CHAPTER 2

PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS

Mathematics is the language of physics. It becomes length. Figure (2.1) shows representations of several
easier to describe, understand and apply the physical velocities in this scheme. The front end (carrying the
principles, if one has a good knowledge of mathematics. arrow) is called the head and the rear end is called
In the present course we shall constantly be using the the tail.
techniques of algebra, trigonometry and geometry as Further, if a particle is given two velocities
well as vector algebra, differential calculus and simultaneously its resultant velocity is different from
integral calculus. In this chapter we shall discuss the the two velocities and is obtained by using a special
latter three topics. Errors in measurement and the rule. Suppose a small ball is moving inside a long tube
concept of significant digits are also introduced. at a speed 3 m/s and the tube itself is moving in the
room at a speed 4 m/s along a direction perpendicular
2.1 VECTORS AND SCALARS to its length. In which direction and how fast is the
ball moving as seen from the room ?
Certain physical quantities are completely
described by a numerical value alone (with units
specified) and are added according to the ordinary
rules of algebra. As an example the mass of a system t=1s
is described by saying that it is 5 kg. If two bodies one
having a mass of 5 kg and other having a mass of 2 kg
are added together to make a composite system, the
total mass of the system becomes 5 kg + 2 kg = 7 kg. t=o
Such quantities are called scalars.
The complete description of certain physical
quantities requires a numerical value (with units Figure 2.2
specified) as well as a direction in space. Velocity of a
particle is an example of this kind. The magnitude of
velocity is represented by a number such as 5 m/s and Figure (2.2) shows the positions of the tube and
tells us how fast a particle is moving. But the the ball at t = 0 and t = 1 s. Simple geometry shows
description of velocity becomes complete only when the that the ball has moved 5 m in a direction 0 = 53° from
direction of velocity is also specified. We can represent the tube. So the resultant velocity of the ball is 5 m/s
this velocity by drawing a line parallel to the velocity along this direction. The general rule for finding the
and putting an arrow showing the direction of velocity. resultant of two velocities may be stated as follows.
We can decide beforehand a particular length to Draw a line AB representing the first velocity with
represent 1 m/s and the length of the line representing B as the head. Draw another line BC representing the
a velocity of 5 m/s may be taken as 5 times this unit second velocity with its tail B coinciding with the head
3 ms 1
of the first line. The line AC with A as the tail and C
as the head represents the resultant velocity.
Figure (2.3) shows the construction.
1 ms-1
ms-1 The resultant is also called the sum of the two
2.5 ms-1 velocities. We have added the two velocities AB and
BC and have obtained the sum AC. This rule of
Figure 2.1 addition is called the "triangle rule of addition".
 Physics and Mathematics 13

we complete the parallelogram. The diagonal through

Resultant the common tails gives the sum of the two vectors.
velocity/ Second —>
velocity Thus, in figure, (2.4b) AB + AC = AD .
A —>
First velocity Suppose the magnitude of a = a and that of r; = b.
Figure 2.3 What is the magnitude of a—›+ FI and what is its
direction ? Suppose the angle between a and b is 9. It
The physical quantities which have magnitude and is easy to see from figure (2.5) that
direction and which can be added according to the
triangle rule, are called vector quantities. Other
examples of vector quantities are force, linear
momentum, electric field, magnetic field etc.
The vectors are denoted by putting an arrow over
—>
the symbols representing them. Thus, we write AB , Figure 2.5
-->
BC etc. Sometimes a vector is represented by a single
letter such as v, F etc. Quite often in printed books AD 2 =(AB + BE) 2 ±(DE) 2
the vectors are represented by bold face letters like = (a + b cos()) 2 (bsine) 2
AB, BC, v, f etc.
2 2
If a physical quantity has magnitude as well as = a + 2ab cos() + b
direction but does not add up according to the triangle
rule, it will not be called a vector quantity. Electric Thus, the magnitude of a + b is
current in a wire has both magnitude and direction
"\la 2 b2 2ab cos0 . ... (2.1)
but there is no meaning of triangle rule there. Thus,
electric current is not a vector quantity. Its angle with a is a where
2.2 EQUALITY OF VECTORS DE b sine
tang_ _ ... (2.2)
AE a + b co'
Two vectors (representing two values of the same
physical quantity) are called equal if their magnitudes
and directions are same. Thus, a parallel translation Example 2.1
of a vector does not bring about any change in it.
Two vectors having equal magnitudes A make an angle
2.3 ADDITION OF VECTORS 0 with each other. Find the magnitude and direction of
The triangle rule of vector addition is already the resultant.
described above. If a and b are the two vectors to be Solution : The magnitude of the resultant will be
added, a diagram is drawn in which the tail of r; B ='\IA 2 +A 2 2AA cos0
coincides with the head of a. The vector joining the
tail of a with the head of b is the vector sum of a and = "\I2A 2(1 + cos0) = ~4A 2cos 2
&>. Figure (2.4a) shows the construction. The same rule
0
= 2A cos — •
2
The resultant will make an angle a with the first vector
where
0 0
2A sin-cos-
A sine 2 2 0
tang — — — tan2
A +A cos' 2
2A cos 12
2
Figure 2.4
0
or,
may be stated in a slightly different way. We draw the ——
2
vectors a and b with both the tails coinciding Thus, the resultant of two equal vectors bisects the angle
(figure 2.4b). Taking these two as the adjacent sides between them.
14 Concepts of Physics

2.4 MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A NUMBER B> is the sum of A* and (- B ). As shown in the
(b) :=1> - .-
->
Suppose a is a vector of magnitude a and k is a figure, the angle between A and (-B ) is 120°. The
number. We define the vector b = k a as a vector of magnitudes of both A and (-B) is 5 unit. So,
magnitude I leak If k is positive the direction of 1:4-T41=A/5 2 +5 2 +2 x 5 x 5 coslar
-> ->
the vector b = k a is same as that of a. If k is negative,
-> -> = 2 x 5 cos60° = 5 unit.
the direction of b is opposite to a. In particular,
multiplication by (-1) just inverts the direction of the
--> --)
vector. The vectors a and - ahave equal magnitudes
but opposite directions. 2.6 RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
-> -> =
If a is a vector of magnitude a and uis a vector Figure (2.8) shows a vector a OA in the X-Y
->
of unit magnitude in the direction of a, we can write plane drawn from the origin 0. The vector makes an
-4 -4
a = au. angle a with the X-axis and 13 with the Y-axis. Draw
perpendiculars AB and AC from A to the X and Y axes
2.5 SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS respectively. The length OB is scalled the projection of
-4 —)
-> -> --) -) OA on X-axis. Similarly OC is the projection of OA
Let a and b be two vectors. We define a - b as the
--> on Y-axis. According to the rules of vector addition
sum of the vector ->
a and the vector (- b ) . To subtract
-> -> -> -> ->
b from a, invert the direction of b and add to a. a = OA = OB + OC .
Figure (2.6) shows the process.
Thus, we have resolved the vector a into two parts,
one along OX and the other along OY. The magnitude
of the part along OX is OB = a cosa and the magnitude
a
/ of the part along OY is OC = a cos13. If t and j denote
vectors of unit magnitude along OX and OY
respectively, we get
Figure 2.6
-> ->
OB= a cosa i and OC = a cost j
so that a = a cosa + a cos13 j -7>

Example 2.2

Two vectors of equal magnitude 5 unit have an angle

60° between them. Find the magnitude of (a) the sum of
C A
the vectors and (b) the difference of the vectors. .?!

i'a i
0 B X
1

Figure 2.8
• ..---
...., „..
/ 120° //
1
§7/
• .--..-
, .....
,
'
, 3-- •/ ,
/
ET,' \-7\
\ ,\\ 5A/ //
:
If the vector a is not in the X-Y plane, it may have
//
V nonzero projections along X,Y,Z axes and we can
A
resolve it into three parts i.e., along the X, Y and Z
Figure 2.7 axes. If a, 13, y be the angles made by the vector a with
the three axes respectively, we get
Solution : Figure (2.7) shows the construction of the sum ->
a = a cosa + a cos13 j + a cosy k ... (2.3)
A +B and the difference A - B.
where / j and k are the unit vectors along X, Y and
(a) A +13 is the sum of A> and B. Both have a magnitude
Z axes respectively. The magnitude (a cosa) is called
of 5 unit and the angle between them is 60°. Thus, the
the component of a along X-axis, (a cos(3) is called the
magnitude of the sum is
component along Y-axis and (a cosy) is called the
IA +B I = A/5 2 + 5 2 +2 x 5 x 5 cos60° component along Z-axis. In general, the component of
= 2 x 5 cos30° = 543 unit. a vector a along a direction making an angle 0 with it