Unit – I

Additive Manufacturing

Need and Development of Additive manufacturing

Additive manufacturing as a rule uses only the materials needed for the part,
which radically reduces waste during production. It also doesn't experience the long lead
times you would typically have in making molds, casts, and completed (direct to
manufacture) parts in certain materials.

Additive Manufacturing (AM) technology came about as a result of developments in a

variety of different technology sectors. Like with many manufacturing technologies,
improvements in computing power and reduction in mass storage costs paved the way for
processing the large amounts of data typical of modern 3D Computer-Aided Design
(CAD) models within reasonable time frames. Nowadays, we have become quite
accustomed to having powerful computers and other complex automated machines around
us and sometimes it may be difficult for us to imagine how the pioneers struggled to
develop the first AM machines. This chapter highlights some of the key moments that
catalogue the development of Additive Manufacturing technology. It will describe how the
different technologies converged to a state where they could be integrated into AM
machines. It will also discuss milestone AM technologies. Furthermore, we will discuss
how the application of Additive Manufacturing has evolved to include greater
functionality and embrace a wider range of applications beyond the initial intention of just
prototyping.

Definition

Additive manufacturing (AM) is defined as “a process of joining materials to make objects

from 3D model data, usually layer upon layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing
methodologies”

Types of 3D Printing

1. Binder Jetting
2. Material Extrusion. ...
3. Powder Bed Fusion.
4. Sheet Lamination. ......
5. Vat Photopolymerization.
 1. Binder Jetting

The binder jetting process uses two materials; a powder based material and a binder. The
binder acts as an adhesive between powder layers. The binder is usually in liquid form and
the build material in powder form. A print head moves horizontally along the x and y axes
of the machine and deposits alternating layers of the build material and the binding
material. After each layer, the object being printed is lowered on its build platform.

Due to the method of binding, the material characteristics are not always suitable for
structural parts and despite the relative speed of printing, additional post processing (see
below) can add significant time to the overall process.

As with other powder based manufacturing methods, the object being printed is self-
supported within the powder bed and is removed from the unbound powder once
completed. The technology is often referred to as 3DP technology and is copyrighted
under this name.

Binder Jetting – Step by Step

1. Powder material is spread over the build platform using a roller.

2. The print head deposits the binder adhesive on top of the powder where required.
3. The build platform is lowered by the model’s layer thickness.
4. Another layer of powder is spread over the previous layer. The object is formed where
the powder is bound to the liquid.
5. Unbound powder remains in position surrounding the object.
6. The process is repeated until the entire object has been made.
 2. Material Extrusion

Fuse deposition modelling (FDM) is a common material extrusion process and is

trademarked by the company Stratasys. Material is drawn through a nozzle, where it is
heated and is then deposited layer by layer. The nozzle can move horizontally and a
platform moves up and down vertically after each new layer is deposited. It is a commonly
used technique used on many inexpensive, domestic and hobby 3D printers.

The process has many factors that influence the final model quality but has great potential
and viability when these factors are controlled successfully. Whilst FDM is similar to all
other 3D printing processes, as it builds layer by layer, it varies in the fact that material is
added through a nozzle under constant pressure and in a continuous stream. This pressure
must be kept steady and at a constant speed to enable accurate results (Gibson et al.,
2010). Material layers can be bonded by temperature control or through the use of
chemical agents. Material is often added to the machine in spool form as shown in the
diagram.

Material Extrusion – Step by Step

1. First layer is built as nozzle deposits material where required onto the cross sectional
area of first object slice.
2. The following layers are added on top of previous layers.
3. Layers are fused together upon deposition as the material is in a melted state.
 3. Powder Bed Fusion

The Powder Bed Fusion process includes the following commonly used printing
techniques: Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), Electron beam melting (EBM), Selective
heat sintering (SHS), Selective laser melting (SLM) and Selective laser sintering (SLS).

Powder bed fusion (PBF) methods use either a laser or electron beam to melt and fuse
material powder together. Electron beam melting (EBM), methods require a vacuum but
can be used with metals and alloys in the creation of functional parts. All PBF processes
involve the spreading of the powder material over previous layers. There are different
mechanisms to enable this, including a roller or a blade. A hopper or a reservoir below of
aside the bed provides fresh material supply. Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) is the
same as SLS, but with the use of metals and not plastics. The process sinters the powder,
layer by layer. Selective Heat Sintering differs from other processes by way of using a
heated thermal print head to fuse powder material together. As before, layers are added
with a roller in between fusion of layers. A platform lowers the model accordingly.

Powder Bed Fusion – Step by Step

1. A layer, typically 0.1mm thick of material is spread over the build platform.
2. A laser fuses the first layer or first cross section of the model.
3. A new layer of powder is spread across the previous layer using a roller.
4. Further layers or cross sections are fused and added.
5. The process repeats until the entire model is created. Loose, unfused powder is
remains in position but is removed during post processing
 4. Sheet Lamination
Sheet lamination processes include ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) and
laminated object manufacturing (LOM). The Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing process
uses sheets or ribbons of metal, which are bound together using ultrasonic welding. The
process does require additional cnc machining and removal of the unbound metal, often
during the welding process. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) uses a similar layer
by layer approach but uses paper as material and adhesive instead of welding. The LOM
process uses a cross hatching method during the printing process to allow for easy removal
post build. Laminated objects are often used for aesthetic and visual models and are not
suitable for structural use. UAM uses metals and includes aluminium, copper, stainless
steel and titanium (Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing Overview, 2014). The process is
low temperature and allows for internal geometries to be created. The process can bond
different materials and requires relatively little energy, as the metal is not melted.

Sheet Lamination – Step by Step

1. The material is positioned in place on the cutting bed.

2. The material is bonded in place, over the previous layer, using the adhesive.
3. The required shape is then cut from the layer, by laser or knife.
4. The next layer is added.
5. Steps two and three can be reversed and alternatively, the material can be cut before
being positioned and bonded.
VAT Photo polymerisation

Vat polymerisation uses a vat of liquid photopolymer resin, out of which the model is
constructed layer by layer. An ultraviolet (UV) light is used to cure or harden the resin
where required, whilst a platform moves the object being made downwards after each new
layer is cured.

As the process uses liquid to form objects, there is no structural support from the material
during the build phase., unlike powder based methods, where support is given from the
unbound material. In this case, support structures will often need to be added. Resins are
cured using a process of photo polymerisation (Gibson et al., 2010) or UV light, where the
light is directed across the surface of the resin with the use of motor controlled mirrors
(Grenda, 2009). Where the resin comes in contact with the light, it cures or hardens.

Photopolymerisation – Step by Step

1. The build platform is lowered from the top of the resin vat downwards by the layer
thickness.
2. A UV light cures the resin layer by layer. The platform continues to move downwards
and additional layers are built on top of the previous.
3. Some machines use a blade which moves between layers in order to provide a smooth
resin base to build the next layer on.
4. After completion, the vat is drained of resin and the object removed.
AM Process chain
(1) Pre-processing: the construction and approximate processing of the three-dimensional
CAD model of the part, the selection of the forming direction and the discrete slice
processing of the model;

(2) Layered superimposed molding; the use of different molding processes to manufacture
the cross-sectional contours of parts and the accumulation of integral parts;

(3) Post-treatment: Perform corresponding post-treatment according to the molding

process used, such as secondary photo-curing, polishing and surface hardening treatment.
The process of additive manufacturing technology is shown in Figure 1.

Impact of AM product Development

1. Realizing Design Concepts

Additive manufacturing allows everyone from entrepreneurs to large-scale companies
realize new design concepts. From concept ideation to prototyping, additive manufacturing
quickens each process and allows product designers to fully achieve their concepts. In
fact, prototype design services almost solely use additive manufacturing.

All products, regardless of their complexity, can be created using a 3D printer. Where
additive manufacturing shines is its ability to create intricate designs and parts. Designs
filled with complex geometry and many parts would typically be expensive to prototype,
posing as a huge barrier to entry for small companies. Thankfully, this is no longer a
problem.

Designers can more easily create prototypes without a substantial financial investment. In
fact, they can even recreate prototypes with little to no cost, as the process is quite
affordable. Thanks to this, product designers can take advantage of being able to
physically examine the product to determine if improvements should be made.
It’s also worth mentioning that a physical prototype can serve other purposes aside from
aiding in design. Marketing and sales departments can use a physical prototype for their
advertisements and sales pitches. They can also be used to demonstrate a product’s
effectiveness to potential investors who otherwise may not get the gist through a 3D CAD
model alone.

2. Minimizing Design Flaws

With additive manufacturing, product design companies are able to work out the kinks in a
product’s design before it hits the market. This is invaluable in retaining customers and
being successful – as they say, a first impression means everything.

Products designed with CAD would once only be analyzed virtually, and if you were
lucky, you could create a prototype or two through traditional methods. This was not the
best testing process and resulted in many products hitting the market before they were
ready.

3D printing gives designers the opportunity to print countless models to test a design’s
function and aesthetic appeal. And when you make changes, it’s simple just to reprint the
model and look over it again for little cost and effort.

Additive manufacturing makes prototyping more affordable for not only wealthy
companies but for small businesses and entrepreneurs who would otherwise not be able to
test their products generously.

It also allows you to test multiple colors, materials, and other aesthetic functions of a
product in real life. While virtually, you could test these things, getting an in-person view
of the product is priceless and allows you to get personal with the product.

3. Incorporating Design Changes Instantly

With a virtual prototype, identifying problem areas that need more attention is more
difficult. While CAD designs are increasingly becoming more complex and high quality,
nothing beats getting a physical prototype into your hands.

With your physical prototype, you can identify product flaws more easily. A physical
prototype lends itself to feedback in that you can show it off to potential customers and ask
for feedback. They’re the ones buying, so it’s essential to get their opinion before launch.

Aside from the function, a physical model can also be critiqued on its aesthetic. Seeing
how parts fit together and how colors look in real life can make a world of difference in
the final product. It’s highly recommended to test a few aesthetic choices before finalizing.
 4. Saving Cost and Time
With additive manufacturing, you can save money creating your product design.
Prototypes using additive manufacturing are notoriously cheaper than traditional
manufacturing methods. They require less material and can be made quicker.

Additive manufacturing requires fewer materials and less energy to create a fleshed-out
prototype. It significantly reduces the manufacturing processes environmental footprint.
This is not only good for the environment but also saves you money in the long run.

This not only applies to prototypes, but also to products and parts in general.
Many manufacturing services are turning to 3D printing to create pieces that would
otherwise take more material, money, and time to make. 3D printing can completely
eliminate the need to create molds, special tools, and patterns to design machine parts.

5. Customizing Designs
A benefit of additive manufacturing is being able to customize the product to the
customer’s desire. That is, because rapid manufacturing allows products to be created on-
demand, certain products lend themselves to customization.

To customize a product that will be 3D printed; all that’s required is a change in the CAD
design. Manufacturers don’t need to create a whole new product using new tools and
processes – all they have to do is reprint the design after the CAD file is changed.

6. Fully-Managed Print Jobs

Once you actually get your product out there, you can use additive manufacturing to begin
creating the parts of your design (or maybe even the entire product itself) that lend
themselves to 3D printing. Choosing the right manufacturing materials can be tough.
Nowadays, you’re able to print all sorts of things, and it’s the best to way to create
complex items. Metal 3D printing has even come a long way.

7. Potential for More Sustainable Designs

Additive manufacturing is the opposite of subtractive manufacturing. The former involves
adding only the material required to create a product, while the latter entails stripping
away elements from a large block until you have just your product left.

It’s obvious which of the techniques is more wasteful. Subtractive manufacturing involves
more material than required, and the leftover is often not recycled or reused.
 Virtual prototype
A virtual prototype is an executable software model that runs on a host system. It emulates
the hardware, including CPU instruction sets, memory maps, registers, and interrupts, at a
sufficient level that can be tailored for software development.

How to Create a Prototype Step-by-Step

1. Step 1: Create a Project. ...
2. Step 2: Drag and Drop Widgets to Your Canva. ...
3. Step 3: Create Interactive Links for Your Prototype. ...
4. Step 4: Preview and Present Your Prototype Project. ...
5. Step 5: Share the Prototype You Created. ...
6. Step 6: Handoff the Created Prototype to Developer.

Digital / Virtual Prototypes

A prototype is a functional model of a design process. Prototypes enable designers and
engineers to explore design options, determine different parameters, finalize
part tolerances and in general to determine if a new design works as intended. CADD
software enables design engineers to produce virtual prototypes that simulate real life
systems. In the context of this article, virtual prototyping, digital prototyping and digital
mockups are used synonymously.

Computer Aided Engineering (CAE)

It is the broad usage of computer software to aid in engineering analysis tasks. These tools
are used to analyze the robustness and performance of components and assemblies. CAE
virtual prototyping encompasses simulation, validation, and optimization of product and
manufacturing tools. The common parameters that CAE simulates in mechanical
engineering include pressure, temperature, momentum and interactions within
components. The automotive industry is one of the leading sectors that uses CAE based
digital prototyping for virtual product development.
Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
FEA is a simulation technique based on discrete mathematics. FEA applies the Finite
Element Method (FEM) to solve mathematical equations related to engineering design
problems. It is used extensively for evaluating structural performance and for prototyping
virtually in almost every engineering discipline.
Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD)
Computation fluid dynamics (CFD) is a science that produces quantitative predictions of
fluid-flow phenomena based on the conservation laws (conservation of mass, momentum,
and energy) governing fluid motion. It is an engineering tool used to simulate the action of
thermo-fluids in a system and is used by many industries for conducting virtual
experiments, prototype testing and parametric studies.
Computer Aided Machining (CAM)
CAM based prototyping allows design engineers to create simulations of new facilities and
fabrications superimposed within the environments where they will be erected. It thus
facilitates integration of real processes into the virtual environment.
 Each method has its merits and demerits; which tool should be used for digital prototyping
is based on the requirement of the system to be developed.
While digital mockups are predominantly used in the U.S and Europe, India and China are
catching up fast in their use. Many manufacturing companies in India have already
harnessed the prowess of virtual prototyping tools, and the number of such companies is
increasing constantly.
Digital Prototyping Software
Altair, Dassault Systèmes, PTC and Autodesk are a few leading players in the virtual
prototyping field. Altair HyperWorks especially is popular with manufacturing companies
in India and elsewhere as it offers one of the most comprehensive open architecture CAE
simulation platforms in the industry, coupled with latest technology.
.
Advantages of Virtual Prototyping
 since the entire process is carried out virtually, it takes less time for the testing
 full motion behaviour of complex mechanical systems can be analyzed before building
the actual system
 it is possible to explore multiple design options quickly
 digital mockups can be used to test anything from component parts to entire machines
 improves operator safety and comfort
 removes geographic boundaries and provides a common design standard and language
 increases company agility
 marketing teams can use virtual mockups to demonstrate and describe product properties

Rapid Tooling
APPLICATIONS IN MANUFACTURING AND TOOLING

Central to the theme of rapid tooling is the ability to produce multiple copies of a
prototype with functional material properties in short leadtimes. Apart from mechanical
properties, the material can also include functionalities such as color dyes, transparency,
flexibility and the like. Two issues are to be addressed here: tooling proofs and process
planning. Tooling proofs refer to getting the tooling right so that there will not be a need to
do a tool change during production because of process problems. Process planning is
meant for laying down the process plans for the manufacture as well as assembly of the
product based on the prototypes produced. Rapid tooling can be classified into soft or
hard, and direct or indirect tooling [3], as schematically shown in Figure 7.3.
Soft tooling, typically made of silicon rubber, epoxy resins, low melting point alloys and
foundry sands, generally allows for only single casts or for small 304 Rapid Prototyping:
Principles and Applications batch production runs. Hard tooling, on the other hand,
usually made from tool steels, generally allows for longer production runs. Direct tooling
is referred to when the tool or die is created directly by the RP process. As an example in
the case of injection molding, the main cavity and cores, runner, gating and ejection
systems, can be produced directly using the RP process. In indirect tooling, on the other
hand, only the master pattern is created using the RP process. A mold, made of silicon
rubber, epoxy resin, low melting point metal, or ceramic, is then created from the master
pattern.

Direct Soft Tooling

This is where the molding tool is produced directly by the RP systems. Such tooling
can be used for liquid metal sand casting, in which the mold is destroyed after a single
cast. Other examples, such as composite molds, can be made directly using
steoreolithography. These are generally used in the injection molding of plastic
components and can withstand up to between 100 to 1000 shots. As these molding tools
can typically only support a single cast or small batch production run before breaking
down, they are classified as soft tooling. The following section list several examples of
direct soft tooling methods. Soft Tooling Hard Tooling Direct Soft Tooling Indirect Soft
Tooling Direct Hard Tooling Indirect Hard Tooling Rapid Tooling Figure 7.3:
Classification of rapid tooling Chapter 7: Applications and Examples 305
Selective Laser Sintering of Sand Casting Molds
Sand casting molds can be produced directly using the selective laser sintering (SLS®)
process. Individual sand grains are coated with a polymeric binder. Laser energy is
applied to melt this binder which coats the individual sand grains together, thereby
bonding the grains of sand together in the shape of a mold [4]. Accuracy and surface
finish of the metal castings produced from such molds are similar to those produced by
conventional sand casting methods. Functional prototypes can be produced this way,
and should modifications be necessary, a new prototype can be produced within a few
days.

Direct AIM

A rapid tooling method developed by 3D CAD/CAM systems uses the SLA to produce
resin molds that allow the direct injection of thermoplastic materials. Known as the
Direct AIM (ACES injection molding) [5], this method is able to produce high levels of
accuracy. However, build times using this method are relatively slow on the standard
stereolithography (SLA) machine. Also, because the mechanical properties of these
molds are very low, tool damage can occur during ejection of the part. This is more
evident when producing geometrically more complex parts using these molds.

SL Composite Tooling

This method builds molds with thin shells of resin with the required surface geometry
which is then backed-up with aluminum powder-filled epoxy resin to form the rest of
the mold tooling [6]. This method is advantageous in that higher mold strengths can be
achieved when compared to those produced by the Direct AIM method which builds a
solid SLA resin mold. To further improve the thermal conductivity of the mold,
aluminum shot can be added to back the thin shell, thus promoting faster build times
for the mold tooling. Other advantages of this method include higher thermal
conductivity of the mold and lower tool development costs when compared to molds
produced by the Direct AIM method. 306 Rapid Prototyping: Principles and
Applications

Indirect Soft Tooling

In this rapid tooling method, a master pattern is first produced using RP. From the
master pattern, a mold tooling can be built out of an array of materials such as silicon
rubber, epoxy resin, low melting point metals, and ceramics.

Arc Spray Metal Tooling

Using metal spraying on the RP model, it is possible to create very quickly an

injection mold that can be used to mold a limited number of prototype parts. The metal
spraying process is operated manually, with a hand-held gun. An electric arc is
introduced between two wires, which melts the wires into tiny droplets [7].
 Compressed air blows out the droplets in small layers of approximately 0.5 mm of
metal. The master pattern produced by any RP process is mounted onto a base and
bolster, which are then layered with a release agent. A coating of metal particles using
the arc spray is then applied to the master pattern to produce the female form cavity of
the desired tool. Depending on the type of tooling application, a reinforcement backing
is selected and applied to the shell. Types of backing materials include filled epoxy
resins, low-melting point metal alloys and ceramics. This method of producing soft
tooling is cost and lead-time saving. A typical metal spray process for creating an
injection mold is shown in Figure 7.4.

Direct Hard Tooling

Hard tooling produced by RP systems has been a major topic for research in recent
years. Although several methods have been demonstrated, much research is still being
carried out in this area. The advantages of hard tooling produced by RP methods are
fast turnaround times to create highly complex-shaped mold tooling for high volume
 production. The fast response to modifications in generic designs can be almost
immediate. The following are some examples of direct hard tooling methods.

Rapid Tool

RapidTool is a technology invented by DTM Corporation to produce metal molds for

plastic injection molding directly from the SLS Sinterstation. The molds are capable of
being used in conventional injection molding machines to mold the final product with
the functional material.

Laminated Metal Tooling

This is another method that may prove promising for RT applications. The process
applies metal laminated sheets with the Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
method. The sheets can be made of steel or any other material which can be cut by the
appropriate means, for example by CO2 laser, water jet, or milling, based on the LOM
principle [17]. The CAD 3D data provides the sliced 2D information for cutting the
sheets layer by layer. However, instead of bonding each layer as it is cut, the layers are
all assembled after cutting and either bolted or bonded together.

Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) Tooling

The Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) technology was developed by EOS. The
process uses a very high-powered laser to sinter metal powders directly. The powders
available for use by this technology are the bronze-based and steel-based materials.
Bronze is used for applications where strength requirements are not crucial. Upon
sintering of the bronze powder, an organic resin, such as epoxy, is used to infiltrate the
part. For steel powders, the process is capable of producing direct steel parts of up to
95% density so that further infiltration is not required. Several direct applications
produced with this technology including mold inserts and other metal parts [18].

Pro Metal Rapid Tooling

Based on MIT’s Three Dimensional Printing (3DP) process, the ProMetalTM Rapid
Tooling System is capable of creating steel parts for tooling of plastic injection
molding parts, lost foam patterns and vacuum forming. This technology uses an
electrostatic ink jet print head to eject liquid binders onto the powder, selectively
hardening slices of an object a layer at a time. A fresh coat of metal powder is spread
on top and the process repeats until the part is completed. The loose powder act as
supports for the object to be built. The RP part is then infiltrated at furnace
temperatures with a secondary metal to achieve full density. Toolings produced by this
technology for use in injection molding have reported withstanding pressures up to 30
000 psi (200 MPa) and surviving 100 000 shots of glass-filled nylon [19].
 Indirect Hard Tooling

There are numerous indirect RP tooling methods that fall under this category and this
number continues to grow. However, many of these processes remain largely similar in
nature except for small differences, e.g., binder system formulations or type of system
used. Processes include the Rapid Solidification Process (RSP), Ford’s (UK)
Sprayform, Cast Kirksite Tooling, CEMCOM’s Chemically Bonded Ceramics (CBC)
and Swift Technologies Ltd. “SwiftTool”, just to name a few. This section will only
cover selected processes that can also be said to generalize all the other methods under
this category

Benefits of Additive Manufacturing

 Lower start-up costs. Manufacturing start-up costs can be high. ...

 Easy to learn (and use) ...
 Reduced raw material wastage. ...
 Customisation to the individual. ...
 Digital design integration. ...
 Speed of first prototype. ...
 Speed from prototype to production. ...
 Lower energy and environmental costs.

Application of Additive Manufacturing

 Aerospace Industry & Suppliers.

 Automotive Industry & Suppliers.
 Machinery (e.g. Turbines, Special Machinery)
 Medical implants (Dental, Orthopedic)
 Handling and Robotics.
 Lifestyle & Sports (e.g. Jewelry, Biking)
 Custom Parts (e.g. Classic Car Parts, Surgical Tools)