2.

A SAMPLING
• When it is impossible to obtain a complete record of behavior, researchers aim to obtain a representative
sample that accurately reflects the population's behavior.
• The ability to generalize observations to the broader population (external validity) hinges on how the
behavior is sampled.
• Researchers need to make key decisions on when, where, and under what conditions observations will
be made, as not all behavior can be observed.
• Sampling is essential because observations are limited to specific times, settings, and conditions, making
it representative of the larger group of possible behaviors.
• The sample allows researchers to generalize findings to a population only if the sample is representative
of that population.
• A representative sample is one that is similar in significant ways to the larger population it is drawn
from.
• Example: Observations of classroom behavior made at the start of the school year might reflect early-
year behavior but may not be typical of end-of-year behavior.

External Validity
• External validity measures how well research findings can be generalized to different populations,
settings, and conditions beyond those used in the study.
• External validity relates to the “truthfulness” of a study’s results when applied to broader contexts.
• Establishing external validity involves determining if the study's findings can be accurately used to
describe people, settings, and conditions that were not directly part of the research.
• Methods such as time, event, and situation sampling are employed to enhance external validity in
observational studies.

Probability Sampling
• This approach is applied when the objective is to study an identifiable group known as a population,
from which a subgroup or sample is drawn.
• In probability sampling, every member of the population has a known, definable chance of being
included in the sample.
• Key Point: Sometimes, all members of a small population can be studied. For example, surveying every
student in a class on their attitudes toward animal experimentation would provide direct data for that
group, but this is rare for larger populations.
• Researchers typically aim to draw conclusions about an entire population, not just the sample, making it
crucial for the sample to reflect the attributes of the whole population.
• A sample is considered representative when it mirrors the population; if not, it is biased.
• Example of Biased Sampling: The Literary Digest’s 1936 presidential poll, which incorrectly predicted
a Republican win, demonstrated biased sampling. The poll targeted those who could afford cars and
phones during the Great Depression, skewing the sample toward the upper-middle class and
Republicans.
 • Self-Selection Bias: Occurs when survey participants choose themselves to participate, often skewing
results. For instance, when a survey is returned only by those with strong opinions or specific
characteristics.

Random Sampling
• The simplest form of probability sampling is simple random sampling, where each population member
has an equal chance of selection.
• Example Method: Names of the population can be randomly chosen from a list or selected using
random number tables or software.
• This method is considered effective for creating a representative sample and may also be necessary for
ethical reasons, as it provides a fair selection process.
• Historical Example: During the Vietnam War in 1969, a lottery system was used for drafting soldiers,
ensuring that each birthday had an equal chance of selection. However, some biases were noted in the
execution of this process.

Stratified Sampling
• In stratified sampling, the sample is structured to match the proportions of significant subgroups within
the population to create a truly representative sample.
• Example: Measuring campus attitudes on abortion in a school with 5,000 students (60% female, 40%
male) would require a sample of 100 students to include 60 females and 40 males.
• The researcher must decide on the number and type of strata based on the characteristics critical to the
study’s goals.
• Judgment Required: Researchers must prioritize which characteristics (e.g., gender, year of study) to
include, as some are more important than others (e.g., religious affiliation vs. handedness).

Cluster Sampling
• Cluster sampling is used when sampling from a large population where obtaining a full list of
individuals is not feasible.
• This method involves selecting clusters or groups of individuals who share a common characteristic.
• Example: A campus survey could be conducted by selecting required core classes as clusters, then
administering the survey to all students in these classes.
• Multi-Stage Sampling: Researchers can further divide clusters for more detailed sampling, such as
selecting floors within dorms and surveying all residents on chosen floors.
• Combining cluster sampling with stratified sampling can ensure subgroups are represented
proportionally.

• General Concerns with Probability Sampling

o Selection Bias / Representativeness: Ensuring the sample accurately reflects the population.
o Sampling Errors: Risk of random discrepancies affecting results.
o Resource Intensive: Time-consuming and costly to implement.
o Complexity: Some methods are complicated to design and execute.
o Accessibility: Challenges in obtaining complete population lists.

• When to Use Probability Sampling

 o Generalizability: Needed for broad application of findings.
o Large Studies: Ideal for large-scale research.
o Statistical Analysis: Required for precise analysis and error estimation.
o Minimizing Bias: Ensures fair, unbiased participant selection.

Non-Probability Sampling:
• Non-probability sampling refers to sampling methods where not all members of the population have a
known or equal chance of being included in the sample. This type of sampling often relies on the
subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random selection, making it less representative of the
larger population.

Quota Sampling:
• Description: This approach resembles stratified sampling but does not employ random selection.
Instead, researchers create quotas for specific subgroups of the population and ensure that the sample
reflects these quotas.
• Process: The researcher identifies subgroups within the population and determines how many
participants from each subgroup are needed to meet the quota. Participants are selected until the quotas
for each subgroup are filled.
• Advantages: Quota sampling ensures that the sample represents certain characteristics of the population,
making it useful when random sampling isn’t feasible.
• Limitations: While it provides proportional representation, it is still subject to bias because the selection
process within subgroups is not random.

Convenience Sampling:
• Description: This method involves selecting participants based on their availability and willingness to
participate, rather than through a structured random process.
• Process: Researchers select samples from the portion of the population that is easiest to access. For
example, students passing by on a campus might be approached for a survey.
• Advantages: Convenience sampling is cost-effective, quick, and easy to conduct, making it suitable for
exploratory research or when time and resources are limited.
• Limitations: The major drawback is its high potential for bias, as the sample may not accurately
represent the target population. This affects the generalizability of the findings.

• General Concerns with Non-Probability Sampling:

o Potential for Bias: Due to the non-random nature of selection, non-probability sampling often
leads to biased samples that do not reflect the diversity or characteristics of the entire population.
o Lack of Generalizability: Since not every member of the population has a known or equal chance
of being included, findings from non-probability samples are less reliable for making
generalizations.
o Subjectivity: The process relies heavily on the judgment of the researcher, which may introduce
personal biases into the sample.

• When to Use Non-Probability Sampling:

 o Exploratory Research: When the primary goal is to gather initial insights or generate hypotheses
rather than make definitive generalizations.
o Preliminary Studies: Before conducting more rigorous, large-scale studies that might use
probability sampling.
o Limited Resources: When time, budget, or access to the full population restricts the use of
probability sampling methods
2.B - NON-EXPERIMENTAL METHODS - I

1.1 Direct Observational Methods

Direct observational methods are classified into two categories based on the level of intervention by the
researcher: The extent to which the researcher intervenes in the observed situation varies from none
(observation without intervention) to full intervention (such as conducting an experiment in a natural setting).

1. Observation without intervention

Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation involves the study of behavior in its natural environment without any intervention or
manipulation by the researcher. This method allows researchers to observe how individuals behave in real-life
situations, providing an authentic picture of their actions and interactions.
Goals of Naturalistic Observation:
• Describing Behavior: The primary goal is to describe behavior as it naturally occurs in the
environment, without any external influence or alteration.
• Examining Relationships: It allows researchers to examine how different variables naturally interact
and relate to one another in real-world settings, helping to understand complex behaviors in context.
External Validity:
• Real-World Comparison: Naturalistic observation helps to establish the external validity of findings
from controlled laboratory studies by comparing them with real-world behaviors. This ensures that the
conclusions drawn from experimental settings are applicable in more natural environments.
Ethical Considerations:
• Alternative to Experimental Control: In situations where experimental control is not feasible due to
ethical concerns (e.g., it would be unethical to manipulate certain behaviors), naturalistic observation
becomes a valuable research method. It enables the researcher to study sensitive topics without violating
ethical standards.
Examples of Naturalistic Observation:
• Athletes in Natural Settings: Observing athletes during a live Olympic event offers a chance to study
their behavior, interactions, and performance in a context that cannot be easily replicated in a lab.
• Online Behaviors: Examining interactions in online environments, such as analyzing posts and
behaviors in internet chat rooms, provides insights into social dynamics and communication patterns in
virtual spaces.
Limitation:
• Lack of Experimental Control: While naturalistic observation is highly descriptive, it does not allow
researchers to manipulate or control variables, which limits its ability to establish cause-effect relations
 • Ethical Constraints: In situations where it is ethically inappropriate to manipulate behavior, such as in
studies of aggression or child development, naturalistic observation can be a more ethical alternative to
experimental manipulation.
Example Study:
• Hartup (1974): Hartup used naturalistic observation to study aggression in preschool children. He found
that boys exhibited more aggression than girls, though the types of aggression observed were similar
between the sexes. This study illustrates how naturalistic observation can help identify trends in
behavior without the need for experimental control.
2. Observation with intervention
This category involves the researcher actively engaging or intervening in the observed situation.

1. Participant Observation
It is a method in which the researcher becomes actively involved in the situation or group they are studying,
taking on both an observational role and a participatory role within the context of the study.
1. Dual Role: In participant observation, the researcher plays a dual role:
• Observational Role: The researcher observes the participants and records their behaviors.
• Active Role: The researcher also takes part in the activities or social interactions being studied,
immersing themselves within the group or environment.
2. Types of Participant Observation:
• Undisguised Participant Observation:
In this form, the people being observed are aware of the researcher’s role and purpose.
Participants know that the researcher is studying them, researcher’s involvement is open
• Disguised Participant Observation:
In contrast, disguised participant observation occurs when the people being observed are unaware of
the researcher’s presence and purpose.
This type of observation is often used when the researcher wants to observe natural behavior without
the participants altering their actions due to the awareness of being studied.
3. Reactivity: Reactivity refers to the phenomenon where individuals change their behavior because they know
they are being observed.
• This can compromise the authenticity of the data, as the behavior recorded may not be a true
reflection of the individuals' natural actions.
• Disguised participant observation is sometimes used to reduce reactivity by ensuring that the
participants do not know they are being studied, thus encouraging more authentic behavior.
4. Ethical Issues: Disguised participant observation raises significant ethical concerns, particularly regarding:
• Privacy: The participants’ right to privacy may be violated when they are unaware that they are
being observed.
• Informed Consent: Since participants are not informed of the study, they do not provide explicit
consent for their involvement, raising questions about ethical transparency and autonomy.
5. Applications:
• Situations Inaccessible to Researchers: Participant observation is useful in situations that would
otherwise be difficult for researchers to access, such as:
Studying Hate Crimes in Online Groups: Researchers can participate in or observe online
communities or groups to study hate crime behaviors that are typically hidden /socially stigmatized.
 • Rosenhan’s Study (1973): One of the most notable examples of participant observation was
Rosenhan’s study where researchers posed as psychiatric patients in mental hospitals. The goal was
to observe how psychiatric diagnoses were made and how patients were treated in these institutions,
providing insights into the psychiatric diagnosis process and the dehumanization of patients.
6. Challenges:
• Loss of Objectivity: If the researcher becomes too involved in the activities or too close to the
participants, they may start to identify with the group, making it harder to remain impartial and
objective in their observations.
• Influence on Behavior: The presence of the researcher can influence the behavior of participants,
especially when the researcher is actively participating in the activities.
2. Structured Observation

1. It is a method involving researcher intervention to exert some control over the events being observed.
2. It differs from naturalistic observation by the researcher’s active involvement in setting up or facilitating
the occurrence of events to make them more easily observable.
3. While structured observation is less controlled than field experiments, it allows researchers to
systematically observe specific behaviors in various settings.
4. Key Features:
o Intervention: The researcher creates specific situations or settings to trigger certain behaviors, or
they introduce controlled variables to set up a scenario that can be observed.
o Control: The degree of control exerted by the researcher is less than that in field experiments but is
more structured compared to naturalistic observation.
o Applications: Often used in psychology to study particular behaviors in settings where naturalistic
observation may not be feasible or appropriate.
5. Example Study: Hyman et al. (2009)
o In a study of inattentional blindness, researchers examined people's ability to notice unusual events
while using a cell phone. A confederate dressed as a clown on a unicycle in a university plaza was
used to create a situation where pedestrians could be observed for inattentional blindness.
Pedestrians who were using a cell phone were significantly less likely to notice the clown compared
to those walking without electronic distractions.
o Groups: Pedestrians were categorized based on whether they were using a cell phone, listening to
music, walking alone, or walking with a partner.
o Findings: Only 25% of cell phone users noticed the clown, suggesting a correlation between divided
attention and inattentional blindness. These findings highlight the importance of focused attention in
activities like driving.
o This study illustrates how structured observation sets up specific contexts to explore particular
psychological phenomena, such as attention and perception.
6. Advantages:
o More control than naturalistic observation, allowing for the observation of specific behaviors in
structured settings.
o Can be applied to both natural and laboratory settings, making it versatile for different types of
research.
7. Limitations:
 o Observer Consistency: Differences in how observers carry out the procedure can lead to
inconsistencies, making replication of results challenging.
o Uncontrolled Variables: Unmeasured or unknown variables may influence the outcomes, which
could impact the generalizability of the findings.

3. Field Experiment

1. A field experiment is when a researcher manipulates one or more independent variables in a natural
setting to determine its effect on behavior.
2. The most extreme form of intervention in observational methods. Researchers exert more control over
the manipulation of variables compared to other observational methods.
3. Difference from Other Observational Methods: In field experiments, researchers manipulate an
independent variable, whereas in methods like naturalistic observation, there is no manipulation of
variables.
4. Purpose: Field experiments are used to examine the effects of manipulated variables on behavior in
natural settings.
5. Common Applications:
o In social psychology, field experiments are used to study real-world behavior.
o Example: Latané & Darley (1970): Confederates posed as robbers to investigate people's
reaction to a crime.
o Example: Milgram et al. (1986): Confederates cut into a waiting line to study the reactions of
those already in line.

Challenges Facing Observational Methods:

1. Absence of Control: Observational studies often lack control over the environment, making it difficult to
draw definitive conclusions.
o Researchers must be cautious in interpreting findings, as multiple explanations may exist for
observed behavior.
o Example: If two children pick up the same toy, it may not necessarily indicate imitation but could
simply be due to the toy being attractive.
2. Observational studies can provide inductive support for theories or serve as a method for falsification,
especially if findings contradict expectations.
3. Observer Bias occurs when the researcher’s preconceived expectations influence their observations.
o For example, an observer might be biased to see more aggression in boys than girls, even if the
behaviors are ambiguous.
4. Participant Reactivity occurs when the knowledge of being observed influences the participants' behavior.
 o This is a significant issue in observational research, especially when participants are aware of the
observer’s presence.
5. Ethics:
• Reducing Reactivity: Often requires the use of measures that invade privacy, raising ethical concerns
about privacy and consent.
o Example: A study where researchers eavesdropped on students’ conversations would raise
privacy concerns today.
• The APA ethics code condones the use of naturalistic observation in public settings without requiring
informed consent, as long as certain safeguards are in place, like ensuring anonymity and not interfering
with behavior.
• For participant observation, informed consent is typically required from the group being studied,
although this wasn’t always the case in earlier studies.

1.2 Indirect (Unobtrusive) Observational Methods:

1. Nonreactive: A major advantage of indirect observational methods is that they are nonreactive. These
methods do not require the researcher to intervene in the situation, and individuals are unaware of the
observation. This prevents participants from changing their behavior because of awareness of being
observed.
2. Behavioral Measure Reactivity: A behavioral measure is considered reactive when participants’
awareness of an observer affects their behavior or the measurement process. Unobtrusive methods avoid
this issue since the individuals being observed are not aware.
3. Types of Indirect Methods:
o Physical Traces: Observing physical traces, such as wear patterns on objects or locations, which
can provide insights into past behavior.
o Archival Records: Analyzing archival records such as documents, public records, or social
media posts that contain traces of past behaviors.
4. Confirmation and Challenge: Indirect observations provide important information that can either
confirm or challenge conclusions based on direct observation. This makes unobtrusive methods a vital
tool in the multimethod approach to research.
 2. Survey
Survey research is a method primarily used to assess individuals' thoughts, opinions, beliefs, and feelings. It
can range from specific and limited studies to broader, more general research with global goals, depending on
the research question. Survey research is an essential tool for gathering data across large populations, and it is
one of the most common methods in psychology, political science, and other fields.

Purpose of Surveys
• Theoretical purposes: Understanding human behavior, beliefs, or opinions.
• Applied purposes: Influencing political campaigns, informing public health strategies, and guiding
decisions in organizations or businesses.

Key Features of Surveys

• Sampling: A crucial feature of survey research is sampling. A subset of individuals is selected to
represent a larger population. This ensures that the findings can be generalized to the broader
population.
• Standardized questions: All participants answer the same set of predetermined questions, ensuring
consistency across responses and enabling easy comparison.

Types of Survey Methods

1. Mail Surveys
• Description: Traditional surveys that are sent via mail to a sample of individuals. Mail surveys are sent
to a sample of individuals who are asked to complete and return the survey by mail. This traditional
survey method is often used for large-scale research projects
• Advantages:
o Convenient for both researchers and participants.
o Respondents remain anonymous, which is especially useful for sensitive topics.
o Cost-effective for reaching a large number of participants.
• Disadvantages:
o Low response rates: Typically, only around 30% of surveys are returned, which can lead to
response bias.
 o Response rate bias: Groups such as those with low literacy or interest in the topic may be
underrepresented.
o Longer time to gather responses compared to other methods.
• Improvement strategies:
o Personalize surveys (e.g., addressing the respondent by name).
o Ensure surveys are short and easy to complete.

2. Personal Interviews
• Description: Face-to-face surveys where an interviewer asks participants a set of questions. In personal
interviews, an interviewer directly interacts with the participant, asking a set of questions either face-to-
face or via video. This method is generally more time-consuming and expensive than other survey types.
• Advantages:
o Higher response rates compared to mail surveys.
o The interviewer can clarify any misunderstandings or ambiguous answers.
o Provides the ability to probe for more detailed responses, ensuring a deeper understanding.
• Disadvantages:
o Costly and time-consuming due to the need for trained interviewers and logistics.
o Interviewer bias: The interviewer's behavior or characteristics (e.g., race or gender) may
influence the participant’s responses.
o Potential for social desirability bias, where participants provide socially acceptable answers
rather than their true beliefs.
• Minimizing bias: To reduce interviewer bias, interviewers should be well-trained, follow a structured
protocol, and avoid influencing answers.

3. Telephone Interviews
• Description: Surveys conducted over the phone, where an interviewer asks a set of questions.
Telephone interviews are conducted by calling respondents and asking them a series of questions over
the phone. This method has grown in popularity due to its cost-effectiveness and ability to reach a wide
range of respondents quickly.
• Advantages:
o Cost-effective and efficient compared to personal interviews.
o Broader geographic reach: Allows researchers to survey individuals across a wider area.
o Can be completed quickly compared to face-to-face interviews.
• Disadvantages:
o Selection bias: Excludes individuals who do not have telephones, especially those from lower-
income groups.
o Potential response bias due to the less personal nature of phone surveys.
 o Low response rates due to people screening calls or avoiding participation.
o Limited depth of responses, as telephone interviews typically don’t allow for follow-up or
clarifications.
• Minimizing issues: Researchers should use random-digit dialing to improve sampling accuracy.

4. Internet Surveys
• Description: Surveys administered via email or on the web. Internet surveys are administered through
email or a web-based platform. This method has become increasingly popular due to its convenience,
speed, and cost-effectiveness.
• Advantages:
o Cost-effective: They are cheaper than phone and personal interviews.
o Rapid data collection: Responses can be collected much faster than other methods.
o Ease of distribution: Surveys can reach a wide audience, including international populations.
• Disadvantages:
o Sampling bias: Only people with internet access are included, which may exclude certain groups
(e.g., older adults, lower-income populations).
o Self-selection bias: Individuals who choose to complete the survey may differ significantly from
those who do not.
o Issues with spam filters, which can prevent surveys from reaching participants.

5. Hybrid/Computer-Assisted Surveys
• Description: These surveys use computer technology to reduce interviewer bias and ensure standardized
administration. Hybrid survey methods often incorporate computer technology to improve data
collection, such as computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) or computer-assisted personal
interviewing (CAPI). These methods allow interviewers to input responses directly into a computer
during the survey, which can reduce errors and speed up data entry.
• Advantages:
o Reduces interviewer bias by having a pre-recorded script or automated system.
o Increases privacy when answering sensitive questions, which can lead to honest responses.
o Allows for greater consistency in data collection.
• Disadvantages:
o May still suffer from response rate bias if people don’t feel comfortable interacting with
technology or have poor access to it.
o Technical difficulties may hinder the survey process.
Common Issues Across Survey Methods
1. Response Bias
• Occurs when respondents’ answers are influenced by factors other than the true opinions, such as
wanting to appear socially acceptable (social desirability bias). This is a challenge in all forms of
surveys, especially for sensitive topics.
2. Nonresponse Bias
• This happens when certain groups fail to respond to the survey, potentially skewing the results. For
example, people with lower literacy or less interest in the topic may be underrepresented.
• Techniques like follow-up reminders and offering incentives can help increase response rates.
3. Sampling Bias
• This occurs when the sample chosen for the survey does not accurately represent the larger population,
affecting the survey’s generalizability.
4. Selection Bias
• This bias arises if certain individuals are more likely to be selected based on the survey method (e.g.,
telephone surveys exclude those without phones).
3. Questionnaire Construction
• Definition: Questionnaires are structured instruments used to collect data on individuals' attitudes,
preferences, and behaviors in survey research.
• Significance: The quality of a survey's findings heavily depends on how well the questionnaire is
constructed. Poorly constructed questionnaires lead to unreliable and invalid results, regardless of the
sample size or response rate.
• Purpose: Questionnaires help researchers gather consistent and measurable data from respondents,
aiding in the analysis of variables related to demographic information, opinions, and individual
differences.

Components of Effective Questionnaires

• Reliability: The ability of a questionnaire to produce consistent results over time and across different
contexts.
• Validity: The degree to which the questionnaire accurately measures what it intends to measure.

Steps in Constructing a Questionnaire

1. Decide What Information Should Be Sought:
a. Clearly define the purpose of the survey and what information is necessary.
b. This initial step prevents the inclusion of irrelevant questions and ensures the questionnaire
remains focused.
2. Determine the Mode of Administration:
a. Choose between self-administration (e.g., online, paper) or interviewer administration (e.g.,
phone, face-to-face).
b. The mode of administration affects question wording and the complexity of the survey.
3. Draft the Questionnaire:
a. Create questions that align with the goals of the study and follow logical, clear wording.
 b. Ensure that questions are specific and unambiguous to reduce misinterpretation.
4. Review and Revise the Draft:
a. Conduct thorough reviews involving both survey methodologists and subject matter experts.
b. Pay particular attention to the wording to avoid biased or leading questions, especially when
dealing with sensitive or controversial topics.
5. Pretest the Questionnaire:
a. Test the questionnaire on a small sample representing the target population.
b. Use the pretest to identify issues with question clarity, respondent understanding, and survey
flow.
c. Gather feedback through follow-up interviews with pretest participants.
6. Finalize and Edit the Questionnaire:
a. Incorporate changes from the pretest phase to improve the questionnaire.
b. Specify procedures for final administration, ensuring that instructions and question ordering
are clear.

Guidelines for Effective Wording of Questions

Effective question wording is crucial in survey research as it significantly impacts how respondents answer. The
following guidelines should be followed for optimal question construction:
1. Clarity: Use simple, precise language that respondents can easily understand.
2. Avoiding Bias: Frame questions neutrally to prevent leading respondents toward certain answers.
3. Specificity: Ensure questions ask for one specific response at a time (e.g., avoid double-barreled
questions).
4. Avoiding Double Negatives: Structure questions to prevent confusion (e.g., "Do you not disagree?"
should be simplified).

Types of Survey Questions

1. Free-Response (Open-Ended):
a. These questions allow respondents flexibility (e.g., “What are your views on legal abortion?”)
but can be difficult to record, summarize, and analyze due to lengthy or varied responses.
2. Closed (Multiple-Choice):
a. These questions, like “Is police protection very good, fairly good, neither good nor bad, not very
good, or not good at all?” are simpler to answer and score but may limit expressiveness and force
respondents to choose an option that does not fully reflect their opinion.

Best Practices for Question Design

• Simplicity and Familiarity: Use vocabulary that is simple, direct, and understandable by all
respondents.
• Specificity: Avoid vague or ambiguous terms.
• Avoid Double-Barreled Questions: Rephrase questions that combine two issues, e.g., “Have you
suffered from headaches and nausea?” should be split for clarity.
• Conciseness: Keep questions under 20 words to maintain clarity without sacrificing meaning.
 • Conditional Phrasing: Place any conditional information before the main question for logical flow.
• Neutral Wording: Avoid leading or loaded questions to prevent bias.
• Reverse-Scoring: To reduce response bias (e.g., consistently choosing extremes), word some questions
in the reverse direction and score them accordingly.

4. Case Study Method

• The case study method is a qualitative research approach involving an in-depth examination of a single
individual, group, event, or situation over a specified period. This method enables researchers to
explore complex phenomena within their real-life context. While often considered a qualitative tool,
case studies may also integrate quantitative data, enhancing their depth and breadth.
• The primary aim of case studies is to gather detailed insights that can lead to the generation of
hypotheses and further exploration.
• This method is widely valued for its ability to capture a holistic view of the subject and provide a
comprehensive understanding that might not be possible through other research approaches.
• Case Study Method: An intensive description and analysis of a single individual or specific situation.
Often involves qualitative data, though quantitative data may also be used.
• Data Sources:
o Naturalistic observation
o Archival records
o Interviews
o Psychological tests
• Application: Clinical case studies often focus on treatment applications and outcomes.

Characteristics of Case Studies

• Lack of Control: Unlike small-n experimental designs, case studies generally do not have strict control
over variables, leading to potential difficulties in drawing causal inferences.
• Exploratory Nature: Case studies are often used as a source of hypotheses and ideas about behavior.
They are valuable for initial research in areas with limited existing information.
Advantages of the Case Study Method
1. Generation of New Ideas and Hypotheses:
a. Provides deep insights into individual behavior and potential underlying causes.
b. Helps formulate hypotheses that can be tested using more controlled methods.
2. Opportunities for Clinical Innovation:
a. Allows researchers and clinicians to experiment with new or unique therapeutic techniques.
b. Example: Kirsch’s use of self-management training (SMT) as a novel approach to therapy.
3. Study of Rare Phenomena:
a. Effective for examining rare or unique cases, such as individuals with specific neurological
conditions.
b. Example: Oliver Sacks’ work on individuals with rare brain disorders or savant syndrome.
4. Challenges to Theoretical Assumptions:
a. Case studies can challenge existing theories by providing counterinstances that do not fit current
models.
b. Example: Case studies on individuals with congenital amusia who can perceive speech but not
music, challenging theories linking music and language processing.
5. Support for Psychological Theories:
a. Although not definitive, it can provide tentative evidence supporting psychological theories.
b. Example: The case study of H.M. provided influential evidence for the dual model of memory,
differentiating between short-term and long-term memory.
Disadvantages of the Case Study Method
1. Difficulty in Establishing Causality:
a. Extraneous Variables: Case studies often do not control for extraneous variables, making it
difficult to attribute changes solely to a specific intervention.
b. Multiple Treatments: Simultaneous use of multiple treatment methods can obscure the
identification of effective components.
2. Potential for Observer Bias:
a. Researchers who act as both participants and observers may develop biases, impacting their
interpretations and observations.
b. Subjective Impressions: Outcomes may be based on the observer’s personal interpretation
rather than objective data.
c. Self-Reports: Participants may distort information, consciously or unconsciously, to present
themselves positively.
3. Challenges with Data Reliability:
a. Archival Records: May contain inaccuracies or be subject to various biases.
b. Memory Issues: Self-reports may be influenced by the limitations and biases of memory recall,
especially for events occurring long ago.
4. Generalizability Issues (External Validity):
a. Findings from single cases may not apply broadly to other individuals or populations.
b. Some characteristics, like personality, may vary more significantly among individuals, affecting
generalizability.

Summary
 • The case study method serves as an invaluable tool for exploratory research, hypothesis generation, and
clinical practice.
• While it provides rich qualitative data and insight, it carries significant limitations concerning causality,
potential bias, and generalizability.
• Understanding these pros and cons helps researchers and clinicians judiciously apply case studies in
psychological and behavioral research.

2.C - NON-EXPERIMENTAL METHODS - II

5. Qualitative Interviews
o Qualitative interviews are common data collection methods in qualitative research, differing from other
types like job or market research interviews due to their distinctive features and purposes.
o They involve questions and probes designed to encourage extensive and free responses from the
interviewee, focusing on obtaining deep insights into the research topic.
o Unlike structured interviews, these are not completely standardized and allow for flexibility.
o The researcher guides the discussion while the interviewee does most of the talking.
o These interviews align with the qualitative research ethos by generating rich, detailed data.
• Role of the Interviewer
o The success of a qualitative interview depends on the interviewer's skills, including listening,
probing, and guiding without dominating the conversation.
o Interviewer must be adept at absorbing & processing large amounts of information to ask relevant q
o Maintaining an ethical approach and ensuring the participant’s comfort and trust are critical.
• Interview Structure
o Qualitative interviews are often semi-structured, meaning they have a flexible structure that allows
for in-depth exploration of the topic.
o Unlike structured interviews with predetermined questions and response options, qualitative
interviews adapt to the flow of conversation.
o Preparation involves planning the content and setting, though it avoids rigid adherence to a script.
• Comparison with Structured Interviews
 o Structured interviews use a fixed set of questions and responses, limiting the participant’s ability to
expand on answers, which leads to quicker data collection and analysis.
o Qualitative interviews, however, prioritize understanding participants as individuals rather than as
data points, enabling richer data but requiring more time and effort.
o Structured interviews align more with quantitative research, whereas qualitative interviews match
the interpretative goals of qualitative research.
• Analytical Flexibility
o Data from qualitative interviews can be analyzed using various methods, such as interpretative
phenomenological analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory.
o These methods allow for nuanced interpretation of data, accommodating complex themes that may
emerge during interviews.
• Challenges and Realities
o The freedom & flexibility of qualitative interviews do not imply they are casual or easy to conduct.
o They demand extensive preparation, careful listening, and active management to capture rich data
without overwhelming the interviewer.
o While recordings can aid memory, they do not replace the necessity for the interviewer’s
attentiveness during the conversation.
• Qualitative vs. Quantitative Ethos
o Quantitative interviews and structured questionnaires focus on quick, large-scale data collection and
analysis, emphasizing dimension identification over understanding individual perspectives.
o Qualitative interviews allow participants to control and structure their responses, enabling
researchers to gather personalized and context-rich data.
Preparatory Stage for the Qualitative Interview
The preparatory stage for a qualitative interview is critical for ensuring the effectiveness and quality of data
collection. Unlike casual conversations, qualitative interviews are a structured process that demands thorough
preparation to achieve meaningful results. Below are the key aspects elaborated:
1. Research Conceptualization and Development
• Objective Clarity: It is essential to have a clear understanding of the research objectives and the reasons
for using qualitative interviews. This includes articulating the rationale behind choosing interviews as a
method, even if complete clarity on the topic is still developing.
• Exploratory Context: In cases where research is needed to shed light on poorly understood phenomena,
interviews help provide depth and insight that may not be possible through other methods.
2. Preparation of the Interview Guide
• Purpose: The interview guide is a skeletal outline of topics or questions to be addressed, helping the
interviewer remain focused while allowing flexibility.
• Structure: It must be logical and organized to facilitate a natural flow of conversation. The guide should
not be overly restrictive but act as a reference to ensure all essential topics are covered.
• Flexibility: The guide should adapt to unexpected yet significant topics that emerge during the interview
process. This allows for richer, more detailed data.
• Avoid Redundancy: Repeating questions already answered could signal disinterest and reduce the
interviewee’s engagement.
• Active Listening: The interviewer must focus on the participant’s responses and develop probing
questions on the spot to fill gaps or clarify ambiguous points.
3. Sample Suitability
• Appropriateness: The sample must be chosen carefully to align with the research objectives. Some
groups, such as young children, may present challenges due to communication limitations.
• Guidance and Trial Runs: Consulting experts and conducting pilot interviews can be beneficial for
assessing the appropriateness of the sample and refining the interview approach.
4. Pilot Interviews (Trialling)
• Purpose: Pilot interviews help evaluate the interview guide and the interviewer’s skills, allowing for
adjustments before the main data collection.
• Approach: These can involve practice interviews or starting the main data collection with the
understanding that early interviews may inform procedural modifications.
5. Inter-Interview Comparisons
• Consistency Across Interviews: The researcher must be aware of findings from previous interviews
and integrate those insights into subsequent ones to maintain coherence and depth.
• Analysis: Patterns or gaps identified in earlier interviews should guide questioning in future ones.
6. Communication Among Interviewers
• Uniformity: If multiple interviewers are involved, it is crucial to ensure consistent coverage and
communication to avoid discrepancies.
• Coordination: Updates and insights must be shared effectively between interviewers to maintain a
standardized approach.
7. Sample Recruitment and Selection
• Strategies: Recruitment depends on the nature of the study and the availability of the sample. When
specialized participants are required, strategies like snowball sampling, partnerships with organizations,
or advertising may be necessary.
• Building Trust: Establishing a good relationship with gatekeepers or key informants helps secure
cooperation.
• Flexibility: Researchers should be prepared with alternative recruitment plans if initial strategies do not
succeed.
8. Participant Management
• Engagement: Keeping participants committed through reminders and providing detailed research
information helps ensure attendance and readiness.
• Ethical Communication: Informing participants about the purpose, process, and ethical considerations
of the interview builds trust and clarity.
9. Interview Location Preparation
• Selection Criteria: The location should be quiet, private, and free from interruptions to ensure quality
audio recording and participant comfort.
• Options:
o Researcher’s Workplace: May require logistical planning and clear communication.
o Participant’s Home: Comfortable for the interviewee but may pose challenges like distractions
or interruptions.
• Considerations: The interviewer should prepare for technical requirements, such as recording
equipment setup, and manage any unplanned factors like the presence of others.
The preparation stage is essential to optimize the interview environment, streamline the interview process, and
ensure high-quality data collection. Every step taken should contribute to making the participant comfortable
and maximizing the richness and relevance of their responses

The Qualitative Interview Stage Overview

• The interviewer is central to the quality and direction of the interview, actively engaging and
interpreting what the interviewee says.
• Effective interviewing requires quick thinking, adaptability, strong conversational skills, and deep
knowledge of the topic.
• The interviewer's goal is to make the interview feel natural, enabling interviewees to express themselves
fully.
Step 1: Recording the Interview
• Recording is crucial for accurate transcription. Ensure the equipment is tested and of good quality for
clear audio.
• Use digital recorders with enough storage and an external microphone for better sound quality.
• Monitor sound during the interview with headphones to avoid errors.
• Video recording can add value but may be intrusive, so consider its use carefully.
Step 2: Orientation Stage of the Interview
• Begin with an introduction, explaining the interview's purpose, duration, and ethical considerations,
including the right to withdraw.
• Encourage the interviewee to ask questions and assure them that their views are what matter most.
Step 3: What Qualitative Researchers ‘Do’ When Interviewing
• Taking Notes: Audio recordings are preferred over note-taking, though brief notes can be helpful for
memory.
• Speaking: The interviewer should speak minimally, allowing the interviewee to lead.
• Interruptions: Avoid interruptions to maintain the flow of conversation.
• Listening and Steering: Actively listen and probe for deeper responses when necessary.
• Silence: Use silence effectively, allowing the interviewee time to think and respond.
• Questioning Style: Ask open-ended questions and adjust as needed to explore responses.
Step 4: Bringing the Interview to a Conclusion
• Review the guide to ensure all topics are covered and allow the interviewee to add final thoughts.
• Thank the participant, debrief them, and confirm the use of their data, providing any needed contact
details.

6. Focus Groups
• A focus group involves
o organised discussion.
o collective activity
o social events and
o Interaction
• It differs from a normal interview in the following ways:
Group Dynamics
• The interaction in a focus group cannot be replicated in a single interview.
• It is incorrect to describe focus groups as multi-respondent interviews because this fails to recognise
the centrality of group interaction.
• A focus group cannot be described as a group discussion because the discussion is planned, steered,
and controlled by the group moderator.
• Focus groups rely on the self-stimulating power of the group to generate ideas through group
dynamics.
Moderation and Group Control
• In a focus group, the researcher asks questions, but the interviewer is called a moderator.
• There can be more than one moderator—one an expert in focus group methodology and the other an
expert in the subject matter.
• In a focus group, the moderator has considerable control, but the group dynamic influences the
proceedings.
• The purpose of a focus group is to take advantage of the interaction between group members, which
may produce data different from that obtained in individual interviews.
• Group interaction is central to generating valuable data in a focus group.
Optimal Group Size
• Focus groups typically consist of six to ten participants.
• Not too large: A group that is too large might overwhelm participants and inhibit their contributions.
• Not too small: A group that is too small may lack sufficient group dynamics to generate rich discussion.
Participant Selection
• Members of a focus group are often chosen so that they are similar in status to reduce power
imbalances.
• Focus group members are often strangers who are unlikely to interact with each other after the session,
which can encourage more honest participation.
Role of the Researcher
• The researcher facilitates the group processes, ensuring that a pre-planned range of issues is covered
while allowing for unexpected material to emerge.
• Ideally, the researcher does not dominate the proceedings but may steer the discussion to keep it
productive if necessary.
Focus Groups vs. Interviews and Surveys
• They are not an alternative to interviews & should not be seen as substitutes for traditional interview
• The focus group method adopts a radically different approach to participant selection and recruitment
compared to surveys.
• Focus groups should not be viewed as a ‘cheap and cheerful’ substitute for more formal or
representative research methods. They should be understood and used in their own right
A focus group typically involves six to ten participants, guided by a skilled moderator for about 1.5 to 2 hours.
The moderator facilitates discussion but ensures all participants contribute. Proper planning, organization, and
analysis are essential for quality data. Too many participants may limit discussion, while too few can result in a
lack of stimulation. The researcher’s tasks include:
• Planning
• Recruitment of participants
• Conducting the focus group
• Analyzing the data

Focus groups can serve various purposes, such as:

• The exploratory: This describes attempts to generate information and knowledge in a field which has
previously been largely under-researched. So it is a trawling approach which seeks basic knowledge and
ideas in a new field.
 • The clinical: This describes attempts to understand why people do what they do, which are accessible to
a trained analyst or expert.
• The phenomenological: This is the use of focus groups by researchers to understand things from the
point of view of other groups in society. The researcher will learn how different sorts of people feel
about something.

Steps in a Focus Group Study:

1. Planning the Study
a. Develop a shared understanding of the study's purpose and goals.
b. Clarify key aspects of the study:
i. The research problem being addressed.
ii. Factors leading to the study (e.g., class exercise, dissertation, project).
iii. The specific purpose of the study.
iv. The types of information the study seeks.
v. The priority information for data collection.
vi. Who needs the information collected (i.e., the client).
vii. What will be done with the collected information.
c. It’s important to clarify these elements with your supervisor or key informants.
2. Optimising the Choice of Group Participants
a. Purposive sampling should be used to maximize the richness of the data. Focus group members
should have characteristics relevant to the research.
b. Participants should not be chosen based on convenience but on relevance to the research
question.
c. Consider inducements for participants, keeping ethical considerations in mind.
d. Plan ahead to recruit participants and confirm their attendance well in advance.
e. Consider convenience for participants when choosing meeting times and locations.
f. Recruitment can also be done through key individuals who have access to suitable participants
(e.g., organizations or personal contacts).

3. Optimising the Group Structure

a. The group should have a balance of homogeneity and heterogeneity:
i. Too homogeneous groups may result in limited discussion.
ii. Too diverse groups may result in imbalance, where some participants dominate the
discussion.
b. Focus groups should be made up of participants of similar social status to avoid domination by
a few members.
c. The moderator must ensure that all group members participate equally.
d. It is important to refine judgments about group membership based on experience.
4. Planning How Many Focus Groups
a. Saturation is the criterion for determining the number of focus groups: data collection continues
until no new information emerges.
 b. Typically, three to four focus groups are run for each category being studied.
c. Different designs can require different numbers of focus groups:
i. Single-category design: One type of participant (e.g., all cancer patients).
ii. Multiple-category design: Different types of participants (e.g., cancer patients,
survivors, and carers).
iii. Double-layered design: Two dimensions (e.g., age and cancer status).
iv. Broad-involvement design: A variety of groups representing different perspectives (e.g.,
police, mediators, local authorities).
5. Planning What Questions to Ask and When
a. Focus groups typically require fewer questions than structured interviews.
b. Questions should be clear and conversational, avoiding complex or compound questions.
c. The sequencing of questions should follow a flow:
i. Opening questions: To get participants comfortable.
ii. Introductory questions: To introduce the topic.
iii. Transition questions: To move to more specific areas.
iv. Key questions: Central questions of the study.
v. Ending questions: To close the discussion.
d. The questions should progress from general to specific and positive to negative.
e. Ensure questions are sequenced to facilitate a natural flow and avoid overwhelming participants
too early.
6. Things the Moderator Does
a. The moderator plays a crucial role in guiding the focus group:
i. Describes the purpose and objectives of the session.
ii. Ensures participants feel comfortable and relaxed.
iii. Poses clear questions and controls the discussion.
iv. Encourages equal participation from all group members, preventing any one person
from dominating.
v. Highlights differences in perspectives to encourage engagement.
vi. Redirects the discussion if it strays off-topic.
vii. Records the session or ensures someone else takes detailed notes.
viii. If there’s an assistant, they may help with logistics, note-taking, and asking
supplementary questions
7. Ethnography/Participant Observation
Participant Observation:
• A data collection method rather than a data analysis method.
• Involves observing and engaging with a group or community over time.
• There are no standard methods for analyzing field notes, but grounded theory offers a commonly used
approach for analysis.
Key Features:
1. Origins: Initially used by anthropologists studying non-Western cultures but now applied in various
research fields.
2. Two Types:
a. Specific Methodology: Researcher engages closely with a group, observing and participating in
their activities over time.
 b. Broad Strategy: A more general approach to collecting a variety of data in a field setting.
Ethnography:
• Refers to both the study of cultures and the published account of such research.
• Ethnography and participant observation are often seen as overlapping, as participant observation is
frequently used alongside other methods.
Dimensions of Participant Observation
1. Researcher’s Role:
• Varies from being a complete outsider to full membership within the group.
• Involvement can be passive or active, depending on the research context.
2. Participants' Awareness:
• Overt Observation: Participants know they are being observed.
• Covert Observation: Participants are unaware of being part of a study.
3. Explication of Study’s Purpose: Can range from full disclosure to providing misleading explanations
about the research.
4. Length of Study: Can be a short-term observation (e.g., one hour) or long-term (e.g., months or years
of observation).
5. Focus of the Study: Researcher may focus on a specific aspect or take a more holistic approach,
collecting in-depth data across multiple aspects.
Participant Observation as a Method:
• Involves both observation and participation.
• The researcher may engage in the activities of the group, potentially becoming part of the community
for the duration of the study.
• The aim is to gain an insider perspective to understand the group's behaviors, values, and culture.
• Ethos: Participant observation aims to understand a community from within, rather than observing from
an external perspective.
Immersion:
• Refers to the researcher’s involvement with the community being studied, which can vary from living
with the group (as in early anthropological studies) to temporary immersion (such as a working day in
a community).
• The researcher does not necessarily need to be a complete member of the group but is expected to get as
close as possible to their experiences.

Data Collection Methods:

• Field notes, written up after observation.
• Technological tools like voice recordings, video, or computers may assist but can be intrusive.
• Data sources can also include:
o Semi-structured interviews
o Group discussions
o Life histories
o Personal documents (e.g., photos, media coverage)
o Other relevant documentation.
Variants of Participant Observation:
• Total Participation:
a. Researcher becomes fully immersed in the community, often without revealing their research role.
b. Example: Working in a factory to study the worker experience.
• Total Observation:
a. Researcher remains detached, observing without engaging in community activities.
b. Example: Spending time on a factory floor, noting workers' behavior without interacting.
• Participant as an Observer:
a. Researcher is known to be a researcher but also participates in group activities.
b. Example: Joining a youth club while conducting research.
• Observer as Non-Participant:
c. No active engagement with the group; just observing from a distance.
d. Sometimes called ethology in psychology (typically applied to animal behavior studies).
• Data Analysis:
o In participant observation, field notes are the primary data source.
o It is important to separate observations from analytic interpretations to maintain clarity in data.
o For example, use separate sections for raw field notes and analytical commentary.
• Advantages:
o Provides an in-depth, holistic understanding of a community or group.
o Helps in generating hypotheses and framing research questions.
• Challenges:
o Time- and labor-intensive.
o Data can be complex and require integration from multiple sources.
o Subjectivity can be a concern, and careful efforts must be made to maintain objectivity

Steps to conduct ethnography/participant observation:

1. Formulating the Research Question - Craft a specific, focused question that will guide the entire
research process. It should be clear and directly related to the phenomena under investigation.
2. Selecting the Area of Study - Choose the context or group where your research question can be
explored meaningfully. This could be a specific setting, population, or social group.
3. Defining the Researcher's Role - Determine your role in the research. Will you observe passively as a
non-participant, or actively engage with participants as a participant observer? Ethical considerations
should guide this choice.
4. Entering the Field - Gain permission to enter the field by getting consent from gatekeepers (e.g.,
community leaders, organizations). Establish rapport with participants to facilitate trust.
5. Maintaining Access - Once access is gained, continue to build relationships with participants, ensuring
sustained trust and access over time. It may involve managing expectations or boundaries.
6. Using Key Informants - Identify people within the community or group who have specialized
knowledge. These informants can help clarify complex topics or provide guidance on the research
process.
7. Field Notes - Keep detailed, reflective notes about what you observe in the field. Field notes should
include both factual descriptions and your personal reflections on what you observe.
8. Observation Focus - Focus on behaviors, actions, or events that are directly related to your research
question. This helps avoid overwhelming amounts of irrelevant data.
9. Sampling - Select participants or observations purposefully, based on what will provide the richest data
for your research question. This isn’t random sampling, but rather based on the needs of the study.
10. Stopping Fieldwork - Conclude fieldwork when you feel you’ve gathered enough data to answer your
research question, or when you begin to encounter repetitive data (theoretical saturation).