18 Section-B 3135

Q.05(a): A Bessemer converter, lined with basic material, is charged with 20 tons of pig iron of the
following composition:

Fe = 91.2%, C = 3.6%, Si = 1.7%, Mn = 1.1%, P = 2.4%

The blow oxidizes all the C, Si, Mn, and P and also Fe amounting to 5.6% of the pig iron. Assume that
the Fe oxidizes at a uniform rate throughout the blow. Enough CaO is added to make 35% CaO in the
slag. Two-thirds of the carbon goes to CO; one-third to CO₂. The blowing engines furnish 580 m³ of
air per minute. Determine:

i. The volume of air necessary to blow the charge

ii. The length of each period of the blow

iii. The weight of CaO to be added, and the percentage composition of the slag

[Answer to the Q. No. 5(a)]

Given:

• Pig iron charged = 20 tons = 20,000 kg

• Composition:
o Fe = 91.2% → 18,240 kg
o C = 3.6% → 720 kg
o Si = 1.7% → 340 kg
o Mn = 1.1% → 220 kg
o P = 2.4% → 480 kg
• Fe oxidized = 5.6% of 20,000 kg = 1,120 kg
• Air supply rate = 580 m³/min
• Target: CaO to be 35% of total slag
• Gaseous products:
o ⅔ of C → CO
o ⅓ of C → CO₂

i. Volume of air required

Step 1: Calculate O₂ required for oxidation

1. C (720 kg)
o ⅔ → CO: 720 × (2⁄3) × 0.5 = 240 kg O₂
o ⅓ → CO₂: 720 × (1⁄3) × 1 = 240 kg O₂
o Total for C = 480 kg O₂
2. Si (340 kg)
o Si + O₂ → SiO₂
 o O₂ required = 340 kg
3. Mn (220 kg)
o Mn + ½O₂ → MnO
o O₂ required = 220 × 0.5 = 110 kg
4. P (480 kg)
o 2P + 2.5O₂ → P₂O₅
o O₂ required = 480 × 1.25 = 600 kg
5. Fe (1,120 kg)
o Fe + ½O₂ → FeO
o O₂ required = 1,120 × 0.536 = 600.3 kg

Total O₂ required =

480 (C) + 340 (Si) + 110 (Mn) + 600 (P) + 600.3 (Fe) = 2,130.3 kg

Step 2: Convert O₂ mass to volume of air

• 1 kmol O₂ = 32 kg → 22.4 m³
• Moles O₂ = 2,130.3 ÷ 32 = 66.57 kmol
• Volume O₂ = 66.57 × 22.4 = 1,491.2 m³
• Since air contains 21% O₂ by volume:

Volume of air = 1,491.2 ÷ 0.21 = 7,100 m³

ii. Length of the blow

Blow time = Total air required ÷ Air supply rate

Blow time = 7,100 m³ ÷ 580 m³/min = 12.24 minutes

iii. CaO addition and slag composition

Step 1: Calculate oxide masses

• SiO₂ = 340 (Si) + 340 (O) = 680 kg

• MnO = 220 (Mn) + 110 (O) = 330 kg
• P₂O₅ = 480 × 2.29 = 1,099.2 kg (molecular ratio method)
• FeO = 1,120 + 480 = 1,600 kg
• Total slag (without CaO) = 680 + 330 + 1,099.2 + 1,600 = 3,709.2 kg
Step 2: Determine required total slag for 35% CaO

Let total slag mass = x

Then CaO = x − 3,709.2

So, (x − 3,709.2) ÷ x = 0.35

⇒ 0.65x = 3,709.2

⇒ x = 5,706.5 kg

CaO required = 5,706.5 − 3,709.2 = 1,997.3 kg

Step 3: Slag composition (percentage)

Component Mass (kg) Percentage in slag

CaO 1,997.3 35.00%
FeO 1,600 28.04%
P₂O₅ 1,099.2 19.26%
SiO₂ 680 11.91%
MnO 330 5.78%
Total 5,706.5 100.00%

Final Answers:

• Volume of air required = 7,100 m³

• Blow duration = 12.24 minutes
• CaO to be added = 1,997.3 kg
• Slag composition:
o CaO: 35.00%
o FeO: 28.04%
o P₂O₅: 19.26%
o SiO₂: 11.91%
o MnO: 5.78%

[End of Question No. 5(a)]

Q.05(b): ‘A good slag car produces good steel’ – Justify the statement.

[Answer to the Q. No. 5(b)]

Introduction:

In steelmaking, slag plays a vital role in controlling the refining reactions within the furnace. The statement
“A good slag car produces good steel” emphasizes the importance of slag quality and handling in
determining the final purity and composition of steel. A slag car refers to the vessel that carries away slag
— so efficient removal and quality of slag directly influence steel cleanliness, chemistry, and consistency.

Justification:

1.
Slag Acts as a Refining Medium:

• Slag is responsible for removing impurities such as phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), silicon (Si), and
manganese (Mn) from molten iron.
• A well-formed, basic, and fluid slag ensures efficient oxidation or absorption of these elements.

2.
Phosphorus and Sulfur Removal:

• These impurities are transferred from the molten metal into the slag phase:
o P + 5/2 O₂ → P₂O₅ (absorbed in basic slag as Ca₃(PO₄)₂)
o FeS + CaO → CaS + FeO
• A slag poor in basic oxides (like CaO) or overloaded with impurities cannot absorb more P or S.

3.
Slag Fluidity Affects Reaction Kinetics:

• If the slag is too viscous, the mass transfer between metal and slag is hindered.
• This leads to incomplete refining and lower steel quality.

4.
Slag Composition Impacts Inclusion Removal:

• Slag helps in removing non-metallic inclusions.

• If the slag composition is unsuitable, inclusions may remain in the steel, affecting mechanical
properties and surface quality.
5.
Slag Overflow or Carryover Must Be Avoided:

• Improper slag removal in the slag car can lead to slag carryover into the steel ladle, which
contaminates the final steel product.
• A clean and controlled slag car operation ensures separation of slag and metal at the tap hole.

6.
Thermal and Chemical Balance:

• Slag affects heat balance, refractory wear, and deoxidation processes.

• A good slag car reflects a well-executed slag formation, tapping, and removal sequence.

Conclusion:

The phrase “A good slag car produces good steel” captures the interdependence between slag quality,
slag removal efficiency, and steel purity. Proper slag chemistry, fluidity, and handling enable effective
refining, inclusion removal, and impurity absorption, which are essential for producing high-quality steel.
Hence, a well-managed slag car operation is a practical indicator of a successful steelmaking process.

[End of Question No. 5(b)]

Q.06(a): Mention the sequences of operation in LD process from charging to tapping.

[Answer to the Q. No. 6(a)]

Introduction:

The LD process (Linz–Donawitz process), also known as Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS), is the most
widely used primary steelmaking method. It involves blowing high-purity oxygen onto molten pig iron to
remove impurities such as carbon, silicon, phosphorus, and manganese by oxidation. The process is rapid,
efficient, and capable of producing high-quality steel in a short time.

Sequence of Operations in LD Process:

The complete operational steps from charging to tapping in the LD converter are as follows:

1. Furnace Preparation:

• The LD converter is tilted and the slag from the previous heat is cleaned.
• Refractory condition is checked and lime coating (gunning) may be applied.
• The vessel is brought upright for charging.

2. Charging the Converter:

• Scrap (15–30%) is charged first using a scrap charging crane or bucket.

• Molten pig iron (hot metal) is then poured into the converter.
• Typical charge ratio:
o 70–85% hot metal
o 15–30% steel scrap
• The converter may be tilted slightly to avoid splashing.

3. Addition of Fluxes:

• Fluxes such as lime (CaO) and dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂) are added to the top to form a basic slag.
• These help in the removal of phosphorus and sulfur and control slag fluidity.

4. Oxygen Blowing (Refining):

• The oxygen lance is lowered into the vessel.

• High-purity oxygen (99.5%+) is blown at supersonic velocity (8–10 bar) for 15–20 minutes.
• Impurities are oxidized:
o C + O → CO / CO₂
o Si + O₂ → SiO₂
 o Mn + ½O₂ → MnO
o P + 2½O₂ → P₂O₅
• These oxides combine with the fluxes to form liquid slag.
• Temperature rises to around 1650–1700°C due to exothermic reactions.

5. Sampling and Analysis:

• During the blow, bath samples and temperature readings are taken.
• Final adjustments (trimming) of composition and temperature are made based on analysis.

6. Blow End and De-lancing:

• Oxygen blow is stopped once the desired carbon content and temperature are reached.
• The lance is withdrawn and the converter is tilted for deslagging if required.

7. Slag Removal (Optional):

• The converter may be partially tilted to remove excess slag before tapping.

8. Tapping:

• The converter is tilted forward to pour refined steel into a ladle.

• During tapping:
o Alloying elements (Fe-Mn, Fe-Si, Al, etc.) are added.
o Deoxidizers may be introduced.
• Slag stopper may be used to prevent slag carryover.

9. Slag Handling:

• Remaining slag is poured into a slag pot after steel tapping.

Conclusion:

The LD process is a highly efficient and fast method of steelmaking. Its sequence — from charging of
scrap and hot metal, addition of fluxes, oxygen blowing, to tapping — is carefully timed and controlled.
This ensures precise removal of impurities, heat balance, and chemical composition control, ultimately
leading to the production of high-quality steel.

[End of Question No. 6(a)]

Q.06(b): Briefly explain the steps of EAF+AOD route for stainless steel making. What are the
advantages of EAF+AOD route over EAF route?

[Answer to the Q. No. 6(b)]

Introduction:

The EAF + AOD route is the most common process used for producing stainless steel. It combines the
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) for melting and the Argon Oxygen Decarburization (AOD) converter for
refining. This integrated process offers precise control over carbon, chromium, sulfur, and nitrogen
levels in stainless steel and minimizes chromium losses during decarburization.

Steps of EAF + AOD Route for Stainless Steel Production:

1. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Melting:

• Raw materials: Stainless steel scrap, carbon steel scrap, ferroalloys (Fe-Cr, Fe-Ni), and sometimes
hot metal.
• Arcing: High voltage arcs between graphite electrodes and the scrap melt the charge.
• Fluxes (lime, dolomite) are added to form slag and remove oxidized impurities.
• Decarburization starts toward the end of the EAF stage, but only partially.

2. Transfer to AOD Converter:

• The molten metal is poured into the AOD vessel, a tiltable, bottom-blown converter lined with
basic refractory.

3. Argon Oxygen Decarburization (AOD):

• Blowing of oxygen mixed with inert gases (argon or nitrogen) begins through bottom tuyeres.
• Purpose: Lower carbon from ~1.5–2% (from EAF) to <0.05% without oxidizing chromium.
• Reaction:
o C + ½O₂ → CO↑
o Controlled blowing avoids Cr + O₂ → Cr₂O₃
• Argon dilution suppresses the partial pressure of CO, enhancing preferential carbon oxidation
over chromium.
• Desulfurization and dephosphorization occur using lime and slag refining at this stage.
• Final trimming is done by adding Fe-Cr, Fe-Ni, Fe-Mo, Fe-Si and other alloying agents.
4. Tapping and Casting:

• The refined stainless steel is tapped into a ladle, then cast into slabs or billets through continuous
casting.

Advantages of EAF + AOD Route over EAF Alone:

Aspect EAF Only EAF + AOD Route
Carbon Removal Limited (<1.5%) Deep decarburization (<0.05%) achievable
Chromium Retention More chromium oxidation Less chromium loss due to controlled decarburization
Process Control Lower accuracy High control over chemistry and temperature
Desulfurization Less efficient Highly efficient during AOD
Nitrogen Control Not possible Possible with argon blowing in AOD
Alloy Flexibility Limited Can make various stainless steel grades
Cost Efficiency Less efficient for high Cr More efficient with reduced ferroalloy consumption

Conclusion:

The EAF + AOD process is a modern, cost-effective, and high-precision method for manufacturing
stainless steel. While the EAF handles melting and partial refining, the AOD converter specializes in deep
decarburization without chromium loss, efficient sulfur removal, and composition control, making it far
superior to using EAF alone for producing stainless steel.

[End of Question No. 6(b)]

Q.06(c): Discuss the following defects and their remedies in steel making process:

(i) Columnar structure (ii) Segregation

[Answer to the Q. No. 6(c)]

(i) Columnar Structure

Definition:

Columnar structure refers to the elongated, directional grain growth that occurs during the solidification
of steel, particularly near the center or edges of ingots and continuously cast products.

Cause:

• Occurs due to unidirectional heat flow from the mold wall toward the center.
• Lack of sufficient nucleation during initial solidification leads to grain growth along the thermal
gradient.
• Typically forms in the zone between equiaxed grains near the mold wall and centerline grains.

Problems:

• Reduces ductility and toughness.

• Can promote cracking, especially during rolling or forging.
• Leads to anisotropic mechanical properties.

Remedies:

• Promote equiaxed grain formation by:

o Using grain refiners or nucleating agents.
o Applying electromagnetic stirring (EMS) to disrupt thermal gradients.
• Control casting speed to reduce thermal gradient.
• Use cooling strategies that favor uniform solidification.

(ii) Segregation

Definition:
Segregation is the non-uniform distribution of alloying elements or impurities in the solidified steel due
to differences in solubility between solid and liquid phases during solidification.

Types:

1. Microsegregation – occurs on a microscopic scale between dendrite arms.

2. Macrosegregation – large-scale variation along the length or cross-section of the ingot or slab.

Cause:

• Caused by the partitioning of solute elements during solidification.

• Elements like S, P, C, Mn concentrate in the interdendritic liquid, which solidifies last.
• Poor stirring or high solidification rates worsen segregation.

Problems:

• Leads to chemical inhomogeneity, affecting mechanical properties.

• Can cause banding, hot shortness, or crack formation during rolling.
• Difficult to remove completely during downstream processing.

Remedies:

• Apply electromagnetic or mechanical stirring during solidification to homogenize solute.

• Use slower solidification rates and uniform cooling to reduce concentration gradients.
• Secondary refining (e.g., ladle refining, vacuum degassing) to remove impurity elements before
casting.
• Employ soft reduction during continuous casting to reduce centerline segregation.

Conclusion:

Both columnar grain structures and segregation are common defects in the steelmaking and casting
processes. While columnar structure affects the mechanical uniformity due to grain directionality,
segregation leads to chemical inhomogeneity. Both defects can be minimized through proper thermal
management, stirring, alloying control, and process design, thereby enhancing the quality and reliability
of steel products.

[End of Question No. 6(c)]

Q.07(a): Compare and contrast between RH and DH degassing process with neat sketches

[Answer to the Q. No. 7(a)]

Introduction:

RH (Ruhrstahl–Heraeus) and DH (Dortmund–Hörder) processes are two widely used vacuum

degassing methods applied in secondary steelmaking. These processes are designed to remove dissolved
gases such as hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and carbon monoxide (CO), and enable precise composition
adjustment and cleanliness improvement in steel. Although both utilize vacuum and inert gas stirring,
they differ in equipment design, operation method, and degassing efficiency.

Comparison Between RH and DH Degassing Processes:

Feature RH Process (Ruhrstahl–Heraeus) DH Process (Dortmund–Hörder)
Two-leg vacuum chamber with u-type
Design Single vertical vacuum vessel
snorkel tubes
Circulation of steel between ladle and Partial ladle evacuation into vacuum
Working Principle
vacuum chamber chamber
Steel is continuously circulated using Steel is lifted once into chamber and held
Steel Circulation
inert gas lift static
Gas Stirring Argon is injected through snorkel legs Argon is injected into ladle or chamber
Treatment Time Shorter (due to continuous circulation) Longer (due to batch process)
Degassing Higher and faster hydrogen and nitrogen
Comparatively slower degassing
Efficiency removal
Equipment Stationary vacuum vessel, ladle is moved
Chamber is lowered into ladle
Movement below
Used for low hydrogen steel, deep Suitable for medium-scale operations,
Applications
decarburization, alloying conventional steels
Temperature
Minimal (due to continuous steel motion) Higher due to stagnant steel
Drop

Schematic Diagrams (Exam-Friendly):

[End of Question No. 7(a)]

Q.07(b): Draw neat sketch of a continuous casting machine indicating its important features

[Answer to the Q. No. 7(b)]

Neat Sketch of Continuous Casting Machine:

A simplified, exam-friendly diagram of a continuous casting machine (CCM) is shown below,

highlighting all major components:

Important Features and Components:

1. Ladle:
o Contains liquid steel from the primary steelmaking furnace (BOF or EAF).
2. Ladle Turret:
o Rotating mechanism that positions the ladle over the tundish.
3. Tundish:
o A small refractory-lined reservoir that controls the flow of steel to the mold.
o Acts as a buffer and removes inclusions.
4. Submerged Entry Nozzle (SEN):
o Guides the flow of molten steel into the mold below the surface to minimize reoxidation.
5. Water-Cooled Copper Mold:
o Rapidly solidifies the outer shell of steel.
o Shape of mold determines final product (slab, billet, bloom).
6. Mold Oscillator:
o Provides controlled oscillations to prevent sticking of the steel shell to mold walls.
7. Secondary Cooling Zone:
o Uses water sprays to further solidify the partially solidified strand.
8. Withdrawal and Straightening Rolls:
o Pull the steel strand downward and maintain straightness.
9. Torch Cutting or Shearing Unit:
o Cuts the solidified strand into desired lengths.
10. Run-out Table:
o Transfers the cut pieces (slabs, billets) for inspection or further processing.

[End of Question No. 7(b)]

Q.07(c): Briefly discuss the “thermodynamics of decarburization of chromium melt in stainless steel
making”

[Answer to the Q. No. 7(c)]

Introduction:

In stainless steel making, one of the main challenges is to remove carbon from the molten bath without
oxidizing chromium, a key alloying element. This becomes difficult because both carbon and chromium are
strongly reactive with oxygen, and chromium has a higher affinity for oxygen than carbon. Thus,
decarburization must be carefully controlled thermodynamically to avoid chromium loss.

Key Reactions:

1. Decarburization (Desired):

C (dissolved) + ½ O₂ (gas) → CO (gas)

2. Chromium Oxidation (Undesired):

2 Cr (dissolved) + 3⁄2 O₂ (gas) → Cr₂O₃ (slag)

In competition, chromium tends to oxidize more readily than carbon unless special conditions are
maintained.

Thermodynamic Considerations:

• Free energy of formation (ΔG⁰):

The standard free energy change for Cr oxidation is more negative than that for carbon oxidation at
steelmaking temperatures (~1600°C), indicating higher stability of Cr₂O₃.

• However, partial pressure of oxygen (pO₂) plays a crucial role in selectivity:

o At high pO₂, Cr oxidizes easily.
o At low pO₂, decarburization can proceed without oxidizing Cr.
• Therefore, decarburization must occur under low oxygen potential conditions to favor CO
formation over Cr₂O₃ formation.
Practical Application: AOD Process Control

• In Argon Oxygen Decarburization (AOD), a mixture of oxygen and inert gas (argon) is blown to
dilute the oxygen partial pressure.
• This controls the reaction environment:
o Promotes carbon removal (C + O → CO↑)
o Suppresses chromium oxidation
• As carbon content decreases, oxygen partial pressure must also be reduced further to continue
selective decarburization.

Decarburization Window:

A graphical representation (not shown here) can define a “decarburization window”:

• A narrow range of temperature and oxygen potential where carbon is preferentially oxidized
without significant chromium loss.
• Outside this window, chromium loss increases sharply.

Conclusion:

The thermodynamics of decarburization in stainless steelmaking revolves around managing oxygen

potential to selectively remove carbon while preserving chromium. This is achieved by operating under low
pO₂ conditions, especially in the AOD converter, where argon dilution and controlled oxygen blowing
ensure that decarburization proceeds efficiently without excessive chromium oxidation — enabling cost-
effective and high-quality stainless steel production.

[End of Question No. 7(c)]

Q.08(a): Why de-oxidation of steel is necessary?

[Answer to the Q. No. 8(a)]

Introduction:

De-oxidation of steel refers to the removal of dissolved oxygen from molten steel during or after the
primary steelmaking process (such as in BOF or EAF). Oxygen, if retained in steel, leads to various defects
and quality issues, making de-oxidation a critical step in secondary steelmaking.

Why De-oxidation is Necessary:

1. Prevention of Blowholes and Porosity:

• Oxygen reacts with carbon in steel to form carbon monoxide gas (CO):
o C + ½O₂ → CO↑
• If oxygen remains during solidification, it reacts with carbon to form gas bubbles, leading to
blowholes and porosity in the final product.

2. Avoidance of Non-metallic Inclusions:

• Oxygen in molten steel can combine with elements like Al, Si, Mn, Fe to form oxides.
• These oxides (e.g., Al₂O₃, SiO₂) form non-metallic inclusions, which:
o Reduce ductility and toughness
o Cause cracks, internal defects, and reduced fatigue life

3. Improvement of Surface Quality:

• Steel with residual oxygen may produce surface defects like scabs, blisters, and laps during rolling.
• De-oxidized steel ensures clean and defect-free surfaces.

4. Control of Final Chemistry:

• Residual oxygen can interfere with alloy addition (e.g., Fe-Mn, Fe-Si), forming oxides and
preventing proper alloying.
• Accurate chemistry control is essential for special steel grades.
5. Enhanced Mechanical Properties:

• Lower oxygen content results in:

o Better toughness, ductility, and formability
o Improved weldability and machinability

6. Required for Certain Steel Grades:

• High-grade steels like bearing steels, automotive steels, and tool steels demand very low oxygen
levels.
• Vacuum de-oxidation or full-killed steels are preferred for these applications.

Conclusion:

De-oxidation is essential to ensure the cleanliness, integrity, and performance of steel. By eliminating
dissolved oxygen, it helps in preventing blowholes, inclusions, and surface defects, and ensures precise
alloying and chemical control. This makes de-oxidation a vital operation in producing high-quality steel
suitable for both structural and high-performance applications.

[End of Question No. 8(a)]

Q.08(b): Write about the pretreatment of hot metal in steelmaking. Which reagents are used for this
purpose?

[Answer to the Q. No. 8(b)]

Introduction:

In integrated steelmaking, hot metal (molten pig iron) produced from the blast furnace typically contains
high levels of undesirable impurities such as sulfur (S), phosphorus (P), and silicon (Si). These elements
can be problematic during steel refining in converters like LD (BOF). Hence, pretreatment of hot metal is
performed before primary steelmaking to partially or fully remove these impurities.

Objectives of Hot Metal Pretreatment:

• Reduce sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon content in molten iron

• Improve refining efficiency in the LD/BOF converter
• Decrease refractory wear and slag volume
• Enable lower flux and oxygen consumption
• Enhance overall steel quality and consistency

Common Pretreatment Processes:

1. Desulfurization (De-S):

• Carried out in a hot metal ladle before charging into the BOF.
• Sulfur is removed by forming sulfides, which enter the slag phase.

Reaction:

FeS + CaO + C → CaS (slag) + Fe + CO↑

• Reagents Used:
o Calcium carbide (CaC₂)
o Magnesium (Mg) or Mg mixtures
o Lime (CaO)
o Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃)
2. Dephosphorization (De-P):

• Performed if phosphorus content is high and BOF can’t fully handle it.
• Phosphorus reacts with oxygen and is absorbed in the basic slag.

Reaction:

2P + 5/2 O₂ → P₂O₅

P₂O₅ + 3CaO → 3CaO·P₂O₅ (in slag)

• Reagents Used:
o Lime (CaO) – most important
o Fluorspar (CaF₂) – improves slag fluidity
o Iron oxide (Fe₂O₃) – oxygen source
o Magnesia (MgO) – increases basicity

3. De-siliconization:

• Silicon oxidizes easily and forms SiO₂, which is acidic.

• Si removal is essential as acidic slags hinder phosphorus removal.

Reaction:

Si + O₂ → SiO₂ (slag)

• Reagents Used:
o Oxygen (blown or lanced)
o Lime (CaO) to neutralize silica

Reagents Summary Table:

Purpose Common Reagents
Desulfurization CaC₂, Mg, CaO, Na₂CO₃
Dephosphorization CaO, Fe₂O₃, MgO, CaF₂
De-siliconization O₂ (gas), CaO

Conclusion:

Pretreatment of hot metal is a critical preliminary step in the steelmaking process. It helps in removing
sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon using reagents such as CaC₂, Mg, CaO, and Fe₂O₃. This not only
improves refining efficiency and reduces converter burden, but also leads to better steel quality and
lower operational costs, ensuring a stable and optimized steelmaking process.

[End of Question No. 8(b)]

Q.08(c): With proper sketches, mention the difference among killed steel, semi-killed steel and
rimming steel ingot.

[Answer to the Q. No. 8(c)]

Introduction:

The terms killed steel, semi-killed steel, and rimming steel refer to the type of de-oxidation treatment
applied to molten steel before it is cast into ingots. These types differ in terms of oxygen content, evolution
of gas during solidification, and resulting ingot structure. The main differences are observed in chemical
homogeneity, surface quality, and internal structure of the ingot.

1. Killed Steel

• Definition:

Steel that has been fully de-oxidized using strong de-oxidizers such as aluminum (Al) or silicon
(Si).

• Characteristics:
o No gas evolution during solidification.
o Produces uniform and sound ingots with no blowholes.
o Often forms pipe (shrinkage cavity) at the top.
• Applications:
o Used where high internal soundness is required (e.g., pressure vessels, structural steels).

2. Semi-Killed Steel

• Definition:

Steel that is partially de-oxidized, so some gas evolution continues during the early stages of
solidification.

• Characteristics:
o Moderate de-oxidation.
o Small amount of gas evolution, leading to some porosity.
o Less piping than killed steel.
• Applications:
o Used where a balance of internal soundness and cost is acceptable (e.g., general
construction).
3. Rimming Steel

• Definition:

Steel with little or no de-oxidizers added. De-oxidation occurs spontaneously during

solidification, producing large gas evolution (mostly CO).

• Characteristics:
o Intense gas evolution during solidification.
o Formation of a rim (clean outer shell) with segregated core.
o Highly unsound internal structure, with blowholes and segregation.
• Applications:
o Suitable for non-critical, thin sheets where surface finish matters more than internal quality.

Comparative Table:
Property Killed Steel Semi-Killed Steel Rimming Steel
De-oxidation Level Fully de-oxidized Partially de-oxidized Little or none
Gas Evolution None Limited Intense
Ingot Soundness Very high Moderate Low (porous center)
Surface Finish Fair Good Excellent (due to rim)
Internal Quality Uniform Slight porosity Severe segregation
Pipe Formation Yes Slight None
Applications Structural, pressure Construction, general Sheets, non-critical

Schematic Sketches (Exam-Friendly):

Conclusion:

The distinction among killed, semi-killed, and rimming steels lies in the extent of de-oxidation, gas
evolution during solidification, and the resulting ingot quality. Killed steel offers superior internal
soundness, while rimming steel provides better surface finish at the cost of internal quality. Choosing the
right type depends on application requirements and cost considerations.

[End of Question No. 8(c)]