Gravity: A Concise Guide
What it is, how it works, and why it matters — from Newton to Einstein.
Overview
Gravity is the universal attraction between objects with mass and energy. It shapes the motion of
falling apples, the orbits of planets, the structure of galaxies, and the expansion history of the
universe. This guide introduces the classical (Newtonian) and modern (Einstein’s general relativity)
views, shows key equations, and connects them to observations.
1. Newtonian Gravity
Isaac Newton (1687) modeled gravity as a force acting instantaneously at a distance. For two point
masses m1 and m2 separated by distance r, the magnitude of the gravitational force is:
F = G m■ m■ / r²
Here G is the gravitational constant. On Earth’s surface the gravitational acceleration is about g ≈ 9.8
m/s². Kepler’s laws of planetary motion (elliptical orbits; equal areas in equal times; P² ∝ a³) emerge
from Newton’s law and conservation of energy and angular momentum.
The inverse-square dependence means gravity weakens rapidly with distance. In circular orbits, the
balance of centripetal acceleration v²/r with gravity gives v = √(GM/r).
Energy View
The gravitational potential energy between two point masses is U = -G m■ m■ / r. Mechanical energy
E = K + U is conserved (in the absence of non-conservative forces). Bound orbits (E < 0) are typically
ellipses; E = 0 corresponds to parabolic escape; E > 0 to hyperbolic flybys.
Near-Earth Approximation
Close to Earth’s surface, r is nearly constant, so g is approximately constant and motion reduces to
the familiar equations of uniformly accelerated motion: y(t) = y■ + v■ t - ½ g t².
2. Einstein’s General Relativity (GR)
Einstein (1915) replaced “force at a distance” with spacetime geometry. Mass-energy tells spacetime
how to curve; curved spacetime tells matter and light how to move. Test bodies follow geodesics (the
straightest possible paths) in this curved geometry.
At the core are Einstein’s field equations, which relate the curvature of spacetime to the
stress–energy content. In weak fields and low speeds, GR reduces to Newtonian gravity, explaining
why Newton’s law works so well in many settings.
Key Predictions and Phenomena
• Perihelion precession of Mercury (extra precession beyond Newtonian prediction).
• Deflection of light by gravity (gravitational lensing).
• Gravitational redshift and time dilation (clocks tick differently in gravitational fields).
• Black holes and event horizons.
• Gravitational waves — ripples in spacetime from accelerating masses (e.g., merging black holes).
3. Evidence
• Solar-system tests: planetary ephemerides, spacecraft tracking, lunar laser ranging.
• Eddington’s 1919 eclipse expedition measuring light deflection (historical milestone).
• Binary pulsar timing showing orbital energy loss consistent with gravitational-wave emission.
• Direct detections of gravitational waves by interferometers (e.g., LIGO/Virgo/KAGRA).
• Cosmology: gravitational lensing maps dark matter; expansion dynamics depend on gravity’s law.
4. Everyday Consequences
• GPS and precise navigation require relativistic corrections (special + general relativity).
• Tides arise primarily from the Moon’s gravitational gradient and, to a lesser extent, the Sun’s.
• Engineering: structural loads, ballistics, and satellite design rely on gravitational physics.
5. Common Misconceptions
• “Gravity is just a force pulling things down.” — In GR, it is spacetime curvature; ‘down’ depends
on the geometry.
• “Heavier objects fall faster.” — In vacuum, all objects fall with the same acceleration (ignoring air
resistance).
• “Gravity doesn’t affect light because light has no mass.” — Curved spacetime bends light; energy
and momentum gravitate.
6. Quick Reference (Formulas)
Newton’s law: F = G m■ m■ / r²
Potential energy: U = - G m■ m■ / r
Circular orbit speed: v = √(GM/r)
Escape speed from radius R: v■ = √(2GM/R)
Kepler’s third law (circular): P² = 4π² a³ / (GM)
Free fall near Earth: y(t) = y■ + v■ t - ½ g t²
7. Going Deeper
To go beyond this overview, study classical mechanics (Lagrangian/Hamiltonian formalisms),
differential geometry (manifolds, tensors, geodesics), and general relativity (Schwarzschild and Kerr
solutions, cosmology).
Appendix: Worked Examples
Example 1: Escape speed from Earth
Set kinetic energy equal to the magnitude of gravitational potential: ½ m v■² = GMm/R ⇒ v■ =
√(2GM/R). For Earth, this is about 11.2 km/s.
Example 2: Orbital period of a low Earth orbit (LEO) satellite
For circular orbits: P = 2π √(a³/(GM)). With a ≈ Earth radius + altitude, one finds periods ~90 minutes
for LEO.
Example 3: Why tides occur
Tides are driven by differences in gravitational pull across Earth’s diameter (a gradient). The Moon
raises two bulges: one on the near side and one on the far side. The Sun contributes smaller, periodic
modulations.
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