practice, most of the meetings serve more purposes than one. Some additional classifications
of meetings are – meeting for negotiation purpose, meeting for giving instructions, etc.

Purpose of a meeting:
The purposes of holding meetings are listed here in a skeleton form:
 To reach a common decision/agreement
 To solve a problem
 To understand a situation, exchange ideas and experiences
 To inform, explain, present ideas
 To give and get feedback on new ideas
 To give training
 To plan and prepare for action
 To resolve differences and misunderstandings
 To generate enthusiasm and seek cooperation
 To review past performance and evaluate it
 To create a feeling of continuity and solidarity in a body’s working.

Advantages of Meetings:

(i) Save time:

Since one can meet a number of people at a time interactively, a meeting can save time.

(ii) Addressing groups:

One can divide the audiences according to their background and need, and address them group
by group.

(iii) Cope with information explosion:

New technology and new regulations are coming thick and fast. Meetings enable us to cope with
this situation.

(iv) Social and emotional support:

Members get personal support from each other when they meet and exchange ideas.

(v) Feeling of being consulted:

Members get the feeling that they have been consulted and this is useful in getting their
intelligent and willing cooperation.

(vi) Democratic functioning:

Democracy aims at achieving all people’s welfare by all people’s involvement. This is possible
through meetings.

(vii) Idea development:

Ideas are systematically cross-fertilized, analyzed and improved by a group.

(viii) Defusing troublemakers:

By the collectivity of constructive forces, troublemakers can be isolated in a meeting and

positive action got going. The opponents of a plan get a forum to voice their opposition, which
can be overcome before a group of supportive people.

(ix) Bolder decisions:

Collectively we can take more adventurous decisions because of united strength.

(x) Various interest groups represented:

In a meeting many interest groups can be represented and minorities can also be given due
attention.

(xi) Preventing mistakes:

A meeting helps to avoid mistakes by a collective and many-angled focus on issues.

Disadvantages:

1. Time-consuming:

Meetings require a number of people to come together at the same time and place. This costs
time because other work has to be set aside for the sake of the meeting.

2. Inability to arrive at a decision:

Just as “two heads are better than one,” it is also true that “too many cooks spoil the soup.”
Multiplicity of views and personal stubbornness of members may prevent a meeting from taking
a decision which a chief executive may take alone.

3. Lack of seriousness:

Many meetings suffer from the drawback that members come unprepared and feel that the others
will do the thinking and talking. They feel they can take a free ride. “Everybody’s job is
nobody’s job.”

4. Inexpert chairing:

Just as an airplane is steered by a pilot, a meeting is piloted by the chairperson. His lack of skill
and personal failings/biases may fail a meeting.

5. Expensive:

Meetings are expensive to arrange – they require a place, paperwork, prior communication, and
travelling by the attendees.

6. Open to disruption:
A meeting is prone to being disrupted by an element that is opposed to its objective. There are
times when one passenger’s refusal to adjust himself delays the entire flight. The same for
meetings. The spirit of give-and-take may be missing in some participants.

MODULE III – EFFECTIVE WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Written Communication: Characteristics and Importance (Advantages and Limitations)

While oral communication comes naturally and spontaneously to man, written communication
requires a lot of effort. By its very nature writing is a result of fairly long practice and patience in
learning. It need not be repeated that speech comes first and writing comes afterwards. In all
languages of the world writing appeared ages after speaking. History of civilization shows us
different stages through which the formation of letters of the alphabet of any language has
passed. But one thing is clear. Whatever has been written, unless destroyed, has become
permanent. Words spoken are, however, likely to be forgotten. That is why written
communication is indispensable.

Characteristics of Written Communication:

(i) Written communication is a creative activity that requires a lot of imagination and effort to
arrive at the finished product. While oral communication is spontaneous, written communication
is based on conscious effort. Let us take the example of a report that we want to present.

We first of all have to collect all the necessary information, arrange it in a logical order and then
write out very carefully. We have to be careful at every step. That is not always the case with
spoken messages or other forms of oral communication. Letters and reports, nicely produced,
reflect the image of the organization. The more creative and imaginative the writers the brighter
the image of the company.

(ii) Another important characteristic of written communication is the time factor that is involved
in it. Oral messages, in a face-to-face situation or through telephone reach the receiver
immediately and the feedback almost always comes immediately. This is not the case with
written communication.

The sender has to plan out his message, viz., a letter or report carefully and encode it with great
care. Then he sends it to the person for whom it is meant. The receiver takes his own time in
decoding it. Then he gives it careful thought or filters it through his mind and plans out his
reaction to it. Sending back the reply or his comments on it will take some time. So it is to be
kept in mind that written communication is a time consuming activity.

(iii) Thirdly, it is to be noted that written communication has fewer cycles than oral or face- to-
face communication. Oral communication is a multiple cycle event. Oral messages get
immediate response that leads very often to further exchange of words. This is not possible in
written communication. Mostly it is a one-cycle event.

Importance of Written Communication:

Written communication is so important that it is not possible to think of a business organization

without it. The working of any organization depends to a large extent on the exchange of letters,
reports, etc. There are various reasons for it.

And the most important reason is that face-to-face communication is not always possible because
the workers of an organization may be spread over widely spread geographical distances. We
have, therefore, to depend on exchange of letters. Modern technological distances have not
decreased the importance of letters. Modes of transmission have changed. But written
communication remains as important as ever.

Advantages of Written Communication:

(i) It provides us records, references etc., on which important decisions, rest.

(ii) It builds up the legal defenses of the organization through records, letters, instructions etc.

(iii) It promotes uniformity of policy and procedure and builds up proper guidelines for the
working of the organization.

(iv) It builds up the image of the company.

(v) It makes for accuracy and dependability (Oral communication may be changed or interpreted
in different ways. But in written communication the message/information is stated very clearly or
unambiguously).

(vi) It is permanent.

(vii) Responsibility can be easily assigned. (One may go back on the spoken words. But not so
on the statement in black and white).

Limitations of Written Communication:

(i) It builds up unmanageable clutter of papers and files. It costs a lot to the organizations.
(ii) It is time consuming. Immediate feedback is not possible.

(iii) It is costly in terms of money and man-hours.

(iv) It becomes ineffective in the hands of people who are poor in expression.

(v) Absence of immediate clarification. In conclusion, we can say that written communication
remains the backbone of an organization; whatever be its disadvantages or limitations. Almost all
formal communication is in writing.

Notices

Notices are methods used to keep the workforce as a whole up to date with what is going on.
There are impersonal methods of communication i.e. the same communication is sent to all the
workers. Notices may relate to vacant posts, holiday arrangements, union matters or social events
and are likely to be displayed on a notice board. Sometimes important notices are included with
wage or salary slips. They keep workers informed and attempt to make them feel a part of a large
company.

Advantages

 It can contain diagrams as well as written information.

 A written record of the message is kept.

 They can be created in such a way as to attract attention.

 Employees tend to look at notice boards in their breaks.

Disadvantages

 The message isn’t clearly sent across, as not a lot of detail can be included in the notice.

 The notice can easily be taken down to be read by an employee or covered up by another
notice.

 It can time to distribute the notices around the organisation.

  If they don’t look attractive, people tend not to look at them as they may think from their
first impressions that it doesn’t seem very interesting.

Business Letter

Letter containing business information is called business letter. It is also known as non-personal
letter. Business letters are formal, structured and are exchanged between and among business
people. A definition on business letter are given below-

According to J. H. Hanson, “The letters which are exchanged among business in connection
with business affairs are called business letters.”

Objectives and functions of business letter

Every business organization has to maintain contact with its various partners like suppliers,
customers, government agencies and so on. Business letter serves as the bridge to communicate
with the various parties. The functions of business letters are multidimensional. The importance
of business letter is presented below through its various functions or Objectives-

 Building Goodwill: Another important purpose of a business letter is to sell the good
reputation and friendliness of a company. It acts as an ambassador of a country for the
company. It aims at building goodwill in customers-company relationship, holding
present customers, reviving inactive accounts and inviting customers to buy more and
varied products.

 Records and References: Business letter are very useful as records and references of
previous transactions. In business, innumerable transactions or communications occur
with a large number of people that are not possible for a businessman to remember. When
memory fails, business letters act as previous records and can be used for future
reference.

 Making a Lasting Impression: In case of oral communication, the impact of any

message is felt mainly during the time of hearing. And as soon as the next oral
communication takes place, the effect of the previous one is reduced. But a letter makes a
 lasting impression on the readers’ mind as it stays with them and works effectively every
time it is read.

 Building and Maintaining Business Relation: Business letters help to build and
maintain business relation among various parties like manufacturers, distributors,
intermediaries, support services and consumers.

 To Exchange Business Information: The prime objective of a business letter is to

exchange business related information between the parties involved. Most of the time
business people send letters to their counter-parties containing various business
information.

 Widening the Approach: It is very difficult to send business representatives to all the
places. But a letter can be sent any place at any distance. Sometimes executives,
professionals, politicians, etc. are difficult to be approached personally. But a letter can
find easy access to anybody. Thus a business letter helps to widen the area of business
operations and also the access to a large number of people.

 An Authoritative Proof: A business letter also serves the purpose of evidence. A written
commitment binds the concerned parties to obey to the text of writing. A letter signed by
a responsible person acts as an authoritative proof of what is said in it. It can even be
treated as a valid document that can be produced as evidence in a court of law if any
dispute arises.

 Others: Business letter also has some other functions beside the above ones. It provides
legal facility, saves time, helps to increase products, demand, helps to settle transaction
easily and it is accepted by all as a reliable media of communication.

Circular

Circular is a written notification conveying some material information to different interested

Parties. Circular conveys information regarding any product, policy change of address. Opening
or shifting of a showroom or branch, change of representatives etc . Circular is the notification or
conveyance of some information to the customers, employees, departments, public or interested
parties.

Importance or advantages of circular letter

Circular letter circulates information relating to a company, its products and services etc. to a
large number of people at a time. It plays an important role in the growth and development of
business. Its importance is briefly discussed below:

1. Easy method of conveying information: Circular letter is the most easy, simple and
effective way to convey any information to a huge number of people.

2. Achieving economy: Circular letter can be used for wide publicity of products. As a
result, organizations can save cost of sending letters to different parties separately and
can gain economy.

3. Saving time: Circular letter transmits information to a large number of people at a time.
It does not require reaching each individual separately. Thus, it saves time.

4. Less effort: Circulating information to each individual separately is a time consuming

and laborious job. Circular letter helps to overcome this problem. Through circular letter,
we can communicate with large number of people at a minimum effort.

5. Creating market: Through circular letter, a company can inform the potential customers
about its products and services. In this way, new market can be created.

6. Increasing consumer’s confidence: Convincing and attractive circular letter can easily
touch the reader’s heart and thus helps to enhance consumer’s confidence on the
company’s products.

7. Creating public consciousness: In circular letter, information like price, quality, utility,
place of availability etc. are mentioned in details that make people more conscious about
the product.

Business Memo
Memo is the short form of memorandum. The literal meaning of the word Memorandum is a
note to assist the memory. A memo is a shot piece of writing (short letter), generally used for
internal communication between executives and subordinates or between the officers of the same
level of an organization. It is also called as inter-office memorandum.

According to RC Sharma and Krishna Mohan, “A memorandum is a short piece of writing

generally used by the officers of an organization for communicating among themselves.”

Importance or Functions of Memorandum

Memorandum is one of the major important tools used for internal communication. It is widely
used for communicating people within the organization. It contains information on routine
activities of an organization and is used for different purposes. The functions
of memorandum is discussed below from different perspectives-

 Presenting Informal Report: Sometimes memo is used to present informal report to

superiors. Informal reports are usually short and informational and are presented in memo
form. Findings and recommendations are presented by such memo which helps managers
take proper decision.

 Providing Suggestions and Instruction: Memorandum is very useful for proving

suggestions and instructions to the subordinates. Managers and supervisors use it to give
necessary suggestions and invaluable instructions to their subordinates so that they can
perform their activities properly.

 Providing Response: Memo is also used to provide response to any request made by the
same. Sometimes superior requests someone to perform particular job and response is
also requested to send to the undersigned through the same.

 Seeking Explanation: Office memo is often used to seek explanation from certain person
on particular issue. In the organization there may be some misunderstanding or mishap
between persons and superior may want to have explanation on such event so that
corrective measure may be taken.
  Making Request: Memo is also used to make any request to different parties in the
organization. it is frequently used by the managers and subordinates requesting others for
attending any meeting, executing any action, soliciting favor or for some other purpose.

 Conveying Information: Memorandum is widely used to convey information on

different affairs to the people working in the organization. New policy, change in existing
policy, any decision, appointment of manager, clarification, modification, announcement
etc are communicated with concerned parties by memorandum. So, memo performs the
function of conveying information to people within the organization.

 Solving Problems: Memo can also be used for providing solution to particular problem.
Sometimes managers and supervisors issue memo to provide necessary instructions to the
subordinates for better performing their daily activities.

Curriculum Vitae

Curriculum Vitae: an outline of a person's educational and professional history, usually

prepared for job applications.

A CV is the most flexible and convenient way to make applications. It conveys your personal
details in the way that presents you in the best possible light. A CV is a marketing document in
which you are marketing something: yourself! You need to "sell" your skills, abilities,
qualifications and experience to employers. It can be used to make multiple applications to
employers in a specific career area. For this reason, many large graduate recruiters will not
accept CVs and instead use their own application form.

An application form is designed to bring out the essential information and personal qualities
that the employer requires and does not allow you to gloss over your weaker points as a CV
does. In addition, the time needed to fill out these forms is seen as a reflection of your
commitment to the career.

There is no "one best way" to construct a CV; it is your document and can be structured as
you wish within the basic framework .

What information should a CV include?

Personal details

Normally these would be your name, address, date of birth (although with age discrimination
laws now in force this isn't essential), telephone number and email.

British CVs don't usually include a photograph unless you are an actor. In European countries
such as France, Belgium and Germany it’s common for CVs to include a passport-
sized photograph in the top right-hand corner whereas in the UK and the USA photographs are
frowned upon as this may contravene equal opportunity legislation - a photograph makes it easier
to reject a candidate on grounds of ethnicity, sex or age. If you do include a photograph it should
be a head and shoulders shot, you should be dressed suitably and smiling: it's not for a passport!

Education and qualifications

Your degree subject and university, plus A levels and GCSEs or equivalents. Mention grades
unless poor!

Work experience

 Use action words such as developed, planned and organized.

 Even work in a shop, bar or restaurant will involve working in a team, providing
a quality service to customers, and dealing tactfully with complaints. Don't mention the
routine, non-people tasks (cleaning the tables) unless you are applying for a casual
summer job in a restaurant or similar.

 Try to relate the skills to the job. A finance job will involve numeracy, analytical
and problem solving skills so focus on these whereas for a marketing role you would
place a bit more emphasis on persuading and negotiating skills.

 All of my work experiences have involved working within a team-based culture. This
involved planning, organization, coordination and commitment e.g., in retail, this
ensured daily sales targets were met, a fair distribution of tasks and effective
communication amongst all staff members.

Interests and achievements

 Keep this section short and to the point. As you grow older, your employment record
will take precedence and interests will typically diminish greatly in length and
importance.

 Bullets can be used to separate interests into different types: sporting, creative etc.

 Don't use the old boring clichés here: "socializing with friends".

 Don't put many passive, solitary hobbies (reading, watching TV, stamp collecting) or
you may be perceived as lacking people skills. If you do put these, then say what you
read or watch: "I particularly enjoy Dickens, for the vivid insights you get into life in
Victorian times".

 Show a range of interests to avoid coming across as narrow: if everything centres

around sport they may wonder if you could hold a conversation with a client who wasn't
interested in sport.

 Hobbies that are a little out of the ordinary can help you to stand out from the crowd:
skydiving or mountaineering can show a sense of wanting to stretch yourself and an
ability to rely on yourself in demanding situations

 Any interests relevant to the job are worth mentioning: current affairs if you wish to be
a journalist; a fantasy share portfolio such as Bullbearings if you want to work in finance.

 Any evidence of leadership is important to mention: captain or coach of a sports team,

course representative, chair of a student society, scout leader: "As captain of the school
cricket team, I had to set a positive example, motivate and coach players and think on my
feet when making bowling and field position changes, often in tense situations"

 Anything showing evidence of employability skills such as team working, organising,

planning, persuading, negotiating etc.

Skills
  The usual ones to mention are languages (good conversational French, basic
Spanish), computing (e.g. "good working knowledge of MS Access and Excel, plus
basic web page design skills" and driving ("full current clean driving licence").

 If you are a mature candidate or have lots of relevant skills to offer, a skills-based
CV may work for you

References

 Many employers don’t check references at the application stage so unless the vacancy
specifically requests referees it's fine to omit this section completely if you are running
short of space or to say "References are available on request."

 Normally two referees are sufficient: one academic (perhaps your tutor or a project
supervisor) and one from an employer (perhaps your last part-time or summer job). See
our page on Choosing and Using Referees for more help with this.

The order and the emphasis will depend on what you are applying for and what you have to
offer. For example, the example media CV lists the candidate's relevant work experience first.

If you are applying for more than one type of work, you should have a different CV tailored to
each career area, highlighting different aspects of your skills and experience.

A personal profile at the start of the CV can work for jobs in competitive industries such as
the media or advertising, to help you to stand out from the crowd. If used, it needs to be original
and well written. Don’t just use the usual hackneyed expressions: “I am an excellent
communicator who works well in a team…… “

What makes a good CV?

There is no single "correct" way to write and present a CV but the following general rules
apply:

 It is targeted on the specific job or career area for which you are applying and brings
out the relevant skills you have to offer

 It is carefully and clearly laid out: logically ordered, easy to read and not cramped
  It is informative but concise

 It is accurate in content, spelling and grammar. If you mention attention to detail as a

skill, make sure your spelling and grammar is perfect!

Differentiate between CV AND RESUME

A typical resume will include the following information:

 Name and Contact Information: your residential address might be most appropriate,
especially if you do not want your current employer to know that you are looking for
another job!

 Education: a listing of your degrees or certifications and educational institutions or

programs.

 Work Experience: names of the companies or organizations that you have worked for, the
location of each company, the dates worked, your job title, and duties performed.

In contrast, a CV is a fairly detailed overview of your life’s accomplishments, especially those

most relevant to the realm of academia. As such, these documents have their greatest utility in
the pursuit of a job in academia or research. Because academic researchers are often working on
and completing many projects and teaching responsibilities simultaneously, it is wise to think of
a CV as a living document that will need to be updated frequently.

A typical CV for someone in the beginning stages of his or her graduate school career might only
be two or three pages in length, while the number of pages of a more seasoned researcher’s CV
may run into the double digits. In both CVs and resumes, information within sections is usually
organized chronologically.

A typical CV will include the following information:

 Name and Contact Information: contact information for your current institution or place
of employment may work best, unless you do not want your colleagues to know that you
are job-hunting.

 Areas of Interest: a listing of your varied academic interests.

  Education: a list of your degrees earned or in progress, institutions, and years of
graduation. You may also include the titles of your dissertation or thesis here.

 Grants, Honors and Awards: a list of grants received, honors bestowed upon you for your
work, and awards you may have received for teaching or service.

 Publications and Presentations: a list of your published articles and books, as well
presentations given at conferences. If there are many of both, you might consider having
one section for publications and another for presentations.

 Employment and Experience: this section may include separate lists of teaching
experiences, laboratory experiences, field experiences, volunteer work, leadership, or
other relevant experiences.

 Scholarly or Professional Memberships: a listing of the professional organizations of

which you are a member. If you have held an office or position in a particular
organization, you can either say so here or leave this information for the experience
section.

 References: a list of persons who write letters of recommendations for you, which
includes their contact information.

MODULE IV – SELF MANAGEMENT AND STANDARDS OF

CONDUCT
WORKPLACE CONFLICT AND ITS CAUSES

Conflict is a normal part of life and there are many issues that could cause conflicts to arise
within community organizations. Conflict can occur between employees, committee members,
ordinary members, volunteers, clients or the community.

If not resolved, conflict can be highly destructive. However, committees can take steps to
minimize potential situations of conflict before they arise or to resolve conflict constructively.
The following sections discuss five of the most common factors that lead to conflict situations
within organizations.

Misunderstandings

Conflict can arise from misunderstandings about:

 The nature, aims and objectives of a job

 Differing expectations about how things should be done

 Work conditions and wages

 The different responsibilities of management and employees

 Differences in values, beliefs, needs, or priorities

Poor communication

Communication relies on clear and complete messages being sent as well as being received.
Problems can be reduced by paying attention to how well you send messages and how well you
receive them. Both managers and workers are responsible for ensuring that these issues are
considered. There are many ways to improve information flow and communication. Here are
some suggestions:

 Keep message books/day books

 Keep policy books which include all policies as decided at meetings

 Hold regular staff/management meetings for passing on information

  Have frequent employee meetings

 Ensure correspondence is available for everyone to see

 Distribute minutes of all meetings promptly and widely

 Ensure there is clarity about what the objectives are and about what decisions have been
made

 Ensure decisions are implemented

 Give everyone time to talk at meetings

 Try to spend twice as much time listening as you spend talking.

Unclear communication from staff to clients is another common source of conflict. It is vital that
"house rules" are written down for clients, and that there are no variations in the interpretation of
those rules. Distressed clients can very quickly become confused and angry if they feel that they
are not being listened to - especially by those who say they care.

Lack of planning

Lack of planning often means an organization moves from one crisis to the next. This sense of
disorganization and lack of direction can be stressful and can create many problems including
misunderstandings. The time spent in planning will be recouped many times over in the more
efficient use of workers' time, and in real and long-term benefits to clients.

Poor staff selection

Inappropriate selection of staff can result in ill-feeling and conflict. Feelings of ill-will may be
increased by dismissing staff members.

While staff conflict problems can never be entirely avoided, they can be minimised with good
staff selection procedures. Considering existing staff views when approaching staff selection will
help minimize conflicts in the workplace.

For a more detailed discussion of these issues, see Chapter 5: Volunteers, in this manual.
Frustration, stress and burnout

When people become frustrated or stressed they are more irritable and more likely to create
conflicts than at other times. It is important to recognise the signs of stress in people's work
situations in order to prevent burnout. Try to help people identify the causes of work related
stress, and take steps to change these factors or, better still, try to anticipate possible causes of
stress before they arise. These factors could include:

 Threats of violence or actual violence

 Overcrowding or lack of privacy

 Verbal abuse

 Dirty or untidy work space

 Noise

 Harassment

 Continual crises

 Lack of ability to influence the working environment

 Tension between staff members

 Lack of direction from management

 Criticism and lack of support

 Poor communication

Etiquette

the customary code of polite behavior in society or among members of a particular profession or
group. Etiquette in simpler words is defined as good behavior which distinguishes human beings
from animals. Human Being is a social animal and it is really important for him to behave in an
appropriate way. Etiquette refers to behaving in a socially responsible way.

Etiquette refers to guidelines which control the way a responsible individual should behave
in the society.

Need for Etiquette

 Etiquette makes you a cultured individual who leaves his mark wherever he goes.

 Etiquette teaches you the way to talk, walk and most importantly behave in the society.

 Etiquette is essential for an everlasting first impression. The way you interact with your
superiors, parents, fellow workers, friends speak a lot about your personality and up-
bringing.

 Etiquette enables the individuals to earn respect and appreciation in the society. No one
would feel like talking to a person who does not know how to speak or behave in the
society. Etiquette inculcates a feeling of trust and loyalty in the individuals. One becomes
more responsible and mature. Etiquette helps individuals to value relationships.

Types of Etiquette

1. Social Etiquette- Social etiquette is important for an individual as it teaches him how to
behave in the society.

2. Bathroom Etiquette- Bathroom etiquette refers to the set of rules which an individual
needs to follow while using public restrooms or office toilets. Make sure you leave the
restroom clean and tidy for the other person.

3. Corporate Etiquette- Corporate Etiquette refers to how an individual should behave

while he is at work. Each one needs to maintain the decorum of the organization. Don’t
loiter around unnecessary or peep into other’s cubicles.

4. Wedding Etiquette- Wedding is a special event in every one’s life. Individuals should
ensure they behave sensibly at weddings. Never be late to weddings or drink
uncontrollably.
 5. Meeting Etiquette- Meeting Etiquette refers to styles one need to adopt when he is
attending any meeting, seminar, presentation and so on. Listen to what the other person
has to say. Never enter meeting room without a notepad and pen. It is important to jot
down important points for future reference.

6. Telephone Etiquette- It is essential to learn how one should interact with the other
person over the phone. Telephone etiquette refers to the way an individual should speak
on the phone. Never put the other person on long holds. Make sure you greet the other
person. Take care of your pitch and tone.

7. Eating Etiquette- Individuals must follow certain decorum while eating in public. Don’t
make noise while eating. One should not leave the table unless and until everyone has
finished eating.

8. Business Etiquette- Business Etiquette includes ways to conduct a certain business.

Don’t ever cheat customers. It is simply unethical.

Clothing Etiquette / Dress Code

Etiquette helps human beings to behave in a socially responsible way. Etiquette helps you gain
respect, trust and appreciation from others.

There is a huge difference between an individual’s college and professional life. One needs to
follow a proper dress code at the workplace for the desired impact.

It is essential to dress appropriately at the workplace for an everlasting impression. Individuals

who dress shabbily are never taken seriously at work.

One must dress as per the occasion. Avoid wearing jeans, capris, shorts, T - Shirts or
sleeveless dresses to work. Follow a professional dress code. Make sure you feel comfortable in
whatever you wear. It is not always necessary to wear expensive clothes rather wear something
which looks good on you.

Choose professional colors like black, blue, brown, grey for official attire. Bright colours
look out of place in corporate. Light and subtle colors exude elegance and professionalism and
look best in offices.
Make sure your clothes are clean and ironed. One should never go shabbily dressed to work.
Prefer wrinkle free clothes.

Hair should be neatly combed and kept short. Spikes hairstyle looks good only in parties and
informal get together. Females should tie their hair. It gives a neat look.

Male Employees

 Male employees ideally should combine a simple shirt with trousers. Make sure the
colours are well coordinated. Prefer a light colour shirt with a dark trouser and vice a
versa. Do not wear designer shirts to work. Prefer plain cotton or linen wrinkle free
shirts in neutral colours. Go for brands like Zodiac, Arrow, Colorplus, Louis Philippe,
Allen solly etc. These brands offer good collection of formal office shirts.

 The shirt should be properly tucked into the trouser for the professional look. Prefer
full sleeves shirts at workplace. Never roll up your sleeves.

 Silk ties look best on professionals. Don’t go for designer ties. The tie should neither be
too short nor too long. The tip of the tie ideally should touch the bottom of the belt
buckle. Slim ties are not meant for offices.

 Wear leather belts to work preferably in black or brown shades. Do not wear belts with
flashy and broad buckles.

 Socks must be well coordinated with the outfit.

 Don’t wear shoes that make noise while walking. Prefer soft leather shoes in black or
brown colour. Make sure your shoes are polished and laces properly tied. Never wear
sports shoes or sneakers to work.

 Shave daily. Use a good after shave lotion and make sure your skin does not look dry
and flaky.

 Body odour is a big turn off. One must always smell good in public. Use a mild perfume
or deodorant.

Female Employees
  Females should not wear revealing clothes to work. Avoid wearing outfits which
expose much of your body parts. Wear clothes which fit you best. Don’t wear too tight or
loose clothes.

 Understand the basic difference between a party wear and office attire. Never wear low
neck blouses to work. Blouses with deep back or noodle straps are a strict no no at the
workplace. Avoid transparent saris.

 Females who prefer westerns can opt for light coloured shirts with dark well fitted
trousers. A scarf makes you look elegant.

 Never wear heavy jewellery to work. Avoid being a make up box. Nude make up does
wonders. Nails should be trimmed and prefer natural shades for nail paint.

 Avoid wearing sharp pointed heels to work.

 The colour of the handbag must coordinate with the outfit.

 Eyebrow, naval, lip piercing must be avoided at the workplace.

Telephone Etiquettes

Telephone is an important device with the help of which people separated by distance can easily
interact and exchange their ideas. Got a brilliant idea and want to convey it to your friend staying
out of the country, use the telephone. Telephone is one of the easiest and cheapest modes of
communication.

Telephone etiquettes - An individual needs to follow a set of rules and regulations while
interacting with the other person over the phone. These are often called as telephone
etiquettes. It is important to follow the basic telephone etiquettes as our voice plays a very
important role in creating an impression of our personality, education, family background as well
as the nature of job we are engaged in. The person giving the information is called the sender and
the second party is the recipient.

Let us now study the various telephone etiquettes. Please find below the various telephone
etiquettes.
 Always remember your voice has to be very pleasant while interacting with the other
person over the phone. Don’t just start speaking, before starting the conversation use
warm greetings like “good morning”, “good evening” or “good noon” depending on the
time.

 Never call any person at odd hours like early morning or late nights as the person will
definitely be sleeping and will not be interested in talking to you.

 In any official call, don’t use words like” Any guess who I am? “as the person on the
other side might be occupied with something and can get disturbed. Always say “Is it
Ted?”, and do ask him, “Is it the good time to talk to you?” and then start
communicating. If the person sounds busy always wait for the appropriate time.

 Make sure your content is crisp and relevant. Don’t play with words, come to the
point directly and convey the information in a convincing manner. First prepare your
content thoroughly and then only pick up the receiver to start interacting.

 After dialing, always reconfirm whether the person on the other side is the desired person
whom you want to interact with. Always ask “Am I speaking to Mike?” or “Is this
Jenny?” before starting the conversation.

 Always carefully dial the numbers, never be in a rush or dial the numbers in dark as it
would lead to a wrong call. If by mistake you have dialed a wrong number, don’t just
hang up, do say sorry and then keep the phone courteously.

 Never put the second party on a very long holds. Always keep the information handy
and don’t run for things in between any call as the listener is bound to get irritated.

 While interacting over the phone, don’t chew anything or eat your food. First finish your
food and then only dial the number. If you are reading, please leave the book aside, first
concentrate what the other person wishes to convey and then continue with the book.

 After completing the conversation, don’t just hang up. Reconfirm with the receiver
whether he has downloaded the correct information or not and do end your conversation
 with pleasant words like “Take care”, “nice speaking with you” and a warm bye. Never
say Goodbye.

 Always speak each and every word clearly. The person on the other hand can’t see your
expressions so remember your tone should be apt to express your feelings in the correct
form.

 Don’t take too long to pick up any call. If you miss the call, make sure you give a call
back as the other person might have an important message to convey. Avoid giving
missed calls at work places as it irritates the other person.

 In professional talks, never keep the conversation too long as the other person might be
busy. Always keep the content crisp and relevant and do come to the point after formal
greetings.

 If you are not the correct person and the speaker needs to speak to your fellow worker
always say “one moment please- I will call him in a minute”. If the colleague is not in the
office premises, always take a message on his behalf and don’t forget to convey him
when he is back.

 Decrease the volume of the television or turn off the speakers while speaking over the
phone as noise acts as a hindrance to effective communication

 If there is any disturbance in the network, don’t just keep speaking for the sake of it; try
to call after sometime with a better line.

Interview Etiquette

Interview etiquette refers to codes of conduct an individual must follow while appearing for
interviews.
Let us go through some interview etiquette:

 While appearing for telephonic interviews, make sure you have your resume in front of
you. Move to a quiet place and keep a pen and paper handy to jot down address or other
necessary details.

 An individual must be present at the interview venue before time. Start from your
home a little early and allow a margin for traffic congestions, car problems, route
diversions and other unavoidable circumstances. Check the route well in advance to
avoid last minute confusions.

 If you do not have own conveyance, book a cab or ask your friend or family member to
drop you right outside the venue. Avoid going by public transport that day.

 Be very particular about your appearance. Follow the professional dress code for an
everlasting first impression. Wear something which looks good on you. Coordinate a
light colour shirt with a dark colour well fitted trouser. Make sure your shoes are polished
and do not make noise. Hair should be neatly combed and do apply a mild perfume. It is
essential to smell good.

 Enter the interviewer’s cabin with confidence. Greet him with a warm smile. A firm
handshake says that an individual is confident, aggressive and willing to take challenges.
Do not offer to shake hands if the interviewer is a female. Do not sit unless you have
been told to so.

 Make an eye contact with the interviewer. Avoid looking here and there.

 Be honest with the interviewer. Remember a single lie leads to several other lies. Avoid
fake stories. It might land you in trouble later.

 Take care of your pitch and tone. Be polite but firm.

 Stay calm. Avoid being nervous during interviews. Remember no one will hang you till
death if you do not clear the interview. There is always a second chance.
  One must sit straight for the desired impact. Avoid fiddling with pen and paper. It is
important to have the right attitude as it helps you stand apart from the crowd.

 Keep your cell phone in the silent mode while attending interviews. Cell phone ringing
during interviews is an offence.

 Chewing gum during interview is childish.

 Do not fold your resume; instead keep it in a proper folder. Carry all other relevant
documents which you might need during interview. Keep a passport size photograph
handy.

 Slangs and one-liners must not be used in interviews.

 Avoid cracking jokes with the interviewer.

 Once you are done with the interview, do not forget to thank the interviewer.

Meeting Etiquette

Meeting Etiquette refers to codes of behavior an individual ought to follow while attending
meetings and discussions at the workplace.

Let us go through some meeting etiquette in detail:

 Try to find out what the meeting is all about. Understand the importance of the
meeting. Never go blank. Employees should do all the ground work before attending
meetings to ensure maximum participation from their end. Prepare notes in advance.

 Never attend meetings without a notepad and pen. It is practically not possible for an
individual to remember each and every thing discussed at the time of meeting. A notepad
helps in jotting down the important points for future reference.

 Always keep your cell phone on the silent or vibrator mode. Cell phones ringing in
the middle of meetings and seminars are considered rude and unprofessional. This might
insult others sitting in the same room as well as break the pace of the meeting.
 Do not attend phone calls during meetings unless it is an emergency. It is bad
manners to do the same.

 Superiors must create an agenda before every meeting. The agenda must be circulated
among all employees for them to prepare in advance. Meetings should not be conducted
just for the sake of it. It is important to have well defined plans. Make a list of issues to
be discussed at the time of meeting. Make sure you do not deviate from the key points.
Keep the meetings short.

 Never be late for meetings. Going late for a meeting is something which is not expected
out of a professional.

 Chewing gum during meetings is childish and must be avoided.

 Be a good listener. Listen to what others have to say. Wait for your turn to speak.

 Sit wherever you find a place. Do not run here and there.

 Do not enter the meeting room once the meeting has already begun It disturbs others.

 Avoid taking your cups of coffee or tea to meeting rooms unless and until advised by
superiors.

 Fiddling with pen or notepad is one of the major distractions in meetings. One must
concentrate and stay alert. Be an attentive listener. Do not yawn even if you find the
meeting boring.

 The one chairing the meeting must speak loud and clear. It is essential to take care of
the pitch and tone.

 Meetings ought to be interactive and allow employees to come up with their suggestions
and valuable feedback. A question answer round must be kept at the end for employees to
clear their doubts.

 Once the meeting is over, minutes of the meeting must be prepared and circulated across
all departments for them to take necessary action
  Use Whiteboards, projectors, graphs, pointers, slides for better clarity.

 Do not convert the meeting room into a battle ground. Speak politely and do respect your
colleagues.

 Never attend meetings in casuals. Follow a professional dress code.

Employee Etiquette

Employee etiquette refers to codes of conduct an individual should follow while at work.

Let us go through some employee etiquette:

 Respect your organization to expect the same in return. Don’t treat your organization as a
mere source of earning money. Remember your organization is paying you for your hard
work and not for gossiping and loitering around.

 Reach office on time. If your office timing is 9 AM, make sure you are there at 8.50
AM. It is essential to be disciplined at the workplace.

 Leave all your personal problems out the moment you step in the office. It is
unprofessional to mix personal and professional life. Keep them separate.

 Greet your fellow workers with a smile.

 Follow the professional dress code. Never wear anything which shows much of your
skin. Avoid wearing jeans, capris, T shirts, shorts etc to work. Female employees should
not wear revealing dresses or deep neck blouses to work.

 Never ever enter office under the influence of alcohol. It is an offence.

 As a responsible employee you have no rights to share confidential information with any
of the external parties under any circumstances. Data in any form must not be leaked to
anyone who bears no relation with the organization.

 Keep your cell phones in the silent mode to avoid disturbing others sitting around
you. Loud ring tones at the workplace are a strict no no. Avoid long personal calls during
office hours. Wearing ear buds at the workplace is unacceptable.
  Keep your workstation free of unwanted documents and files. Avoid having lunch at your
desk. It creates mess.

 Learn to own your mistakes. Stick to your statements. Stay away from blame games
and nasty politics at the workplace. Remember conflicts and misunderstandings lead you
nowhere. It is always better to discuss issues face to face and reach to a mutually
acceptable solution.

 While communicating through emails, make sure your boss is in the loop. It is foolish to
hide things from him. Master the art of writing emails. Emails must be self explanatory
and a clear reflection of one’s thoughts.

 Respect your fellow workers. Help them whenever required. Never give them wrong
suggestions.

 Treat all your fellow workers as one irrespective of their education and designation in the
organization. Female employees must be treated with respect and dignity.

 Never take undue advantage of your position. Do not ask for personal favours from
your subordinates. Too much of friendship at the workplace is bad.

 Respect each other’s privacy. Do not open envelopes not meant for you. It is bad
manners to read your colleague’s email or check his messages.

 Stay away from controversies. Do not spread rumours around. It is strictly

unprofessional.

Email Etiquette

1. Start with a salutation

Your email should open by addressing the person you’re writing to. Sure, you can get away with
leaving out the salutation when you’re dashing off an email to your friend, but business-like
messages should begin with:

 Dear Mr Jones, or Dear Professor Smith, (for someone you don’t know well, especially
if they’re a superior)
  Dear Joe, or Dear Mandy, (if you have a working relationship with the person)

It’s fine to use “Hi Joe”, “Hello Joe” or just the name followed by a comma (“Joe,”) if you know
the person well – writing “Dear Joe” to one of your team-mates will look odd!

2. Write in short paragraphs

Get straight to the point – don’t waste time waffling. Split your email into two to four short
paragraphs, each one dealing with a single idea. Consider using bullet-points for extra clarity,
perhaps if you are:

 Listing several questions for the recipient to answer

 Suggesting a number of alternative options

 Explaining the steps that you’ll be carrying out

Put a double line break, rather than an indent (tab), between paragraphs.

3. Stick to one topic

If you need to write to someone about several different issues (for example, if you’re giving your
boss an update on Project X, asking him for a review meeting to discuss a payrise, and telling
him that you’ve got a doctor’s appointment on Friday), then don’t put them all in the same
email. It’s hard for people to keep track of different email threads and conversations if
topics are jumbled up.

4. Use capitals appropriately

Emails should follow the same rules of punctuation as other writing. Capitals are often misused.
In particular, you should:

 Never write a whole sentence (or worse, a whole email) in capitals

 Always capitalise “I” and the first letter of proper nouns (names)

 Capitalise acronymns (USA, BBC, RSPCA)

 Always start sentences with a capital letter.

This makes your email easier to read: try retyping one of the emails you’ve received in ALL
CAPS or all lower case, and see how much harder it is to follow!

5. Sign off the email

For short internal company emails, you can get away with just putting a double space after your
last paragraph then typing your name. If you’re writing a more formal email, though, it’s
essential to close it appropriately.

 Use Yours sincerely, (when you know the name of your addressee) and Yours
faithfully, (when you’ve addressed it to “Dear Sir/Madam”) for very formal emails such
as job applications.

 Use Best regards, or Kind regards, in most other situations.

 Even when writing to people you know well, it’s polite to sign off with something such
as “All the best,” “Take care,” or “Have a nice day,” before typing your name.

6. Use a sensible email signature

Hopefully this is common sense – but don’t cram your email signature with quotes from your
favorites TV show, motivational speaker or witty friend. Do include your name, email address,
telephone number and postal address (where appropriate)

Student Etiquette

1. Respect others.
You are sharing your classroom with several other people who are just as important as you. Don't
try to make others feel embarrassed. Don't make fun of others, or roll your eyes, or make faces
when they are speaking.

2. Be polite.
If you must sneeze or cough, don't do it on another student.

Turn away and use a tissue. Say "Excuse me."

If someone is brave enough to ask a question, don't laugh or make fun of them.
Say thank you when someone else does something nice.

Use appropriate language.

3. Keep supplies stocked. Keep tissues and other supplies in your desk so you'll have one when
you need it! Don't become a constant borrower.

When you see your eraser or your pencil supply shrinking, ask your parents to restock.

4. Be organized. Messy work spaces can become distractions. Try to clean your own space
often, so your clutter doesn't interfere with the classroom work flow.

Make sure you have a space for storing supplies that must be replenished. This way you will
know when your supplies are running low, and you won't have to borrow.

5. Be Prepared. Maintain a homework checklist and bring your finished homework and projects
to class with you on the due date.

6. Be On Time. Arriving late to class is bad for you and it is bad for other students.

When you walk in late, you interrupt the work that has begun. Lean to be punctual!

You also risk the possibility of getting on the teacher's nerves. This is never good!

SPECIAL RULES FOR SPECIAL TIMES

1. WHILE THE TEACHER IS TALKING

 Look at the teacher to make eye contact unless you're writing notes.

 Don't whisper

 Don't pass notes

 Don't throw things

 Don't laugh

 Don't make funny faces to make other people laugh

2. WHEN YOU HAVE A QUESTION

 Wait for your turn to ask a question. If someone else is speaking, simply wait with your
hand raised (or whatever process your teacher requires).

 Don't say "me, next" or "oh" when you're waiting with your hand raised. You will be
noticed!

3. WHEN WORKING QUIETLY IN CLASS

 Don't hum or fidget to distract other students.

 Keep your hands and feet to yourself.

 Don't brag if you finish first.

 Don't make rude comments about another student's work or habits.

4. WHEN WORKING IN SMALL GROUPS

Respect the work and the words of your group members.

If you don't like an idea, be polite. Never say "That's dumb," or anything that would embarrass a
classmate. If you really don't like an idea, you can explain why without being rude.

Speak to fellow group members in a low voice. Don't speak loud enough for other groups to
hear.

5. DURING STUDENT PRESENTATIONS

 Don't try to distract the speaker.

 Keep your eyes on the speaker.

 Don't make rude comments.

 Try to think of a question if the speaker invites the class to ask.

6. DURING TESTS
  Remain quiet until everyone is finished.

 Don't get up and walk around unless it's absolutely necessary.

Everybody likes to have fun, but there is a time and a place for fun. Don't try to have fun at the
expense of others, and don't try to have fun at inappropriate times. The classroom can be fun, but
not if your fun involves rudeness!

DINING ETIQUETTE

1. SEATING ETIQUETTE

Your host may have seating arrangements in mind, so you should allow him to direct you to your
seat. As the host, you should suggest the seating arrangements.

In a restaurant, the guest of honor should sit in the best seat at the table. Usually that is one with
the back of the chair to the wall. Once the guest of honor's seat is determined, the host should sit
to her left. Other people are then offered seats around the table.

2. NAPKIN ETIQUETTE

At informal meals, place the napkin in your lap immediately upon seating. During formal
occasions, before unfolding the napkin, wait for the hostess to remove her napkin from the table
and unfold it in her lap.

Read more table manners tips for using your napkin in the napkin etiquette section.

3. FOOD SERVICE ETIQUETTE

During service of a formal dinner, the food is brought to each diner at the table; the server
presents the platter or bowl on the diner's left. At a more casual meal, either the host dishes the
food onto guests' plates for them to pass around the table or the diners help themselves to the
food and pass it to others as necessary.

4. THE TABLE SETTING

Deciding which knife, fork, or spoon to use is made easier by the outside-in table manners rule –
using utensils on the outside first and working your way inward. Our table setting section
discusses in greater detail what you'll see at the table.

5. WHEN TO START EATING

At a small table of only two to four people, wait until everyone else has been served before
starting to eat. At a formal or business meal, you should either wait until everyone is served to
start or begin when the host asks you to.

6. HANDLING UTENSILS

The continental table manners style prevails at all meals, formal and informal, because it is a
natural, non-disruptive way to eat.

1. Hold your fork in your left hand, tines downward.

2. Hold your knife in your right hand, an inch or two above the plate.

3. Extend your index finger along the top of the blade.

4. Use your fork to spear and lift food to your mouth.

5. If your knife is not needed, it remains on the table.

At informal meals the dinner fork may be held tines upward, American table manners style.

7. PASSING THE FOOD

Pass to the right. One diner either holds the dish as the next diner takes some food, or he hands it
to the person, who then serves herself. Any heavy or awkward dishes are put on the table with
each pass. Special rules apply to passing salt and pepper and passing bread and butter.

8. RESTING UTENSILS

When you pause to take a sip of your beverage or to speak with someone, rest your utensils by
placing your knife and fork on your plate near the center, slightly angled in an inverted V and
with the tips of the knife and fork pointing toward each other.
9. MEALS END

At a formal affair, plates are removed by a professional staff. But as most informal meals are
served without help, the hostess clears the plates, often with the help of a guest or two. At a
family meal, members clear their own plates.

Leaving the dining room. To signal dinner is concluded, the hostess catches the eye of the host,
lays her napkin on the table, and suggests that everyone go into another room for coffee and
after-dinner drinks. The hostess rises from her chair.

When it's time to leave, rather than detain one's host with a lengthy good-bye, make the
departure brief but cordial.

MODULE – V

SELF MOTIVATION AND GETTING HIRED

Thinking Skills
Thinking skills are the mental process involved in processing information. There are four types
of thinking skills: convergent or analytical thinking, divergent thinking, critical thinking and
creative thinking. We use these skills to help us understand the world around us, solve difficult
problems and puzzles, make logical choices and develop our own values and beliefs.

Types of Thinking

Convergent thinking

Convergent thinking is the process of coming up with the best answer to a question using our
memory, resources around us, or logic. This thinking skill does not require significant creativity
or lateral thinking strategies. Instead, it uses very straightforward thought processes. A
convergent thinker simply needs to apply already established procedures and memory recall to
reach the ‘correct’ answer.

Divergent Thinking

Divergent thinking is the exact opposite of convergent thinking. It involves coming up to

solutions, paths forward or new ideas when there is no single correct answer. Questions like
“should I study to become a doctor or a lawyer?” may not have a simple answer. You might be
good at both, and both options might bring you happiness and a good life. So, which option
should you choose? To come up with solutions to questions without clear answers, you need to
break down the possibilities and analyze each part. You might create a pros and cons list, a venn
diagram or a table to lay out your options and consider each one in turn. We often encourage
divergent thinking from a very young age. For example, we encourage children to play or simply
‘be playful’ in order to discover how their world is complex and full of possibility.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking involves analyzing something in order to form a judgment about it. A critical
thinker does not take the assumptions of a topic for granted. Instead, the thinkers ‘critiques’ what
they are viewing using their available intellectual knowledge.

Critical thinkers can use three processes to develop critical insights on a topic: deduction,
induction and abduction.

Deduction is the process of drawing conclusions based on the facts at hand. You have all the
facts available to you to come to a clear and unambiguous conclusion about a topic. For example,
a doctor does blood tests to determine if someone has a virus. The blood tests come back
positive, so we can deduce that you definitely have that virus.
Induction is the process of drawing conclusions based on a generalization. You don’t have all
the exact information at hand. However, you are aware of patterns, clues and a methodology that
can help you induce the answer For example, you come to the doctor exhibiting a fever, sneezing
and coughing. The doctor doesn’t do tests, but they induce that you probably have influenza
because your symptoms are characteristic of someone with the flu.

Abduction involves coming to a conclusion that is the most likely or logical based on the small
amount of knowledge that you have. You can’t be sure of the answer, but you can guess. For
example, you may see that a cat is on the roof. The most logical answer is that the cat got up
there by climbing a nearby tree and jumping from it to the roof, but you can’t be sure.

Creative Thinking

Creative thinking involves thinking about a topic in unusual, unconventional and alternative
ways to generate new ideas about an established topic. A creative thinker will try to address an
issue from a perspective that hasn’t been used before.

While creative thinking may appear illogical, it is in fact a great driver of human development.
Creative thinkers identify gaps in marketplaces or new, easier, faster and better ways of doing
things. When a creative thinker comes up with a great new way of approaching an issue, their
new method can become the new orthodoxy.

Some ways to improve your thinking include:

 Taking college courses (or one of these alternatives) in topics that you find very difficult

 Taking classes in an online school

 Learning using new learning strategies that make you uncomfortable

 Taking up new and diverse hobbies

The more you think, the better you will get at thinking. You’ll become faster, more creative and
overall better at thinking if you practice and try out new strategies.

Thinking tools can help you think better by:

  Helping you structure your thoughts

 Giving you a blueprint or scaffold for finding new angles to approach a topic

 Providing prompts to move your thinking forward

Evaluation

Evaluation is a systematic determination of a subject's merit, worth and significance, using

criteria governed by a set of standards. It can assist an organization, program, design, project or
any other intervention or initiative to assess any aim, realisable concept/proposal, or any
alternative, to help in decision-making; or to ascertain the degree of achievement or value in
regard to the aim and objectives and results of any such action that has been completed. The
primary purpose of evaluation, in addition to gaining insight into prior or existing initiatives, is
to enable reflection and assist in the identification of future change.

Decision Making

Decision making is the process of making choices by identifying a decision,

gathering information, and assessing alternative resolutions. Using a step-by-step
decision-making process can help you make more deliberate, thoughtful decisions by
organizing relevant information and defining alternatives. This approach increases
the chances that you will choose the most satisfying alternative possible.

Steps in Decision Making

Step 1: Identify the decision

You realize that you need to make a decision. Try to clearly define the nature of the decision you
must make. This first step is very important.

Step 2: Gather relevant information

Collect some pertinent information before you make your decision: what information is needed,
the best sources of information, and how to get it. This step involves both internal and external
“work.” Some information is internal: you’ll seek it through a process of self-assessment. Other
information is external: you’ll find it online, in books, from other people, and from other sources.

Step 3: Identify the alternatives

As you collect information, you will probably identify several possible paths of action, or
alternatives. You can also use your imagination and additional information to construct new
alternatives. In this step, you will list all possible and desirable alternatives.
Step 4: Weigh the evidence

Draw on your information and emotions to imagine what it would be like if you carried out each
of the alternatives to the end. Evaluate whether the need identified in Step 1 would be met or
resolved through the use of each alternative. As you go through this difficult internal process,
you’ll begin to favor certain alternatives: those that seem to have a higher potential for reaching
your goal. Finally, place the alternatives in a priority order, based upon your own value system.

Step 5: Choose among alternatives

Once you have weighed all the evidence, you are ready to select the alternative that seems to be
best one for you. You may even choose a combination of alternatives. Your choice in Step 5 may
very likely be the same or similar to the alternative you placed at the top of your list at the end of
Step 4.

Step 6: Take action

You’re now ready to take some positive action by beginning to implement the alternative you
chose in Step 5.

Step 7: Review your decision & its consequences

In this final step, consider the results of your decision and evaluate whether or not it has resolved
the need you identified in Step 1. If the decision has not met the identified need, you may want to
repeat certain steps of the process to make a new decision. For example, you might want to
gather more detailed or somewhat different information or explore additional alternatives.

Problem Solving

Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving

problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution
that best resolves the issue.

The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some
cases, people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using
factual knowledge to come up with a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are
the best options.

The Steps in Problem-Solving

In order to correctly solve a problem, it is important to follow a series of steps. Many

researchers refer to this as the problem-solving cycle. While this cycle is portrayed
sequentially, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps to find a solution.
It is not necessary to follow problem-solving steps sequentially, It is common to skip steps
or even go back through steps multiple times until the desired solution is reached.

The following steps include developing strategies and organizing knowledge.

1. Identifying the Problem: While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem
is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the
wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even
useless.

2. Defining the Problem: After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully
define the problem so that it can be solved.

3. Forming a Strategy: The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The
approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individual's unique
preferences.

4. Organizing Information: Before coming up with a solution, we need to first organize the
available information. What do we know about the problem? What do we not know? The
more information that is available, the better prepared we will be to come up with an
accurate solution.

5. Allocating Resources: Of course, we don't always have unlimited money, time, and other
resources to solve a problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, you need to determine
how high priority it is. If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more
resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not
want to spend too much of your available resources into coming up with a solution.

6. Monitoring Progress: Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they

work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal,
they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies.

7. Evaluating the Results: After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the
results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation
might be immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer
is correct, or it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after
several months of treatment.

Body Language

Body language is another means of communication. Sometimes it can send signals stronger than
words. Body language is controlled by your subconscious mind, so a reader can actually
understand if there’s a difference in what you are saying and thinking. In order to ensure that
your words and body language compliment each other, you need to read and practice a bit.

What are the gestures which you should avoid while talking to some body? What gestures can
make you sound more positive? How can you show your agreement/ disagreement without
speaking out? Has this worked for you? It will be interesting to know your thoughts on this.

Impact of body language

Body language often has great impact in transmitting messages to the listener. Facial expression
and eye movements are very important while conveying your feelings. Smile on the face reflects
confidence. If you are in meeting and you are not moving your eyes over all the participants, you
will fail to add impact. You need to maintain intensity of voice to match the heat of the topic.
Good posture coordinates your verbal language. If you have right body posture, you can easily
control your voice. Your body weight needs to be equally balanced on the feet to have correct
posture. Try to notice your body posture when you are happy and confident. You will find that
your body is equally balanced and consequently, you are taking full breath at ease and body is
moving synchronously with your voice.

Body language plays an essential role in communicating with people. Body language comprises
of the gestures and movements we make of the different parts of our body when communicating
with people. Many a times, body language speaks more than words. Certainly, the body language
must be in synch with the words.

Points to remember:

o Never be up tied or stiff while making movements.

o Avoid body language that may be misunderstood or look unprofessional. E.g. Winking

o A consistent eye contact is a positive sign and must be used

o Avoid fiddling with things around. It may distract the attention

o Each body part movement signifies something and helps in interpreting. E.g. Standing
with hands on hips signifies aggressions, nodding signifies agreement and active
listening, biting nails signifies nervousness.

o Unlike emails, body language does not give time to think. Hence they must be used
appropriately.

Why body language

o Body language can instantly help to evaluate the interest of people

 o It is a personal way of expressing emotions when words don’t help

o It can communication interesting and non monotonous

Positive body gestures

Positive body gestures are a sign of confidence and security. They are a sign of active
participation and leave a good impression. Positive gestures include:-

o Walking upright

o Shaking hands confidently

o Having a pleasant face.

o Nodding head is a positive gesture

o A steady eye contact

Negative body gestures

Following negative gestures are a sign of insecurity and restlessness. Such gestures show a lack
of confidence. Such gestures should be avoided in interviews or meetings.

o Being up tied

o Biting nails

o Getting distracted

o Faking a smile

o Looking at something else while talking instead of the speaker

Dress Code ( Refer etiquettes)

Concept About Group Discussion

The concept of Group Discussion has not been a part of the regular academic curriculum in
Colleges and Universities. So, students usually face a lot of problem in this area of the Selection
Process. Let us first understand why Group Discussion is conducted.

Most organizations today are very clear about the skills and knowledge that they look for in a
candidate while screening. This was not the case a couple of years ago. Group Discussion has
been a part of the Selection process for admission into most of the top Business Schools
Earlier, some of the Pharmaceutical Companies like Ranbaxy, Glaxo, Cipla, Lupin, etc used to
conduct Group Discussions as a part of their Screening Process for Selection of candidates as
Medical Representatives. Most of the other companies also used to conduct GD while selecting
candidates for marketing related Posts. Today, almost every company, (including TCS,
SATYAM, WIPRO, INFOSYS, INFOTECH, ORACLE, CTS, CANBAY, POLARIS, etc) both
IT and non-IT has GD as part of their Selection Process.

The skills that are usually assessed in a Group Discussion are:

 Communication Skills

 Interpersonal Skills

 Leadership Skills

 Motivational Skills

 Team Building Skills

 Tolerance to Ambiguity

 Divergent Thinking

 Listening skills

 Presentation Skills

 Analytical / Logical skills

Train Yourself to Listen

Have you ever heard the saying “listen to understand, not reply”? Many people rather hear the
speaker instead of listening carefully to what he or she is trying to say. This is the wrong attitude
to have in any group discussion. It gives an impression you don’t care what others have to say.
This can create a one way discussion where you have the reins. When you train yourself to listen
you also let others speak until they have finished. Hopefully everyone can follow your lead and
listen carefully to the speaker. With everyone understanding each other’s opinions, it’s sure to
solicit thought provoking responses.

Understand That Everyone Has a Valuable Opinion

We all wish we could have the right opinions on every subject. But we don’t, and sometimes
other opinions are more accurate than ours. Understand everyone’s opinions are valuable even if
they contradict yours. If you disagree with a certain view don’t be rude or say yours is better.
The best approach for every group discussion is to simply state the facts that shaped your belief.
To give yourself peace of mind, understand that these facts may not change how other people see
certain topics. If you don’t want to create an unsuccessful group discussion, remember that
opinions are hard to change. This helps you not fixate on the opposing opinions so the discussion
can flow easier.

Don’t Be an Interruption

Imagine you want to get your thought across but someone keeps interrupting you. Wouldn’t you
feel slightly frustrated? It’s as if you’re in competition with the interrupter to see who can be the
center of attention. A good attitude to have during any group discussion is to let people finish
speaking before you reply. Why? Firstly, this is good manners. Secondly, interruptions have one
or both of these outcomes: The time period gets extended because someone takes longer to finish
what they wanted to say. Interruptions derail the topic. This can also make the discussion run
longer than planned. And what will happen if the group discussion has to end at a certain time
and nothing was accomplished? It could make you feel there is no point in attending the
discussion. If you want to say something, write the thought down and raise your hand. The
mediator can then point at you to let you speak after. This could be a rule, so maybe suggest it to
the mediator before your next gathering. This brings order and teaches patience.

Think Before You Speak

This should be life’s cardinal rule. Think of what you want to say before you actually do. Why?
It firstly helps you articulate what you want to say. Also you wouldn’t want to hurt anyone’s
feelings if you say something wrong. And if you keep on hurting everyone’s feelings—even if by
accident—you may appear to be a bully. Bullies aren’t tolerated and you may be dismissed from
any future group discussions. What may help you is using a notepad and pen to jot down the
numerous thoughts you conjure. You can then structure them which then helps you deliver them
in a logical order. You get the point across without rambling on. You don’t lose your train of
thought which could possibly make yourself and others confused. When you think clearly you’ll
speak clearly and sound intelligent, which is an excellent reputation to have.

Be Open Minded

Sometimes group discussions help you to learn more about the topic. You can only learn if
you’re willing to accept new information and opinions. Before your next group discussion be
open minded and willing to change how you view certain topics. As previously mentioned not
everyone will have the same opinion as you, so be respectful of all. This shows a great deal of
respect towards others. If everyone has the same level of respect then conversations will be
friendlier and more functional.

Bring Something Interesting to The Discussion

Imagine sitting down in a group and you have no understanding of the topic at hand. Or maybe
you do, but not enough knowledge to make valuable statements. It maybe embarrassing when
you’re called to give an opinion and you have none. People may question your attendance. You
can save yourself from the embarrassment and find facts, case studies & other research on the
topic. If you bring current research you keep ideas fresh and relevant. This can help others learn
more about the topic. When you do, you better your understanding of it and in turn will be more
willing to participate. You can give correct answers to questions. You can also correct others
who may have the wrong ideas. But remember to stay civil and friendly. Although you think you
have all the answers remember to be kind when you give statements and correct others. Nobody
enjoys somebody who is condescending.

Description

Group discussions are fun learning experiences especially if the topics are new to you. Any
mediator for a group discussion appreciates participation. The differing views of the audience
can be interesting. However you must play your role in ensuring an effective group discussion. It
may be scary but it does show your interest. If you’re unsure on what to do don’t worry. These
tips show you how to be the best participant. They teach you different ways to help you boost
your confidence during a group discussion. They also teach you how to conduct yourself and
how to react to certain situations. You get an understanding of the dos and don’ts & will be the
key role player to make future discussions better for all.

Interview

An interview is a conversation where questions are asked and answers are given. In common
parlance, the word "interview" refers to a one-on-one conversation between an interviewer and
an interviewee

Types of Interview

1. Structured Interview
Here, every single detail of the interview is decided in advance. The questions to be asked,
the order in which the questions will be asked, the time given to each candidate, the
information to be collected from each candidate, etc. is all decided in advance. Structured
interview is also called Standardized, Patterned, Directed or Guided interview. Structured
interviews are preplanned. They are accurate and precise. All the interviews will be
uniform (same). Therefore, there will be consistency and minimum bias in structured
interviews.

2. Unstructured Interview
This interview is not planned in detail. Hence it is also called as Non-Directed interview. The
question to be asked, the information to be collected from the candidates, etc. are not decided in
advance. These interviews are non-planned and therefore, more flexible. Candidates are more
relaxed in such interviews. They are encouraged to express themselves about different subjects,
based on their expectations, motivations, background, interests, etc. Here the interviewer can
make a better judgment of the candidate's personality, potentials, strengths and weaknesses.
However, if the interviewer is not efficient then the discussions will lose direction and the
interview will be a waste of time and effort.

3. Group Interview

Here, all the candidates or small groups of candidates are interviewed together. The time of the
interviewer is saved. A group interview is similar to a group discussion. A topic is given to the
group, and they are asked to discuss it. The interviewer carefully watches the candidates. He tries
to find out which candidate influences others, who clarifies issues, who summarizes the
discussion, who speaks effectively, etc. He tries to judge the behavior of each candidate in a
group situation.

4. Exit Interview

When an employee leaves the company, he is interviewed either by his immediate superior or by
the HRD manager. This interview is called an exit interview. Exit interview is taken to find out
why the employee is leaving the company. Sometimes, the employee may be asked to withdraw
his resignation by providing some incentives. Exit interviews are taken to create a good image of
the company in the minds of the employees who are leaving the company. They help the
company to make proper HRD policies, to create a favorable work environment, to create
employee loyalty and to reduce labour turnover.

5. Depth Interview

This is a semi-structured interview. The candidate has to give detailed information about his
background, special interest, etc. He also has to give detailed information about his subject.
Depth interview tries to find out if the candidate is an expert in his subject or not. Here, the
interviewer must have a good understanding of human behavior.

6. Stress Interview

The purpose of this interview is to find out how the candidate behaves in a stressful situation.
That is, whether the candidate gets angry or gets confused or gets frightened or gets nervous or
remains cool in a stressful situation. The candidate who keeps his cool in a stressful situation is
selected for the stressful job. Here, the interviewer tries to create a stressful situation during the
interview. This is done purposely by asking the candidate rapid questions, criticizing his
answers, interrupting him repeatedly, etc.

7. Individual Interview

This is a 'One-To-One' Interview. It is a verbal and visual interaction between two people, the
interviewer and the candidate, for a particular purpose. The purpose of this interview is to match
the candidate with the job. It is a two way communication.

8. Informal Interview

Informal interview is an oral interview which can be arranged at any place. Different questions
are asked to collect the required information from the candidate. Specific rigid procedure is not
followed. It is a friendly interview.

9. Formal Interview

Formal interview is held in a more formal atmosphere. The interviewer asks pre-planned
questions. Formal interview is also called planned interview.

10. Panel Interview

Panel means a selection committee or interview committee that is appointed for interviewing the
candidates. The panel may include three or five members. They ask questions to the candidates
about different aspects. They give marks to each candidate. The final decision will be taken by
all members collectively by rating the candidates. Panel interview is always better than an
interview by one interviewer because in a panel interview, collective judgments is used for
selecting suitable candidates.

Interview process

Before the interview

1. Reviewing fair amount of resumes or C.V.s

Reviewing plenty of applications is essential to select the suitable candidates for further
consideration i.e. interview. It is necessary for interviewers to collect a large pool of candidate so
they can pick out the most appropriate ones to consider for selection. The larger the pool of
applicants, higher will be the chances that employers get their choice of employees.

2. Prepare for the interview beforehand

When interview phase is reached, the interviewers must set a clear vision in mind regarding the
things that they want to know from the candidate. For this, they must first recognize the job and
the responsibilities of the job holder. In the next step, they should prepare a list of standard
questions and measurable criteria, in an attempt to know the overall candidate. While doing so,
they must not forget to set specific and reasonable time frame. They must also be prepared to
answer or justify the use of any required test.

During the interview

1. Setting a suitable atmosphere

The foremost thing that the interviewer must keep in mind during the interview is to set a
suitable atmosphere. Following tips will help an interviewer to set an interview atmosphere.

 Dress up appropriately

 Look and behave professionally

 Avoid appearing exhausted

2. Structure the interview

Although an interview is not less than a surprise to a candidate, it must be planned and structured
to an interviewer. It is because unstructured interview won’t help in making an accurate decision.
Structuring the interview is also important to design questions in regards to specific problems
that the job holder may face in future.

3. Gather pertinent information

An interviewer can know a lot about the candidates by asking even few but correct questions.
For example, the interviewer can predict the future conduct of candidates by asking them about
their past behavior.

4. Note the candidate’s response

Here, the response does not only refer to the verbal or written answers from the candidates. Yes,
the candidate’s choice of words tells a lot about his personality. However, it is also important for
the interviewer to notice his non-verbal behavior (gestures) and figure out how well the
candidate listens and responds to the questions asked.

5. Analyze the information immediately

Once an interviewer gets an answer, it is better if he analyzes it immediately with the set criteria
and notes it down. It is because his evaluation is more efficient in fresh memory.

6. Give written tests

Written tests help the interviewer in collecting and comparing the answers of several candidates
at once. It helps in distinguishing candidates from one another and make a better decision.
Points to be considered for a Good Interview

It takes a lot of efforts from the interviewers for an interview to be good. Additionally, there are
some points that must be considered by an interview if he actually expects an interview to be
effective.

 Facilitate open communication

 Treat every candidate equitably

 Be careful not to offend candidates of any age, sex, race, religious background, etc.

 Avoid argument

 Acknowledge the candidate’s enthusiasm