Dramatic Conventions

In drama, the playwright tries to present life as it is lived in the real world. However it is not possible
to present real life on stage so he presents an illusion of reality. He needs certain devices to make
this illusion as realistic as possible and the audience accepts the devices. In Shakespearean plays,
sometimes a character talks to himself and this is called soliloquy. In real life people do not talk to
themselves like that but since the public especially in that age accepted it, it becomes a convention.
Also in the Classical Age the convention was that the dialogue is presented in verse but in the
modern convention in most plays the dialogue is presented in prose. Another good example of
dramatic convention is in play production where the convention is that a room has three walls
instead of the four walls and the action of a play in which the events take place in various places is
presented on a single stage. In the words of Abrams, “conventions are necessary or convenient
devices, widely accepted by the public, for solving problems imposed by a particular artistic medium
in representing reality” (33). There are also conventions in terms of style. Abrams explains further:
“conventions are identifiable elements of subject matter, form, or technique which recur repeatedly
in works of literature. Conventions in this sense may be recurrent types of character, turns of plot,
forms of versification, kinds of diction and style.” It is not compulsory for every work to conform to
preexisting conventions but what matters is how effectively an individual writer makes use of them.

Prologue

This is the introductory part of the play. It could be an opening scene, a speech or an address. In
most cases, it introduces the action and makes a statement on what the audience should expect in
the play. In many plays the prologue foreshadows the events in the play and sometimes gives a
background to the play as can be seen in the example below taken from Christopher Marlowe’s Dr.
Faustus.

3.3 Epilogue

This is the direct opposite of the prologue. It is presented at the end of the play. It sums up the
action of the play and in some cases, makes a statement (an advice or a lesson to be learnt) on the
action or events presented in the play. In Christopher Marlowe’s Dr. Faustus, the chorus comments
on the fall of Dr. Faustus and cautions those who “practice more than heavenly power permits.”

Interlude

An interlude in a play is a short piece of entertainment that is presented between the acts or major
scenes in a play. It is believed that the term came into drama during the Renaissance Period to
describe the dramatic form of early Tudor Period. It was then referred to as Tudor Interlude. Queen
Elizabeth loved entertainment, funfair and ceremonies so much that she was accompanied by
extravagant display of affluence each time she made public appearance. These displays included
some dramatic shows among which the interlude was most popular. It was a short dramatic
presentation or a play performed indoors before a small audience. Most of the Mboguo in one of
our texts for this course –The Marriage of Anansewa, is an example of interlude.
Soliloquy

Soliloquy is a speech made by a character when he is alone. The audience hears it but the other
characters are not expected to hear it. It is very common in Renaissance plays. Shakespeare in
particular made use of soliloquies in his play a lot. Playwrights use this device to reveal the thoughts
or the feelings of specific characters in reaction to certain events or situations. “Customarily, the
soliloquy is a means of giving expression to a complex state of mind and feeling, and in most cases
the speaker is seen struggling with problems of utmost consequence. This accounts for the intensity
we find in soliloquys” (Scholes and Klaus 29). Here, the character thinks aloud as he talks to himself.
He pretends that the audience is not there. Soliloquy also offers the dramatist a means of providing
a point of view on the action of the play. Apart from serving as a means for revealing characters, it is
used to make significant commentaries on events of the play.

Aside

Aside is a dramatic convention in which a character speaks to himself or makes a comment in the
presence of another character. However, that other character is not expected to hear the comment
but the audience hears it. There is an actual stepping aside of the character who utters an aside from
the other characters on the stage. This makes it more unrealistic because it is not possible for him to
make the remark in their presence and they will not hear it. An aside is a very brief remark and in
most cases it is indicated in the stage direction.

Dramatic Illusion

Drama thrives on illusion because what is presented is not reality but an illusion of reality. Whenever
you are watching any dramatic presentation, you know very well that they are ‘pretending’ to be
what they are not yet you empathize with the characters. Dramatic illusion involves a willing
suspension of disbelief. If the play Hamlet is presented on stage or if you buy the film, as you watch
the graveyard scene, Ophelia’s burial, for instance, you would see the actress being ‘buried’. In
reality, the actress’ name may not be Ophelia; she has not died; the grave is not a real grave; and the
grave diggers may be wealthy professionals but you enjoy the play without bothering about whether
they are real or not. In other words, you pretend that what you are watching is real.

The Fourth Wall

The fourth wall refers to the fourth wall of the room that is pulled down for the audience to watch
the play. In reality, a room has four walls so if a play, especially events of the play stage
performances, is to be presented with the four walls intact nobody can see the action. That is why a
good playwright should always have the stage in mind when he is writing his play. The removal of
the fourth wall helps to enhance the illusion of reality in drama.

3.9 Chorus /Narrator

The use of chorus is a dramatic convention that was adopted by playwrights, especially in the
Classical Age, to comment on the events of the play. In any play that has a chorus/narrator, the
playwright uses it to supply the information that could not be woven into the dialogue. In many
cases it serves as the authorial voice.
The chorus is not usually part of the main cast so does not participate actively in the action of the
play. In most cases they stand or sit by the side of the stage and make their comments at the
appropriate time. Some playwrights use the chorus to comment on the events of the play. In
Oedipus Rex, the chorus is made up of the elders of Thebes.

The narrator performs the same function as the chorus. The difference is that usually the chorus is
made up of two or more characters while the narrator is only one character. Each playwright uses
the chorus or the narrator to suit his purpose.

Structure

The dramatic structure, especially in written a play, is a dramatic convention on the organization of
the play. Most classical plays are presented in acts and scenes. The plays are divided in this way for
easy presentation and understanding. In a stage performance, a curtain is drawn to signify the end
of each scene or act. In the modern stage, and in night productions, light is used to demarcate
them. Each scene represents a particular setting. This is to give the actors time to change their
costumes. It also gives the stage directors time to change the setting or scene for the next part of the
action. During this interval, music or interludes could be used to fill the gap.

The Three Unities

Classical plays are expected to treat one serious action but later in the sixteenth centuries, dramatic
critics in Italy and France added to Aristotle’s recommendation of unity of action, two other unites to
constitute the rules of drama known as “the three unites.” It became a dramatic convention then.
They contended that for the dramatist to achieve an illusion of reality, the action presented in a play
should “approximate” the actual conditions of life being represented in the play. They imposed the
“unity of place” (that the action be limited to a single location) and the “unity of time” (that the time
represented should be limited to the two or three hours it takes to act the play, or at most to a
single day of either twelve or twenty-four hours). Their decision may have been influenced by
Shakespearean platys that involved frequent changes of setting and the passage of many years. In
the modern period it is no longer a convention but a playwright might still wish to adhere to it.

The three unities are the unities of time place and action. It means the principles of dramatic
structure that involves action, time and place. The principle of the unity of action entails that the
action of the play should contain one subject. There is no room for sub - themes or sub- plots. The
unity of place requires that the action of the play must take place in one location. The unity of time
insists that the play should not last for more than one day.

We have to emphasize here that you are not expected to find all the devices in one play. A
playwright decides what to use and how to use them.

It is difficult to find all the conventions in one play. As a matter of fact, modern playwrights have
jettisoned soliloquy and aside. They argue that since drama presents life as it is lived, people do not
talk to themselves. It makes drama artificial and unrealistic.

Meaning of Dramatic Genre

Etymologically, the term genre is taken from the French language and it means type, kind, or form.
In simple terms dramatic genre means type or kind of dramatic composition. Drama is grouped into
distinct types, kinds or categories because there are qualities that are common to all dramatic
compositions. There are also qualities that make each composition unique. It is these similarities and
differences that determine each genre.

The dramatic genres include tragedy, comedy, tragi-comedy, melodrama, drame, mime, etc.

Tragedy

We are familiar with the words 'tragedy' and tragic as they are associated with misfortune. Usually,
they are used to describe personal misfortunes that do not concern the rest of the society. For
example, the breakdown of a marriage or death of a dear one in an accident or even natural causes
could be described as tragic. Also, some public events that are unpleasant like the assassination of a
head of state or a political leader, natural or human disasters like earthquakes, flood disasters, plane
crashes and other such disasters are referred to as tragedies. In this unit we are not concerned with
these tragedies or tragic' events in our daily lives but as they relate to dramatic compositions.

Tragedy according to the Oxford English Dictionary is “a play of a serious or solemn kind ... a very sad
event, action or experience.” The last part of the definition explains why the word is used to describe
misfortunes, natural and human disasters in everyday life. However, we will be concerned with the
aspect of the definition that sees tragedy as a play of a serious or a solemn kind.

Tragedy in drama is believed to have originated from the Greek worship of Dionysius, the god of
wine and fertility. During the festival, the dithyramb, a choral lyric in honour of the god is sang and
danced around the altar by fifty men dressed in goat-skin (goat was the sacred animal of the god).
This is perhaps from where tragedy got its name because in Greek, “tragoedia” meant goat song.
During this song, a story about the god was improvised by the choral leader but later Thespis stood
out and instead of singing in honour of Dionysius, sang as Dionysius. However, the song continued
but a minimal part of it was acted by one actor. As time went on, the spoken part was increased and
Aeschylus added a second actor while Sophocles added a third actor. As time went on, the number
of chorus decreased gradually as more actors increased. Thus tragedy was born. The scope of the
plays increased as they started including myths concerning other gods. The plays became so popular
that by 534 BC, the state gave official recognition to tragedy and instituted a prize for the best
tragedy presented at the annual Dionysian festival.

Tragedy is the most esteemed of all the dramatic genres. It has attracted many definitions and rules,
from the days of Aristotle, who is the first person to write on the circumstances of and what tragedy
should be, to the present day. According to him in his “Poetics”:

Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of a certain magnitude; in language
embellished with each kind of artistic ornaments, the several kinds being found in separate parts of
the play; in the form of action not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting a proper purgation of
these emotions.

Aristotle explains all the aspects of this definition and moves further to give the elements of tragedy
as plot, character, thought, diction, music and spectacle. Try to read Aristotle’s “Poetics”. These
principles have continued to influence the definition till date. However, some dramatic scholars
agree with him while some others disagree with him.

In drama, tragedy is a serious play that deals with the misfortunes of man. It presents a man (tragic
hero) who is not too virtuous or too vicious but one who aspires for higher ideals. He tries to
improve himself and the world around him. In the course of this, he makes a mistake, or commits an
error of judgment. This leads to his fall. Traditionally, in classical tragedies, the hero must be of noble
birth, suffer and is overwhelmed in the end. Tragedy presents injustice, evil, pain, misfortunes,
paradoxes and mysterious aspects of human existence.

Greek tragedy has a set pattern or structure. It starts with the prologue which introduces the play
with the episodes of the play and the choral songs in between and finally the exodus. The play
contains a “single integral plot” which is presented in a very short period with one setting. The action
could be simple or complex and contains a reversal of fortune or discovery or both. They are very
short plays and many of them were presented in trilogies. The tragic hero is drawn from princes and
kings. He is a man who is not pre-eminently good, virtuous or vicious but who commits an error of
judgment. Oedipus Rex is a good example of classical tragedy. It has a single plot, the story of how
Oedipus killed his father and married his mother. The setting is just in front of the palace. Oedipus,
the tragic hero is a king who by the end of the play, discovers the truth about himself, his fortune
reverses from good to bad. His catastrophe is caused by his tragic flaw which is arrogance.

The plays were based on myth and legends drawn mainly from the legends of the house of Atreus
and the events of the Trojan wars. They were presented as a part of a great festival and the state
was involved. Music, songs and dances were important elements of the plays. To maintain a single
setting, indoor actions and violence were reported on stage. As part of a religious festival, the plays
were used to show how vices like arrogance and pride lead men to destruction. The gods also play
important roles in Greek tragedy. However, the dramatists differ in their attitudes to the gods as
characters in their plays.

Many critics argue that there are no tragedies in the modern period. The argument is based on the
fact that many playwrights do not adhere to the Aristotelian principles of tragedy especially as
regards the treatment of the subject matter, tragic hero and the language.

Modern playwrights feel that they should not be restricted by any rules. According to them, drama
reflects the society, so they should reflect their society in the works. In the modern society, little or
no attention is paid to kings, princes and their exploits so a poor man who is hard working can rise to
esteem. The society also encourages him to rise. He also has the capacity to fall into misfortune
through an error of judgment and according to Arthur Miller, since kings and monarchs are no longer
available, tragedy should be based “... on the heart and spirit of the average man” (Dukore: 897).
Contemporary issues and human beings should, therefore, be treated in tragedy.

The important factor is that the tragic hero pursues a particular goal he believes in relentlessly to its
logical conclusion even if he loses his life in the pursuit. Tragedy attempts, therefore, to ask some
basic questions about human existence like, is there justice in the world?
Comedy

We use the words 'comedy' and comic to describe something that is funny in our everyday lives.
These include a joke, or a fantastic story that is full of nonsense, or an absurd appearance that
makes us giggle, smile or laugh. Comedy is not inherent in things or people but the way
things/people are perceived. Comedy is a deliberate presentation of events/experiences drawn from
real life but not the same with real life. We should therefore not expect dramatic comedy to be the
same as real life.

Generally, the plays have good endings or resolutions, so when a play ends happily, we refer to it as
comedy. In most comedies, the principal characters begin in a state of opposition either to one
another or to their world or both. By the end of the play, their opposition is replaced by harmony.
Aristotle in his “Poetics” insisted that in tragedy men are shown “better than they are”, while in
comedy “worse than they are”. For him it is an artistic imitation of men of inferior moral bent, not in
every way but only in so far as their shortcomings are ludicrous. These short comings cause no pain.

In the classical period there was no mixture of genres Horace maintains that tragic characters must
be noble while comic characters are ignoble and of lower birth and foolish. Moliere believed that his
audience could learn from the dramatization of ridiculous and universal types. Comedy therefore
teaches through laughter. Philip Sidney, in “Arts Poetica”, sees it as an imitation of common errors
of life which is presented in the most ridiculous and scornful manner so that the spectator is anxious
to avoid such errors himself. It should aim at being delightful though not necessarily by provoking
laughter. Ben Jonson also believes that laughter does not really help to achieve the aims of comedy
but may subvert those aims. He draws his theme from human errors and follies. He insists that the
playwright should attempt to improve moral life and arouse gentle affections. John Dryden insists
that comedy should portray the eccentricity of character while Northrop Frye says that lightness of
touch is the hallmark of comedy.

We recognize comedy through its style, characterization, diction and other elements of style. The
purpose of comedy is to delight, to teach and to entertain the audience through the presentation of
characters, situations and ideas in a ridiculous manner. This helps to keep man close to sanity,
balance and to remind him of human frailties. It helps to keep him humble and mindful of what he is
rather than what he might wish himself to be.

Modern scholars believe that the purpose of comedy is to correct vices therefore should not exclude
any class. Satire is an important instrument in comedy because nothing reforms majority of men like
the portrayal of their faults. It is easy for people to endure being made fun of. Many people may
have no objection to being considered wicked but are not willing to be considered ridiculous. The
audience is thus expected to learn from the stupidity of the characters and try to avoid such pitfalls
because nobody likes to be made an object of ridicule.

Generally speaking, comedy adopts a different approach from that of serious drama. It presents the
incongruity in people and situations. In doing this, the playwright suspends the natural laws; for
instance, a man falls flat on the floor but does not really hurt himself. Comedy is usually presented
as a moral satire used to attack vices like greed, hypocrisy, lust, laziness, or ignorance. The aim is to
correct social ills, social injustice or to ridicule a particular human fault or social imbalance. It thrives
on exaggeration of situation and character to show mankind worse than it really is.
Since drama is a conscious and deliberate presentation of events/experience based mostly on real
life but not the same with real life, one should, therefore, not expect comedy to be the same with
real life. We recognize comedy, through its style, characterization and dialogue. In both real life and
drama, comedy should indicate a kind of pleasure which finds physical expression in laughter or
smile.

Melodrama

The word melodrama is coined from melo (music) and dran (drama). It is, therefore, a play that
utilizes music extensively. But the utilization of music is not the only factor in melodrama, what
really makes it melodrama is its portrayal of the protagonist and the antagonist. The protagonist
suffers a lot but triumphs in the end while the antagonist suffers. So, melodrama can be defined as a
play that has serious action caused by a villain and a destruction of the villain which brings about a
happy resolution in the play. The hero is usually involved in very dangerous circumstances but is
rescued or he disentangles himself at the last possible moment. The rescuer is usually a benevolent
character who identifies himself with the good role of the protagonist. An ideal melodrama,
therefore, must have a protagonist and an antagonist. The protagonist always fights the antagonist
who is usually poised to destroy goodness. In the end, the characters are easily identified by the
audience. The protagonist is admired and the antagonist is hated.

It is this identification by the audience that provides the grounds for poetic justice because the
antagonist loses in the end. This explains why some critics insist that melodrama is an honest
dramatic form. According to them, it is the only form of drama that expresses the truth of human
condition as they are perceived most of the time. This is a condition where vice is condemned and
virtue applauded or where the bad man is punished and the good man rewarded.

Like tragedy, melodrama deals with characters in critical situations. The main difference is in the
point of view. Outwardly, it tries to create the illusion of real people at genuine risk or in jeopardy
but the playwright manipulates the play in such a way that it ends with a reprieve or a rescue, a
reform or a triumph for the protagonist. There is always an escape from danger in the plot line. In
melodrama, there is always serious excitement, suspense and thrills for the audience. The plot is
built on tension and great excitement but this is transitory and lends no substantial significance to
the action of the play.

The plot therefore contains stories with colourful but brave characters. It creates opportunities for
strong sensational scenes, powerful emotions, and strong characters that struggle against deadly
odds. Sometimes they are trapped in precarious situations but they must hold on until there is help
ultimately.

The melodramatic hero is usually a one-dimensional figure who pursues a goal in a straightforward
manner. The opposition comes from the world around him. He does not always think well before
taking an action. Consequently, he gets involved in entanglements or dangerous situations which a
more rational person might avoid. The characters are usually simple in mind and heart and are
conditioned or influenced by their backgrounds and environment. Melodrama contains most of the
serious conflicts and crises of daily life. In melodrama, we are resigned as we realize that our failures
are not our fault but caused by others and our victories are as a result of help from other people. It is
a serious play because most of the time, they rely on strong story lines but lacks the essential
magnitude in character and the action is usually over exaggerated.

Characteristics of Melodrama

1. It looks at human beings as a whole. People are expected to interact and help one another in the
society. This explains why the protagonist is usually assisted or aided by someone for him to triumph
or succeed.

2. It sees human beings as encountering and enduring outer conflicts and not inner ones in a
generally hostile and wicked world.

3. These human conflicts end in victory. Melodramatic characters either win or lose. However, in
the spirit of poetic justice, the protagonist usually wins despite the difficulties he encounters in the
course of the action to show that good triumphs over evil.

4. There is an over simplification of human experiences which are usually exaggerated in such a way
that the main thesis of the play is made transparent. 5 It treats a serious subject matter in a serious
manner, though exaggerated.

Comparison between Melodrama and Tragedy

1. In tragedy, the tragic hero commits an error of judgment which leads to his downfall. In
melodrama, the hero faces overwhelming problems but despite his sufferings, he triumphs in the
end.

2. Melodrama is usually episodic and contains elements of charm or magic. It, therefore, lacks the
honesty of tragedy.

3. While tragedy evokes fear and pity, melodrama arouses suspense, pathos, terror and sometimes
hatred. In tragedy, there is genuine pity and fear as the audience empathies with the hero. Pity in
melodrama borders on sentimentality and emotion and when fear is portrayed, it is usually
superficial. Pity and fear in tragedy are honest and lead to catharsis (purgation of emotions).

4. There is recognition for the hero in tragedy but in melodrama, the protagonist wins or triumphs
always.

5. Tragedy confronts good and evil with unblinking honesty, while melodrama escapes from life.
Tragedy considers eternal spiritual problems and ideals but melodrama deals with the transitory
material/physical issues or problems.

6. Tragedy is known as a serious dramatic genre but the seriousness in melodrama is only a pretense
to create theatrical effects for the audience.

Tragi-comedy

You have seen that tragedy is a serious play that ends on a sad note, while comedy ends happily. In
traditional tragedy, playwrights are not allowed to bring in any comic action. If you read Oedipus
Rex, for instance, you will observe that the atmosphere is tense from the beginning to the end. As
time went on, even from the Elizabethan period, comic characters were included in tragic plays. This
is called comic relief. Tragi-comedy is a play that mixes both comic and tragic elements in equal
proportion of each. It therefore elicits both tragic and comic emotions.

Drame

Dame is a term of the modern period given to a category of dramatic literature which deals with
man in common place and contemporary circumstance. The genre is presumed to have evolved from
the French drama. The French regarded it as a play of serious intent dealing with contemporary
issues and lives. Playwright like Ibsen, Chekhov, Osborne and many other modern writers are
considered as the people that made extensive use of this dramatic genre.

In their plays, they contemplate man with his dealings with contemporary issues and relationships in
his society. Drame is noted for its great diversity, technical experimentation and a mixture of general
forms of writing. Sometimes, it is difficult to classify it as either tragedy or comedy. The playwright
here is not concerned with the genre but concerned with the treatment of social issues to uplift his
society. It is a product of modem drama that thrives on innovations and experimentations.

Drame has a relationship with other dramatic genres. It relates to melodrama in the sense that it
involves the spectator in action through the identification of characters. It also makes extensive use
of suspense and tension. However, it differs from melodrama because its interest is on political ideas
and other serious issues and this brings it close to tragedy. It has the capacity for provoking thought
and discussion on the issues raised after the presentation (reading) of the play.

Melodrama has characters that are easily identifiable. Drame also has the same. But the difference
is that characters in melodrama are divided into protagonist and antagonist for easy audience
identification. Drame is close to tragedy with its concern with human conduct and the place of
drama in the modern world. It is also close to tragedy with regards to its honest treatment of issues,
especially with its portrayal of characters with adequate human (realistic) motivation. It is different
from tragedy mainly because of its lack of elevation, narrowness of vision, and, sometimes its lack of
universality in its emphasis on contemporary life.

Farce

Farce which is referred to as comedy of situation, is a humorous play on a trivial theme usually one
that is familiar to the audience. The themes that are treated in farce include mistaken identity,
elaborate misunderstanding, switched costume (men in women’s clothes) heroes forced under
tables, misheard instructions, discoveries, disappearances and many such situations.

Farce is not considered an intellectual drama because it does not appeal to the mind. It deals with
physical situations and does not explore any serious idea. It presents physical activities that grow
out of situations like the presence of something when something is not expected or the absence of
something when something is expected.

Farce does not treat serious social issues. Sometimes it does not tell a full story or present a logical
plot. A good example is somebody walking and slipping on a banana peel and falling in an
exaggerated manner. The main objective is to entertain by evoking laughter.
It presents mainly mechanical actions to show that human life is mechanical, aggressive, and
coincidental.