oo SOFO. Question; when an animat is wounded ‘ts overall blood pressure rises, but the area in the vicinity of the wound swells. Explain the cause and advantage of these changes. NB: ® If the afferent nerves from the aortic and carotid bodies of an intact animal are cut, the animal can still adjust ventilation rate hecause the respiratory centre/ medull itself | chemoreceptors sensitive to changes in carbon dioxide levels in the blood. 4 ” Ventilation rate is also affected by low PH (increased acidity) of blood and low partial Pressures of oxygen in blood, however, a small chan ie in amount of carbon dioxide is MOTE effective than even a large change in the amount of oxygen in bringing about change in breathing rate, % Breathing rate is also under voluntary control as shown by the ability to hold breath, during speech, singing. sneezing, and coughing. In this case impulses originate from the cerebral hemisphere (higher centers) which either inhibit ‘or excite the respiratory centre. » The highest frequency of impulse along the afferent nerves from carotid and aortic bodies is Tecorded when an increase in carbon dioxide level is ‘accompanied by a decrease in oxygen. level Question The graph below shows the effect incressed carbon dioxide and decreased oxygen on ventilation rate of a human. ‘Graph A was obtained by getting the subject to breath in and out of 4 spirometer filled with pure oxygen with a carbon dioxide absorber removed. The au bject was therefore rebreathing his own expired air. Graph B was obtained by leaving leaving the carbon dioxide absorber in place so that the subject was breathing pure oxygen. A Rebreathing Hd expired air 2 2 3 i i B Breathing iio pure oxygen a. Dee eces ae 8 Time (minutes ) Page 17 of 62 =Se en se ee a rr ie ig SOFO , of homeostatic mechnisms can lead to death of the organsism. -{o maintain a constant body temperature, these organisms need to have a high metabolic and an efficient means of controlling heat loss from the body surface. The skin is the organ "in contact with the environment and monitors the temperatures, Structure of the skin ‘The skin is composed of two main layers; the outer surface layer, epidermis and the inner layer, ‘the dermis. These cover the subcutaneous tissue composed of ftt containing cells known as the adipose tissue. “The epidermis comprises three layers; 1, stratum corneum (cornified layer)- This is the surface layer of the skin and comprises flattened, dead cells impregnated with keratin. The stratum corneum forms & tough, resistant, waterproof layer which is constantly replaced as it is worn away, It is thickest where there is greatest wear, i.e. on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. Sweat ducts and hair extend through this layer, 2. Stratum granulosum (granular layer) -This is made up of living cells which have been produced by the Malpighian layer. As they are pushed towards the skin surface by new cells produced beneath, they accumulate the fibrous protein keratin, lose their nuclei and die. 3. The Malpighian layer (germinative layer) The deepest layer made up of actively dividing cells. The pigment melanin, which determines the skin colour, is produced here by cells called melanocytes. Melanin absorbs ultra-violet light and se helps to protect the tissues beneath from its damaging effects. The Malpighian layer has numerous infoldings which extend deep into the dermis, producing sweat glands, sebaceous glands and hair follicles. There are no blood vessels in the epidermis and so the cells of this layer obtain food and oxygen by diffusion and active transport from capillarics in the dermis across a basement membrane which separates it from the dermis, The dermis is largely made up of connective tissue consisting of collagen and elastic fibres. It possesses 1, Blood capillaries. These supply both the epidermis and dermis with food and oxygen. ‘Special networks supply the sweat glands and hair follicles. They play an important role in thermoregulation. 2. Hair follicles. These are infoldings of the Malpighian layer, Cells at the base (papilla) multiply to produce a long cylindrical hair, the cells of which become impregnated with keratin and die. The more melanin in the hair, the darker its colour. Attached to it is. a a sadle of smooth muscle, the hair ereetar muscle contraction of which causes the hair to become erect. 3. Sebaceous glands, Situated ot the side of the hair follicle, these produce an oily secretion called sebum which waterproofs the hair and epidermis. It also keeps the ‘epidermis supple and protects against bacteria and dust. 4, Sweat glands. These are coiled tubes made up of cells which absorb fluid from surrounding capillaries and secrete it into the tube, from where it passes to the skin surface via the sweat duct. Sweat has a variable composition, consisting mainly of water Page 25 of 62EL. -agis NOTES ADVANCED LEW! HoMEOsT. Bye ‘ | eae taneous fat is common in nonchibernating mammals. Aquatic s seemmlsin ial sea lions wolrus:and seal have a thick layer of fy mammals living in eo known as blubber which insulates them against cold. ‘Heat gain i Jn heat from two main sources, e arsenic environment by the following processes a) Conduction b) Convection c) Radiation Bes tabolism . Tees of heat in the body is tissue respiration. The rate at which heal is produced 1s proportions 1 the metabolic rate, which inereases greatly during exercise ‘Temperature regulation in animals “Animals can be divided into two groups based on temperature eontral; 1, Endotherms (Homeotherms/homoiotherms) a Endotherms are organisms which are able to maintain a fairly constant body temperature independently of the environmental temperatures using physiological mechanisms, Fg: birds and mammals. ‘Homeoitherms are relatively independent of the external sources of heat and rely on high metabolic rate to generate heat which mus! be conserved Because they rely on internal sources a ofheat, they are referred to as endothermic. However not all the body of endotherm is kept at constant temperature but only the core consisting of vital organs of the chest and abdomen and the brain. The temperabure near the body surface can vary tremendously depending on the position and extemal temperature Endothorms can remain active over a far wider range of environmental temperatures than ectotherms. Endotherms are free within ceriain limits to migrate long distances and maintain high metabolic rate in all sorts of weather conditions. This allows them to capture and kill ectotherm prey and escape {rom cctotherm predators However maintaining « body temperature different from that of the environment requires a great deal of energy, therefore endotherms require much more food ectotherms of equal size NB: core temperature is the temperature of tissues below the level of 2.Sum beneath the surface of the skin. ‘Advantages of endothermy high metabolic rate results to more activity Fiigh fevel of wctivity ix inatuained ailuwing die auiual io mnigisie Jung distances High activity allows faster escape from predators ‘High activity allows easy capturing and killing of ectothermic prey Can occupy a wide range of haitats Continuosu physiological activity Disadvantages of ectothermy © High food consumption to aminiain constant temperature: Page 2a ofa jard lee a) Describe the relationship between the temperature of the hyputhalamus and the 'ate Sweating. 4) Suggest why the skin temperature rises shortly afier the ingestion of the iced o) Suggest why ihe iced water was not given until 20 minutes after the start af th experiment. d) Explain the effect o/ ingestion of iced water on the temperature of the hypo 3. The amount of insulation between the core and the environment. Insulation is provided by the air trapped outside the skin by hair and by fat in the dermis and ! below the dermis (sub cutaneous fit), Since ait is a poor conductor of heat it reduces heat loss. ‘The thicker the layer of air trapped the {ie the amount of insulation, Contraction of erector pili muscles in response to dlecreesi¢ lemperatures increases the angle between the skin and the hair and so trapping more air Page 23 of 62BO ee ee a ee SOFO_ 1. The rate af blood flow between the core and the skin, Af the flow of blood through the skin is low. the skin ter rare ‘oaches that of the environment whereas if ei ieiced te a blood flow through the skin is increased, the skin te mperature or athes core temperature, The shin us rich in blood vessels and Blood cam flow through it by One Of the two routes: “Through capillary networks inthe dermis [rough shunt pathways deep in the dermis which link arterioles to venules The arterioles have relatively thick muscutar walls which can contract or relax to alter the ameter of the blood vessel and the rate of blaad flow through it. The degree of coniraction is Contalled by sympathetic nerves from the vasomotor centre in the medulla of the hind rain, This \s infurn controlled by nerve impulses received fram the thermoregutatory centre in the hypothalamus, Constriction of arterioles forces blood through the arterioles and the bulk of blood by passes the capillaries preventing heat loss, Dilation of the arterioles encourages Blood flow through: ihe capillaries and not through the shunt vessels. This increases blood flow through the skin and more heat is lost 2. The rate of sweat production and evaporation from the skin. Sweat is seereted from tissue fluid by the acti ty of sweat glands under the control oF sympathetic neurones, From the hypothalamus, ‘When sweating occurs, energy is lost from the body as latent heat of evaporation and this reduces body temperature. The rate of evaporation is reduced by low environmental temperatures, high humidity and lack of wind. Sweating only occurs as a result of rise in core temperature. Lowering core body temperature, by swallowing ice water or cooling carotid blood vessel in the neck with and ice pack while at the same time exposing the skin to heat results into a decrease in the rate of sweating, which in tum increases skin temperature. hs below show the relationship between evaporative heat loss, skin and hypothalamus temperature. Page 22 of 62HOMEOSTASIS NOTES ADVANCED LEVEL, SOFO brain function which controls circulation and respirat ining of , a Hon hence ru the functioning these essential systems, Z nt ¥ Atextreme temperatures, macromolecules may change their state e.g. phospholipids become very fluid at high temperatures and solid at very low temperatures, ‘Heat gain and heat loss Heat loss Inall organisms, heat may be lost in four main ways; 1, Evaporation Heat is last from the body surface during conversion of water to water vapour. The heat lost ts ‘noun as latent heat of vaporization. For example during sweating und panting in animals and tcanspiration in plants. In humans water Joss by evaporation through the skin occurs even when a Person is not sweating. Evaporation of water from the lungs, lining of nasal cavity, mouth and trachea also contribute to heat loss, Many factors affect the rate of evaporation and hence heat loss for example relative humidity of air in contact with the body surface, the air temperature, and the air movements (currents) 2. Conduction Heat passes from a warm abject to a cooler object in direct contact with it by conduction. For exampie from an organism to the ground or air ‘or water in direct contact with iis body. Heat is transferred from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature. The greater the temperature difference between the two objects in contact, the greater the rate of heat loss by conductian, For example a.cool breeze passing over the skin removes heat by conduction to the air, Heat loss by conduction is more: significant for aquatic and soil dwelling organisms than terresirial organisms, Explain? 3. Convection Convection 's mavement of a fluid (air or water) resulting from local pockets of warm fluid (water or air) Being replaced by cooler fluid (air or water) In convection, heat is transferred by fluid molecules moving in.a cusrent. The faster the rate of (fluid movement, the faster the rate of heat transfer ‘The air or water movements speed up heat loss by evaporation and radiation. It may be reduced by insulating materials such as feathers and imirs in animals, clothing in humans. 4, Radiation Radiation is the diffusion of heat from a warm body to a relatively colder objects via air. Heat iy mransferred inform of infrared waves The amount of heat radiated by the body is proportional to the temperature aijerence aeiween the body and its surroundings: The rate of heat ioss in endotherms depends upon the temperature difference between the body core and the skin, and the skin and the environment. The rate can be increased or decreased depending on the rate af heat production and the environmental temperature. There are three factors limiting heat loss. They includes Page 21 of 62changes above occur during a longer mice, one difference however is that the 4s puid on the run, with an equilibrium being established between oxygen supply usage. (Second wind is acquired) c ‘short period involved during a sprint, muscles can function efficiently under anagrobic fitions provided the oxygen debt is paid afterwards, This enables an athlete to hold their reath during a short sprint, in this circumstance, the metaholic and circulatory changes occur but ‘changes in breathing are temporarily suspended until after the race. term effects of exercise/ advantages of regular exercise _ Respiratory muscles become stronger Blood supply to the lungs increases Ability of blood to take up oxygen from the alveoli increases Total amount of red blood cells increases (The heart / heart chambers becomes enlarged (athletes heart) ‘Concentration of respiratory enzymes in cells increases ‘Number and size of mitochondria in cells increases ed athlete has « greater cardiac output although the heart rate is normally less than that of inirained person. This is because of increased stroke volume caused by increased amount of heart and size of heart chambers as a result of regular exerc’ TURE REGULATION) THERMOREGULATION tion is regulation of body temperature isms inhabit environments whose temperatures range from 900C in the hot springs to - OC in the arctic. Most organisms however live in a narrow range of temperatures of 10 to To survive therefore, most organisms need to-exert some control over their internal body I Various organisms however show adaptations tnat enable them occupy hulbiuais wile remes of temperatures. , eeessity for thermoregulation/significance of temperature regulation ’ ‘To provide optimum temperature for action of enzymes since enzyme catalysed reactions ‘work efficiently only within a limited temperature range. Enzymes are proteins, thereiore Fite in temperatures above optimum denature the protein, amd enzyme activity ceases. | ‘Abnormally low temperature on the other hand slows metabolic reactions. hese impairs the4) a) by c) 4) 2) 8) by x to ida Walleag ined fab aad cycle 8 HOMEOS’’’ §OFO e in the lungs 85 # result of improved capillary network in the lunge and deeper brett shifts othe right fo Sic release. However, is living permanently at high altitudes af above 3500m possess haemoglobin with ‘which readily loads with oxygen in the lungs.in this case, the ion curve is shifted to the left. oxygen 7m : in muscles to facilitate oxyBen exchange of oxygen from bioo: to tissues due to its high affinity for oxygen. Troe pt rises dew increase renoval of cron carbonate ions by the kidney t0 control blood pH. during exercise. ‘Before and during the early stages of the sprint, the sympathetic nervous sys ‘and adrenaline is secreted into bloodstream. ‘Triggered by impulses received sexcorl cortex in anticipation ofthe race tcauses an increase cardiac output, and constriction of arterioles except for those supplying vital organs so that blood under ‘diverted to the active muscles. Anticipation of the exercise also brings about a increase in the ventilation rate During the sprint, metabolic rate increases due to shortage of ATP resulting from m exertion. a of ATP relative to ADP activates the enzyme which initiates further breakdown of glucose. Increased metabolic rate Jeads to accumulation of carbon dioxide in the muscle tissue causing local vasodilation of arterioles. This leads to increased blood flow through th “ve! ee makes the muscles mote sensitive to carbon ide Rapid movement of the limbs stimulates stretch receptors i A es celpeearinaiae tie coos tee faa grrr centre Ie n in vent at Fluctuations of carbon dioxide in the blood is monitored by the z = carotid, aortic bodics and medulla, which lead to appropriate adjustment During the race muscles start to respi i i ‘ keep up with te eis ee oxygen supply tc Krebs cycle or ci ee pat tic jis oxidized after th Like savbou inetd, ics ponverted back to glycogen ke pee! ea ee vasodilation of arterioles and. stimulates and respiratory = ee ae ‘accentuating the cardiovascule During the exercise dilation of veins in the museles in hehe geek tntesesen| increases venous reium of blood to (be Also during the exercise, vasoconstriction fiver, kidneys and spleen which are in i a cai in tissues such as th muscles to supply oxygen and a increases blood supply ™ i carbon dioxide and heat. dioxide, leading to exeretion of hydre NB: buffering of lactic acid in blood stHOMEOSTASIS NOTES ADVANCED LEVEL. Soro ®) Describe the the effect of breathing in pure oxygen on the ventilation rate. (O2marks) by ee relationship between ventilation rate and breathing re breathing expired air imark) ©) Suggest with reasons, what would happen to ventilation rate if the afferent nerve from the carotid and aortic bodies of the human were cut at 1 second. (O4mark) es ‘of Nuetuation im oxygen and carbon dioxide «ficiency of oxygen (hypoxia) deprives tissues of a vital metabolic requirement. Special senses, Particularly vision is impaired, as is the brain. This can cause unconsciousness, damage of nerves hence paralysis and death On the other hand, breathing in pure oxygen at atmospheric pressure presents no problems. Breathing in pure oxygen at pressures greater than atmospheric e.g. in diving is very dangerous because excess oxygen inhibits certain enzymes in the krebs cycle, thus interfering with respiration. This causes muscular twitching, followed by nausea, dizziness, impaired hearing and vision, breathing difficulty, confusion, lack of coordination, convulsion and death, When carbon dioxide accumulates in the body, it dissolves in blood and tissue fluid 10 forma weak acid which can start to denature enzymes and other proteins, inhibiting enzymes and stopping essential metabolic process¢s such as respiration. Response to total oxygen deprivation In most species, Oxygen deprivation result into death within minutes. In diving animals such as seals and whales, after diving: & the cardine frequency decrease rapidly(bradycardia) % The arterioles of all body organs except vital body organs such as the the heart and brain constrict, > — Vherefore oxygen store from haemoglobin and myoglobin being sent to those orguns which are least able to endure oxygen deprivation e.g. the heart and the brain. NB; 2 diving human will develop bradycardia within 30s after diving, in fishes, it occurs when they are taken out of water. Adjustments / acclimatization to high altitude ‘At high altitude the atmospheric pressure and hence the partial pressures of oxygen are considerably lower than at sea level. A moumuinccr win axveinds a uot acclimatize to the low oxygen levels. Adjustments occur in the respiratory and circulatory systems. They include; 1») ‘The total number of red blood cells increase to inerease bloods oxygen carrying capacity b) The haemoglobin content of the body increase to increase oxygen carrying capacity of blood ¢) The ventilation rate increase to efficiently supply oxygen and climinate carbon dioxide 4) ‘The cardiac output also increase te increase oxygen supply and carbon dioxide elimination. < Soe aenroe potiod of days page 1B of 62HOMEOSTASIS NOTES ADVANCED LEVEL: SOFO HOMEOSTASIS Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment. Internal environment is the immediate surrounding of cells, fluid which provides an environment in which cells live. (in multicellular Importance of constant internal environment, ‘% Organisms can survive in/ occupy a wide range of habitats with diff environmental conditions. % Organisms become independent af their external environment. i¢. changes environment do not affect biochemical reactions of organisms. 7 ‘% Biochemical reactions proceed efficiently without interference from the cnvironment. NB: Biochemical processes are enzyme controlled. Enzymes function best und narrow range of conditions. Changes in temperature, pH and other factors hay effects on enzyme structure and function, Factors which must be kept constant in the body's internal environment % Temperature % Glucose level > PH 2 Water & Ions /salts Respiratory gases % Osmotic pressure of body fluids, ‘Components of a control system 1. Norm/ reference point/set point! standard, Us the optinnum /sei tevel of the variable being controled. Or the no values for the controlled variable. E.g. set point for ody temperature oft ts 35°C to 49°C, normal blood glucose level for humans iy 90mg/1 Oden This is usually genetically determined 2. Detector/ receptor/sensor As any structure that detects/senses and signals the extent of any a €& Sensory receptors ¢ 2 thermoreceptor, chemoreceptor, hare mechanoreceptor etc 3. Controlter /integrator 4s a structure which coordinates the sensory information from 2 sends out instructions to effectars which will correct the deviation ee gt nervous system (brain and spinal cord) or ‘&: the: Page 1 of 62STASIS NOTES ADVANCED LEV SOFO: Asn ructure that is Capable of initiating the appropriate corrective measures 4 Effector Iva sh ‘ : ructure which brings about the necessary changes needed fo return the system to el norm. o 5. Feedback ‘op that carries out the corrective measures. eg. Glands, muscles. Infor "Yorms the detector af any charge in the sytem dx @pentVaf action ¥iibe effete Negative feedback Homensiatic « Meostatic systems are based on negative feedback. Negative feedback refers to « mechsnisn fn 9sfeh/e Glsaitaaeae system sets in motion a Sssluence of events that tend to restore the system to its original state, Le: action by effectors hpose: reduce the change in the intemal fitetor. ¢.g. in case of an increase in temperature of internal environment, action by effectors cause a decrease in temperature back to the norm. Examples of Biological negative feedback mechanisms % Control of oxygen and earbon dioxide levels in blood, Control of metabolite levels e.g, blood glucase level % Control of body temperature ° © o Regulation of pH Control of water balance Control of heart rate > trol of blood pressure > Control of hormone levels e.g. thyroxine, sex hormones levels. > Kegulation of animal and plant population in natural habitats aintaining constancy of species over long periods of time on (FA 205) NH: Positive feedback is a situation in which a disturbance leads to ta which fs én disturbance even further. bai increase \techanism in which « small change in a variable cause further change in the same direction. positive feedback is rare in biological systems since it leads to unstable situation and extreme state - fF ansitive fredhack mechanisms, ® Propagation of nerve impulses. Depolarization of membrane of neuron caisés increase in ceomeability to sodium ions. As sodium ions pass into the axon eae thew cause further depolarization ofthe membrane which leads oe renee entering «During labor, Hionmone oxytocin stimulates muscular contractions ofthe merus hich in tum stimulates the release of more oxytocin, neat ape Zot 62MEOSTASIS NOTES ADVANCED LEVEL. Ee SOFO 4 Beyond the higher lethal temperature, increase metabolic rate generates more heat which further rises the metabolic rate. ; Inaculture ‘medium containing yeast and paramecium, when paramecium js suddenly removed, the population of yeast would rise exponentially Efficient homeostatic system norm hynny ‘(set paint) time Repeated regular fluctuations with smail/ narrow deviations from the norm; because of the sysiem is efficient and quick in detecting; and responding to the deviation; NR: characteristics of an efficient control system. & Allow very litile change from the norm. @ Restores the norm rapidly afler change. Inefficient homeostatic system norm —* = Repeated regular fluctuations with wide / big/great deviations from the norm; because of th: system is inefficient and stow in detecting: and responding to the deviation; HMlustration (FA 203) Negative feedback im thyroxine release by thyroid gland. Mustration (Bs 649) Omection + i duestion : the diagrams show feedback mechanisms A and B. A Page 3 of 62