CHAPTER I

General Introduction
 THE BASIC FEATURES OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
1. The Nature of Philosophy
Philosophy is about understanding life and the world. Unlike animals, humans think and plan their
actions based on knowledge. This desire for knowledge is natural and necessary for living a
meaningful life. Philosophy helps satisfy this desire, as it explores deep questions about existence,
truth, and the universe. In India, philosophy is seen as a way to realize truth, leading to freedom from
worldly entanglements. Over time, as knowledge grew, philosophy split into specialized fields like
physics and psychology, which now rely on scientific findings to understand broader philosophical
questions.
2. The Meaning and Scope of Indian Philosophy
Indian philosophy includes the thoughts of all Indian thinkers, regardless of their beliefs or
backgrounds. Some people mistakenly equate Indian philosophy with Hindu philosophy, but this is
incorrect. Indian philosophy is diverse and includes various schools of thought, including atheists and
materialists. Philosophers in India engage with each other's ideas, discussing and debating different
viewpoints, which enriches the overall philosophical discourse.
3. The Schools of Indian Philosophy
Indian philosophy is classified into two main groups: orthodox (āstika) and heterodox (nāstika).
Orthodox schools, like Vedānta and Sāṅkhya, accept the authority of the Vedas, ancient texts that
guide Indian thought. Heterodox schools, like Cārvākas and Buddhists, reject Vedic authority. The
Vedas significantly influenced philosophical ideas, with some schools continuing their traditions
while others opposed them.
4. The Places of Authority and Reasoning in Indian Philosophy
Different schools of Indian philosophy have varying methods for solving philosophical problems.
Some rely on ordinary experiences and reasoning, while others depend on the insights of enlightened
individuals. Schools like Mīmāṃsā and Vedānta emphasize authority from sacred texts, while others
focus more on independent reasoning. Critics argue that Indian philosophy is dogmatic, but many
systems are based on critical thinking and can stand alone without relying solely on authority.
5. How the Indian Systems Gradually Developed
Unlike Western philosophy, where schools often replace one another, Indian philosophical systems
have coexisted and influenced each other for centuries. Philosophy in India is deeply intertwined with
life, and each school has followers who practice and pass down their beliefs. This mutual influence
has led to a rich philosophical literature. The Vedas and later texts called sūtras helped organize and
systematize philosophical thoughts, leading to the creation of commentaries that further interpreted
these ideas. Over time, different interpretations of the same texts led to the formation of various
philosophical schools.

The Cārvāka System

The Cārvāka philosophy believes that only what we can directly see and experience is true
knowledge. They think everything is made of four basic elements - air, fire, water and earth. They
deny the existence of a soul and say consciousness is just a quality of the living body. They reject God
and religious practices, arguing the goal should be enjoying pleasure in this life.
The Jaina System
The Jaina philosophy, taught by enlightened teachers called Tīrthaṅkaras, believes we can gain
knowledge through perception, reasoning and teachings of reliable authorities. They believe in the
existence of souls in all living beings. Souls can achieve infinite knowledge and happiness, but this is
blocked by karma influenced by desires. To achieve liberation, one must have faith in Jain teachings,
gain correct knowledge, and practice non-violence and truthfulness. They respect all opinions and
recognize the limited nature of human knowledge.
The Bauddha System
The Buddhist philosophy, founded by Gautama Buddha, focuses on understanding and ending human
suffering. Buddha taught that suffering is caused by desires stemming from ignorance. To overcome
suffering, one must follow an eight-fold path including right understanding and right actions. This
leads to nirvāṇa, where suffering ends. Different Buddhist schools have varying views - some believe
the world is unreal, others say only the mind is real, while some believe both mental and external
objects are real.
The Nyāya System
The Nyāya philosophy, developed by sage Gautama, is based on logic and realism. It identifies four
sources of valid knowledge: perception, inference, comparison and testimony. It aims to understand
the self, body and nature of reality, seeking to free the self from attachment to the physical body. The
Nyāya system admits the existence of both internal and external objects.
The Vaisesika system
The Vaiśesika system, founded by Kaṇāda, categorizes all objects of knowledge into seven categories:
substance (dravya), quality (guna), action (karma), generality (sāmānya), particularity (viśeṣa),
inherence (samavāya), and non-existence (abhāva). Substances include the physical elements (earth,
water, fire, air, ether) and non-physical entities like time, space, soul and mind. Atoms are the eternal,
indestructible particles that compose the physical world. Qualities are attributes that exist in
substances, while actions are movements substances can perform. Generality refers to the eternal
essence common to members of a class, while particularity explains the ultimate differences between
substances. Inherence is the permanent relation between substances and their qualities or parts. Non-
existence accounts for various types of absence or difference. The Vaiśeika system sees God as the
creator who directs atoms according to karma to serve the moral dispensation of souls.
The Sankhya system
The Sankhya philosophy believes in two fundamental realities - Purusha (consciousness or spirit) and
Prakriti (nature or matter). Prakriti consists of three constituents called gunas - sattva (purity), rajas
(activity), and tamas (inertia). When Purusha comes into contact with Prakriti, it disturbs the
equilibrium of the gunas, causing Prakriti to evolve into the manifest universe, proceeding from
primal matter to intellect, ego, senses, and finally the physical elements[1]. The goal in Sankhya is to
attain liberation by realizing the distinction between Purusha and Prakriti, allowing one to remain
unaffected by life's ups and downs[1]. Sankhya does not believe in a creator God, as Prakriti alone is
sufficient to explain the existence of the world.
The Yoga System
The Yoga philosophy, founded by the sage Patañjali, is closely related to Samkhya but includes the
belief in God. It emphasizes the practice of yoga as a way to achieve discriminative knowledge, which
is essential for liberation. Yoga involves calming the mind and has five levels of mental functions,
with the last two being conducive to yoga practice: concentration and complete cessation of mental
activity. There are eight steps in yoga practice: restraint (yama), moral culture (niyama), posture
(asana), breath control (pranayama), withdrawal of the senses (pratyahara), attention (dharana),
meditation (dhyana), and concentration (samadhi). Yoga is considered theistic Samkhya because it
views God as the ultimate object of contemplation, a perfect being who is omniscient and free from
defects. The philosophy argues for God's existence based on the idea that there must be a maximum of
knowledge, which is God, who facilitates the relationship between Purusha and Prakriti, leading to the
evolution and dissolution of the world.
The Mimamsa system
The Mīmāṁsā school, founded by Jaimini, focuses on defending Vedic rituals by asserting that the
Vedas are eternal and error-free, not authored by humans. It argues that knowledge gained from the
Vedas is self-evident and should be accepted without doubt. The school emphasizes that what the
Vedas prescribe is right (dharma) and should be performed as a duty, without expectation of rewards.
The Mīmāṁsā also posits the existence of an immortal soul, which is distinct from the body and does
not possess consciousness unless it is associated with it. Different sources of knowledge are
recognized, including perception and inference, with an additional concept of non-cognition to
explain knowledge of absence. The Mīmāṁsā believes in the reality of the physical world and the law
of karma, asserting that the world has always existed and is shaped by the actions of individual souls.
Rituals create a potency in the soul that leads to future rewards, emphasizing a realistic view of
existence without a supreme creator.
The Vedanta system
The Vedānta system, emerging from the Upaniṣads, represents the culmination of Vedic thought and is
considered the end of the Vedas. It was further developed in the Brahma-sūtra by Bādarāyaṇa and
interpreted by thinkers like Śaṅkara and Rāmānuja. Śaṅkara's interpretation emphasizes pure monism
(Advaita), where the ultimate reality is a single, impersonal God (Brahman), and the world is seen as
an illusion created by God's power, Māyā. He distinguishes between the empirical view, where the
world and God as creator seem real, and the transcendental view, where only God is real. Rāmānuja,
however, interprets Vedānta differently, proposing qualified monism (Viśiṣṭādvaita), where God is the
only reality but contains many distinct parts, including souls and matter. While creation and the world
are real in Rāmānuja's view, the soul remains distinct from God but is ultimately liberated through
devotion and knowledge.

The Vaisheshika system, founded by Kanada, categorizes all objects into seven types:

1. Substances (earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, soul, mind)
2. Qualities (color, taste, smell, touch, number, size, individuality, etc.)
3. Actions (motion)
4. Generalities (common properties shared by a class)
5. Particularities (unique features of individual substances)
6. Inherence (inseparable connection between substances and qualities)
7. Non-existence (absence or difference)

Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of physical substances. The goal is to understand the
world through analysis of these categories.

## Samkhya

Samkhya believes there are two fundamental realities - Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti
(nature/matter). Prakriti has three constituents called gunas - sattva (purity), rajas (activity), and tamas
(inertia). When Purusha interacts with Prakriti, it causes Prakriti to evolve into the universe. The goal
is to realize the distinction between Purusha and Prakriti to attain liberation.

## Yoga

Yoga, founded by Patanjali, is similar to Samkhya but includes belief in God. It emphasizes yoga
practice to achieve knowledge essential for liberation. The eight steps are restraint, moral culture,
posture, breath control, sense withdrawal, attention, meditation, and concentration. Yoga sees God as
the perfect being who facilitates the relationship between Purusha and Prakriti.

## Mimamsa

Mimamsa defends Vedic rituals by asserting the Vedas are eternal and error-free. It argues Vedic
knowledge is self-evident and prescriptions should be followed as duty. It recognizes the immortal
soul, distinct from the body, and believes the world has always existed shaped by karma. Rituals
create potency leading to future rewards.

## Vedanta

Vedanta, based on the Upanishads, represents the culmination of Vedic thought. Shankara's Advaita
emphasizes pure monism - Brahman is the only reality, the world is illusion created by Maya.
Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita proposes qualified monism - God is the only reality containing distinct
souls and matter. Creation and the world are real but the soul remains distinct from God, liberated
through devotion and knowledge.