Physics I Albrecht Haase Trento 2025 Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
Albrecht Haase 2025
Current and Resistance
Physics I
Lecture 26
Electric current
Physics I
Isolated conducting loop:
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• regardless of excess charge: same potential
• no 𝐸-field within it or along its surface
Insert a battery:
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• 𝑬-fields act inside material
• exerts forces on internal charges
• charges move establishing an electric current
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
𝑑𝑞
𝑖=
𝑑𝑡
charge 𝒅𝒒 passes through hypothetical
cross-section in time 𝒅𝒕
2
Electric current
Physics I
• steady-state conditions: current is the same for all cross-
Albrecht Haase
sections (every e- through 𝑎𝑎’ must pass through 𝑏𝑏’)
• charges passing through cross-section:
𝑞 = න 𝑑𝑞 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
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• SI unit current: Ampere, 1 A = 1 C/s
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
Current direction
• 𝒊 is scalar property, arrow signals motion direction of positive charges
• actual charge carriers are negative, move in opposite direction
Current at junctions
• due to charge conservation, magnitudes must add: 𝑖0 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 3
Current density
Physics I
Current 𝑖 (scalar) related to current density 𝐽Ԧ (vector)
Albrecht Haase
𝑖 = න𝐽Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ
𝑑 𝐴Ԧ vector perpendicular to a surface element
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• integral over any surface cutting across conductor
• 𝐽Ԧ has same direction as velocity of positive moving
charges
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
for uniform 𝑖 current parallel to 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ
𝑖 = න𝐽 ⋅ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐽 න𝑑𝐴 = 𝐽 𝐴
𝐽 = 𝑖/𝐴 current per area
4
Drift speed
Physics I
• by convention direction of current density 𝐽Ԧ and current arrow is direction of
Albrecht Haase
positive charge motion, their drift velocity 𝑣Ԧ𝑑
number of charge carriers in wire length 𝐿: 𝑛𝐴𝐿
• 𝑛 number of carriers per unit volume
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total charge in length 𝐿: 𝑞 = 𝑛𝐴𝐿 𝑒
• by using time interval 𝑡 = 𝐿/𝑣𝑑 :
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
𝑞 𝑛𝐴𝐿 𝑒 𝑖 𝐽
current: 𝑖 = = = 𝑛𝐴𝑒𝑣𝑑 → 𝑣𝑑 = =
𝑡 𝐿/𝑣𝑑 𝑛𝐴𝑒 𝑛𝑒
• current density in vector form 𝐽Ԧ = 𝑛𝑒 𝑣Ԧ𝑑
𝑛𝑒 carrier charge density, SI unit C/m𝟑 5
Example: Current density
Physics I
Uniform current density across cross section of cylindrical wire of radius
Albrecht Haase
𝑅 = 2.0 mm: 𝐽 = 2.0 × 10 5 A/m2
Current through outer portion of wire between radial distances 𝑅/2 and 𝑅?
2
𝑅 3 2 3
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2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑅 − 𝜋 = 𝜋 𝑅 = 𝜋 0.002 m 2 ≈ 9.42 × 10−6 m
2 4 4
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
𝑖 = 𝐽 𝐴 = 2.0 × 10 2 ∙ 9.42 × 10−6 m ≈ 1.9 A
5
m
6
Example: Current density
Physics I
Non-uniform current density through wire cross section: 𝐽 = 𝑎𝑟 2 with
Albrecht Haase
11
A
𝑎 = 3.0 × 10
m4
Current through outer portion of wire between radial distances 𝑅/2 and 𝑅?
𝐽Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐽𝑑𝐴cos𝜃 = 𝐽𝑑𝐴
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𝑅 𝑅
𝑖 = න𝐽Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = න𝐽𝑑𝐴 = න 𝑎𝑟 2 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑎 න 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
𝑅/2 𝑅/2
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
𝑅
1 4 𝜋𝑎 4 𝑅4 15
= 2𝜋𝑎 𝑟 = 𝑅 − = 𝜋𝑎𝑅4
4 𝑅/2 2 16 32
15 11
A −3 𝑚 4
= 𝜋 ⋅ 3.0 × 10 ⋅ 2 × 10 ≈ 7.1 A
32 m4
7
Example: Electron drift speed
Physics I
Drift speed of conduction electrons in a copper wire with radius 𝑟 = 900 μm
with uniform current 𝑖 = 17 mA?
Albrecht Haase
Assume each atom contributes one conduction electron to current, current
density is uniform across wire’s cross section. Electron densitiy:
electrons atoms moles mass 1
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𝑛= = = 𝑁𝑎 𝜌𝐶𝑢
unit volume mole mass unit volume 𝑀𝐶𝑢
6.02 × 1023 mol−1 ∙ 8.96 × 103 kg/m3 28 m−3
= ≈ 8.49 × 10
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
63.54 × 10−3 kg/mol
𝑖 𝑖
𝑖 = 𝑛𝐴𝑒𝑣𝑑 → 𝑣𝑑 = = 2
𝐴𝑛𝑒 𝜋𝑟 𝑛𝑒
17 × 10−3 A −7 m/s
𝑣𝑑 = ≈ 4.9 × 10
𝜋 0.9 × 10−3 m 2 ∙ 8.49 × 1028 m−3 ∙ 1.6 × 10−19 C 8
Resistance and Resistivity
Physics I
characteristic of a conductor given by the electrical resistance
Albrecht Haase
𝑉
𝑅=
𝑖
𝑉 potential difference across conductor, 𝑖 current through conductor
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𝑉
• SI unit: Ohm, 1Ω = 1
𝐴
• electronic symbol or
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
Instead of object property resistance 𝑅, material property resistivity is
𝐸
𝜌=
𝐽
V/m V
• SI unit: 1 2
= 1 m = 1 𝛀𝐦
A/m A 9
Resistivity and Conductivity
Physics I
in vector form
Albrecht Haase
𝐸 = 𝜌𝐽Ԧ
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conductivity
1
𝜎=
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
𝜌
in vector form
𝐽Ԧ = 𝜎𝐸
10
Resistance from Resistivity
Physics I
for uniform current density in wire of length 𝐿, cross section 𝐴:
Albrecht Haase
Electric field
𝜕𝑉
𝐸= = 𝑉/𝐿, 𝐽 = 𝑖/𝐴
𝜕𝑥
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𝐸 𝑉/𝐿
𝜌= =
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
𝐽 𝑖/𝐴
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
11
Variation with Temperature
Physics I
• resistivity for most materials changes with temperature
Albrecht Haase
• for many materials, including metals, 𝜌 is approximated by
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𝜌 − 𝜌0 = 𝜌0 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
𝜌0 resistivity at reference temperature 𝑇0 , 𝜶 temperature coefficient of
resistivity for the material
12
Resistivity and Conductivity
Physics I
for copper at room temperature 293 K:
Albrecht Haase
𝜌0 = 1.69 × 10−8 Ωm
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Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
13
Example: Resistivity vs. resistance
Physics I
Rectangular block, 1.2 cm × 1.2 cm × 15 cm, of iron, 𝜌 = 9.68 × 10−8 Ωm,
Albrecht Haase
potential difference applied between parallel sides which become
equipotential surfaces
Resistance of the block if parallel sides are (1) the square ends and (2) the
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rectangular sides
1) 𝐴 = 1.2 cm × 1.2 cm = 1.44 × 10−4 m:
𝐿 0.15 m
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
−8 −4
𝑅 = 𝜌 = 9.68 × 10 Ωm −4 2
≈ 1.0 × 10 Ω
𝐴 1.44 × 10 m
2) 𝐴 = 1.2 cm × 15 cm = 1.8 × 10−3 m:
𝐿 −8
0.012 m −7 Ω
𝑅 = 𝜌 = 9.68 × 10 Ωm ≈ 6.5 × 10
𝐴 1.8 × 10−3 m2
14
Ohm's law
Physics I
Ohmic device: e.g. Cu wire
Albrecht Haase
Current through a device directly proportional
to applied potential difference
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𝑉
𝑖= with 𝑅 = constant
𝑅 Non-ohmic device: e.g. Diode
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
• valid for conducting devices with resistance
independent of magnitude and polarity of
potential difference
• valid for conducting materials with resistivity
independent of magnitude and direction of
applied electric field 15
Microscopic view: Drift velocity
Physics I
• electron of mass 𝑚 placed in electric field 𝐸 will experience an acceleration
Albrecht Haase
given by Newton’s 2nd law:
𝐹 𝑒𝐸
𝑎= =
𝑚 𝑚
• assuming freely moving electrons e.g. in metals
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• electrons stopped by collisions, then reaccelerate
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
• steady drift in direction -𝑬
m6
typical electron velocity 𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑓 = ~10
s grey without, green with 𝐸 field
−6
m
typical drift speed 𝑣𝑑 = ~10
s 16
Microscopic view: Mean free time
Physics I
• mean free time 𝜏: average time between collisions
Albrecht Haase
Expressing resistivity by mean free time
𝑒𝐸𝜏
• average drift speed acquired between 2 collisions: 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑎𝜏 =
𝑚
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𝐽 𝑒𝐸𝜏 𝑚
• using 𝐽Ԧ = 𝑛𝑒 𝑣Ԧ𝑑 𝑣𝑑 = = →𝐸= 2 𝐽
𝑛𝑒 𝑚 𝑒 𝑛𝜏
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
• comparing with 𝐸 = 𝜌𝐽Ԧ 𝑚
𝜌= 2
𝑒 𝑛𝜏
• relation between resistivity and electron density
• independent of 𝑬
17
Example: Mean free time and distance
Physics I
Mean free time between collisions for the conduction electrons in copper?
Albrecht Haase
𝑛𝐶𝑢 = 8.49 × 1028 m−3 , 𝜌𝐶𝑢 = 1.69 × 10−8 Ωm
𝑚 𝑚
𝜌= 2 →𝜏= 2
𝑒 𝑛𝜏 𝑒 𝑛𝜌
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9.1 × 10−31 kg −14
= −19 2 28 −3 −8
≈ 2.5 × 10 s
1.6 × 10 C 8.49 × 10 m 1.69 × 10 Ωm
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
Mean free path 𝜆: distance travelled between collisions
(assuming constant speed)
𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 1.6 × 106 m/s:
𝜆 = 𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜏 = 1.6 × 106 m/s 2.5 × 10−14 s ≈ 4.0 × 10−8 m = 40 nm
• about 150 times distance between nearest-neighbour atoms in copper lattice 18
Power in electric circuits
Physics I
• battery supplies energy to conduction electrons
Albrecht Haase
that form current
• charge 𝑑𝑞 moves through a decrease in potential 𝑽,
electric potential energy decreases by the amount
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𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑞 𝑉 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝑉
• Energy conservation: must be transferred into
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
other forms: thermal energy
• Power is rate of energy transfer: 𝑃 = 𝑑𝑈/𝑑𝑡: 𝑃 = 𝑖 𝑉
JC J
• SI unit: 1 VA = 1 =1 =1W
Cs s
19
Power in electric circuits
Physics I
Rate of energy dissipation due to a resistance
Albrecht Haase
• using 𝑉 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑃 = 𝑖2𝑅
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𝑉2
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
• using 𝑖 = 𝑉/𝑅 𝑃=
𝑅
• describe only transfer of electric potential energy to thermal energy in
device with resistance
20
Example: Rate of energy dissipation in wire
Physics I
Uniform heating wire of Nichrome (a nickel–chromium–iron alloy), 𝑅 = 72 Ω,
Albrecht Haase
length 𝐿. Rate of energy dissipated in each of the following situations?
(1) 𝑉 = 120 V applied across the full length of the wire
(2) wire cut to half length, 𝑉 = 120 V applied across each half
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𝑉2 120 V 2
1) 𝑃= = = 200 W
𝑅 72 Ω
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
2
𝐿 𝐿/2 𝑅 𝑉
2) 𝑅 = 𝜌 → 𝑅′ = 𝜌 = → 𝑃′ = 2 = 400 W
𝐴 𝐴 2 𝑅
2 half wires: 𝑃 = 800 W
21
Semiconductors
Physics I
• materials with few conduction electrons but can become conductors when
Albrecht Haase
doped with other atoms that contribute charge carriers
In semiconductors
• increased thermal agitation makes more charge carriers available
Trento 2025
• 𝑛 (number of free electrons) increases very rapidly with temperature
𝑚
• from 𝜌 = 2 follows decrease of resistivity with increasing 𝑇:
𝑒 𝑛𝜏
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
negative temperature coefficient of resistivity e.g. in silicon
22
Superconductors
Physics I
• 1911 Dutch physicist Kamerlingh Onnes discovered
Albrecht Haase
resistivity of mercury disappears at temperatures
below about 4 K
• conduction electrons move in (Cooper) pairs
• one electron distorts molecular structure of
Trento 2025
superconducting material creating nearby short-lived
concentration of positive charge
• the other electron is attracted, avoids collisions,
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
this eliminates electrical resistance
• does not explain newer high-temperature
superconductors (77 K), not fully understood
• technological applications: Magnetic resonance
imaging
23
Summary
Physics I
Current 𝑑𝑞 1
𝑖= Conductivity 𝜎=
Albrecht Haase
𝑑𝑡 𝜌
Current density 𝑖 = න𝐽Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ 𝑉
Ohm's law 𝑖= 𝑅 = constant
𝑅
Trento 2025
Drift speed 𝐽Ԧ = 𝑛𝑒 𝑣Ԧ𝑑
Resistivity- 𝑚
𝜌= 2
𝑉 electron density 𝑒 𝑛𝜏
Electrical resistance 𝑅=
Lecture 26: Current and Resistance
𝑖
𝐸 Electrical power 𝑃=𝑖𝑉
Resistivity 𝜌=
𝐽
𝐿 Dissipation rate in resistor 𝑉2
𝑅=𝜌 𝑃=
𝐴 𝐸 = 𝜌𝐽Ԧ 𝑃 = 𝑖2 𝑅 𝑅 24
