INT03
Basics of Solar Electricity
Basics of solar electricity
Voltage, Amperage and Resistance
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Basics of solar electricity
Content
• Work with the PV exercises kit to understand the influence of:
• cell size, cell connection and shadow on voltage, amperage and yield
• Power
• Energy
• Power vs Energy
• Electricity
• Connections (series and parallel; summation of power)
• Open and short circuit
• Bypass diodes
• Direct Current (DC)/ Alternating Current (AC)
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Work with the PV exercises kit
PV kit content
Nr. Components Characteristics QTY Photo
Voltage 0,3 – 0,6V (Size of
1 Solar cell (small) 3
cell 50x25mm)
Voltage 0,3 - 0,6V (Size of
2 Solar cell (big) 1
cell 50x50mm)
4 cables red and 4 black
Connection
3 Length: 2 à 19 cm, 2 à 44 8
cables
cm for each colour
4 Connectors 2
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Work with the PV exercises kit
PV kit content
Nr. Components Characteristics QTY Photo
CA, CC, R, A (max 10A),
5 Multimeter 3
temp.
6 Bypass Diode 1
Black, Size of plate
7 Covering plates 4
(30cmx30cmx2cm)
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Work with the PV exercises kit
PV kit cell connection
Series connection
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Work with the PV exercises kit
PV kit cell connection
Parallel connection
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Work with the PV exercises kit
Exercises
• Experiment 00: Cell Size Dependency
• How does the size of a cell influences its amperage and
voltage?
• Experiment 01: Series and parallel connection
• Determine the behaviour of the total voltage and
amperage of series- and parallel connected solar cells.
• Experiment 02: Shadow
• Find out, what happens when parts of a solar module are
shaded.
• Experiment 03: Solar Module (Summation of Power)
• Find out, how a solar module works.
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Basics of solar electricity
Content
• Work with the PV exercises kit to understand the influence of:
• cell size, cell connection and shadow of voltage, amperage and yield
• Power and energy
• Electricity
• Connections (series and parallel; summation of power)
• Open and short circuit
• Bypass diodes
• Direct Current (DC)/ Alternating Current (AC)
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Energy
Types of energy (kinetic and potential)
Energy is the ability to do work.
Two basic types of mechanical energy: Kinetic and potential energy
Conversion from: potential/stored energy to kinetic to electrical energy
= Stored
energy
Other forms of energy:
Thermal (heat), chemical (batteries), nuclear (reactors), etc
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Energy
Definition
Symbol for energy = E
Energy Units:
• kJ (kilo-Joule)
• kWh (kilowatt-hours) 1 kWh = 3600 kJ
• Wh (watt-hours) 1 kWh = 1000 Wh
Diesel
Specific Energy: Diesel
Energy per time / area / weight / volume
• E.g. 1 litre diesel contains around 38 MJ
1.0l
of energy, thus 38MJ/l 38 MJ
• This is equivalent to about 10kWh/l
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Power
Definition
Power (P) indicates the strength of the electricity generated or
supplied.
Symbol for power = P
Power units:
• W (watt)
• kW(kilo-watt)
• MW (mega-watt)
• Electrical power: MWe (mega-watt electrical)
• Thermal power: MWth (mega-watt thermal)
P=V*I
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Power
Power ratings of loads
Power Blender Off-grid inverter Diesel Generator
Rated/ nominal 1000 W 500 W 1000 W
Continuous power 800 W 450 W 800 W
• Peak power: the highest power allowed to flow through particular
equipment, but only for a limited duration
• Continuous power: permanent power production/consumption
Remark: Definitions and data are not always clear, check the correct data,
especially starting power (current) of consumers and continuous power of
producers
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Power and Energy
Example
A PV module with 38,6V and 3 PV modules with 350W
9,06A produces 350W. each:
38,6 V * 9,06A = 350W 3 * 350W = 1 050W
An LED is rated 3W. 3 LEDs with 3W each:
3 * 3W = 9W
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Power and Energy
Example
Producing power over 350 W * 1h = 350 Wh
1 hour?
350W Producing power over 350 W * 6h = 2100 Wh
6 hours?
The same applies to consumers: 3 W * 6h = 18 Wh
3W
→ Energy is power with a time factor: E=P*t
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Power and Energy
24h load curve of a typical household
Peak load
Power (kW)
Base Load
00:00 07:00 am 12:00 noon 07:00 pm 00:00
Time
Appliances or “loads” switched on and off over a period of 24 hours.
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Power and Energy
24h load curve of a typical household
The area under the
load curve is the
energy consumed:
Power (kW)
E = P*t
= total power * 24h
= energy used over a
whole day
→ You need to know
energy and power to
00:00 07:00 am 12:00 noon 07:00 pm 00:00 design a PV system.
Time
Appliances or “loads” switched on and off over a period of 24 hours.
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Basics of solar electricity
Content
• Work with the PV exercises kit to understand the influence of:
• cell size, cell connection and shadow of voltage, amperage and yield
• Power and Energy
• Electricity
• Connections (series and parallel; summation of power)
• Open and short circuit
• Bypass diodes
• Direct Current (DC)/ Alternating Current (AC)
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Electricity
Terminology
VOLTAGE (V or U) CURRENT (I) RESISTANCE (R)
Unit: Volt or V Unit: Ampere or A Unit: Ohm or Ω
Low resistance
Voltage Amperage High resistance
High low
Current Current
OHM’s Law: V = I x R
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Electricity
Definitions
• Current, I in A (ampere)
• is the quantity of electricity flowing inside wires
• Series connection averages amperage, parallel sums amperage
• Voltage, V in V (volt)
• is the degree of pressure / strengths of electricity
• Series connection sums voltage, parallel averages voltage
• Power, P in W (watt)
• it is derived from voltage multiplied by current
• Rating of consumers and producers
• The unit is W (watt) or VA
• Energy, E in Wh (watt-hours)
• is power multiplied with time
• Loads consume energy, producers (e.g. solar modules) produce energy
• Symbol E, unit Wh, kWh
• Resistance, R in (ohm)
• is the degree of difficulty of current flow in a wire
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Electricity
Efficiency
Output power (PO) [%]
Efficiency (η)
Input power (PI )
Input Output
Power (PI) Power (PO)
100% 40%
Process, e.g.
Diesel generator
Losses
60% • Heat (60-70% )
• Noise
• Vibration
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Electricity
Ohms law and electrical power in circuits
V V V
Ohm’s Law: R I I
R I R
V=IxR I=V/R R=V/I
Power P P P
Triangle: I V I V I V
P=IxV I=P/V V=P/I
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between
two points is:
• directly proportional to the voltage across the two points, and
• inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor.
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Electricity
Relationship between current and losses
Very important!
Relation Current / Resistance: Current has huge
P=IxV effect on losses
= I x (R x I)
= I2 x R
If R = 1Ω and I=1A:
I current R Cable resistance • P loss = I2R = 1W
P loss = I2R Load
If the current doubles, i.e.
R = 1Ω and I=2A
• P loss = I2R = 4W
(losses increase 4x)
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Electricity
Resistance
We have a lamp drawing 0.5 A and a 1.5 V battery: The
resistance of the lamp is:
V
I
R=V/I=1.5V / 0.5A = 3Ω R
Now calculate the current through the following circuits:
1. 4.
V
2. 5.
I R
3. 6.
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Electricity
Formula wheel: to calculate ...
POWER 𝑉2 VOLTAGE
𝑅×𝐼
𝑅 𝑃
2
𝑅×𝐼 𝐼
Watts Volts
𝑉×𝐼 𝑃×𝑅
P V
𝑃 I R 𝑉
Amps Ohm 𝐼
𝑅
𝑃 𝑉2
𝑉 𝑉 𝑃 𝑃
𝑅 𝐼2
CURRENT RESISTANCE
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Basics of solar electricity
Content
• Work with the PV exercises kit to understand the influence of:
• cell size, cell connection and shadow of voltage, amperage and yield
• Power and Energy
• Electricity
• Connections (series and parallel; summation of power)
• Open and short circuit
• Bypass diodes
• Direct Current (DC)/ Alternating Current (AC)
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Connections
Series connection
What did you learn about series connections?
300Wp
300Wp 300Wp 300Wp 300Wp
Power: 300Wp
Voltage: 36V
Current: 9A
Total Power = 4 x300Wp =1200Wp
• Same current flows through all components (9A)
• Adding serial elements increase V without affecting I
• Series connection (-) to (+)
• Lower current = lower cable losses
• Failure of any component results in failure of system
• Higher V = sparking / arcing (V= 4 x 36V = 144V)
• Resistances in series = sum of all resistances
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Connections
Parallel connection
What did you learn about parallel connection?
300Wp
300Wp
300Wp
300Wp
Power: 300Wp
Voltage: 36V
300Wp
Total Power = 4 x300Wp =1200Wp
Current: 9A
Resistance in
• Same voltage over each component = 36V parallel:
• Increase A without affecting V (4 x 9A = 36A)
•
R1
Connections: (+) to (+) / (-) to (-)
R2
• Lower V = safer (no arcing)
1
• Component failure doesn’t result in system failure 𝑅𝑇 =
1 1
+
• Can accommodate any number of parallel switched 𝑅1 𝑅2
elements
• Higher A = higher losses
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Basics of solar electricity
Content
• Work with the PV exercises kit to understand the influence of:
• cell size, cell connection and shadow of voltage, amperage and yield
• Power and Energy
• Electricity
• Connections (series and parallel; summation of power)
• Open and short circuit
• Bypass diodes
• Direct Current (DC)/ Alternating Current (AC)
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Open circuit
Definition – Open Circuit Voltage VOC
• Voltage measured when V1 V2
I1 I2
positive and negative
leads are not connected #1 #2
to any load ITOTAL
vTOTAL
• Highest voltage
produced from a power
source such as battery Load (R) Not connected (“Open
or solar module where circuit”)
the circuit is broken or
open VOC = VTOTAL
= V1 + V2
VOC = V1 + V2
IOC = ITOTAL
= I 1 = I2 = 0
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Short circuit
Definition – Short Circuit Current ISC
V1 V2
• Current measured when I1 I2
the positive and negative
ITOTAL
ends of the source are #1 #2
connected
vTOTAL
• Highest current produced
in a circuit from a power Terminals Bridged
source such as a solar (“Short circuit”)
module ISC = ITOTAL
= I 1 = I2
ISC = I1 = I2
VSC = VTOTAL
Short circuiting sources
can cause dangerous = (V1 + V2)
arcing! = 0
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Basics of solar electricity
Content
• Work with the PV exercises kit to understand the influence of:
• cell size, cell connection and shadow of voltage, amperage and yield
• Energy
• Power
• Electricity
• Connections (series and parallel; summation of power)
• Open and short circuit
• Bypass diodes
• Direct Current (DC)/ Alternating Current (AC)
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Bypass diodes
Function
Load
• Diodes only allow current
to flow in one direction + -
- + -- + --
• Diodes have a higher
resistance than the PV
circuit and thus do not
conduct in normal Load
operation.
Shading -
• Shading increases the PV + - + -
circuit resistance causing
current to flow through
the diode Current Flow
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Bypass diodes
Use in PV modules
There are normally 3
bypass diodes in a 60-cell
module
Shading on the short side
of the module will activate
all three diodes and the
module’s output will be
lost!
→ Module in landscape
orientation may improve
output
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Basics of solar electricity
Content
• Work with the PV exercises kit to understand the influence of:
• cell size, cell connection and shadow of voltage, amperage and yield
• Power and Energy
• Electricity
• Connections (series and parallel; summation of power)
• Open and short circuit
• Bypass diodes
• Direct Current (DC)/ Alternating Current (AC)
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Electricity systems
Direct current (DC)
• Polarity of voltage remains constant (+) (-)
• In PV backup systems standard voltages
are:
12 VDC, 24 VDC or 48 VDC
• PV strings: Voc up to 1500VDC
Properties:
• Supplied by PV panels and batteries
• Simplified connection
• Fault finding easier
• Low V / high A - higher losses
• Difficult to step up or step down voltages
• Sensitive to polarity
Source: learn.sparkfun.com
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Electricity systems
Alternating current (AC)
Alternating Current
• Polarity of voltage and current (AC)
switches number of times per second Current
• Power plant frequencies: 50 Hz or 60
Hz
• Standard voltages and frequency AC Load
differ from country to country Source
Properties:
• Produced by AC generators Current
• Typical of grid supply
• Simplified connection
• Transmission over long distance
• (high V / low I = low transmission
losses)
• Easy to convert different voltages
using transformers
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Electricity systems
The South African grid
• National grid owned and managed primarily by ESKOM
• All power stations / sources integrate with same grid
• Connection/disconnection of large sources/loads can affect
frequency and voltage
• ESKOM distributes power to municipalities and large
industries, farms and some individual end-users
• Municipalities distribute
to individual users and
determine rates
to end-users
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Electricity systems
Single phase and 3-phase (AC)
3 phase system consists of three single phase sources
Various connections of loads are possible:
• Single phase: Line1 and Neutral 3 phase: use L1, L2 and L3 together
• Single phase: Line 2 and Neutral The phases are time shifted (120°)
• Single phase: Line 3 and Neutral
3-phase voltages: VL1-L2 = VL1-L3 = VL2-L3 = 400 V Check Playlist Basics of
Solar Electricity on
Single phase voltages: VL1-N = VL2-N = VL3-N = 230 V Youtube
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Electricity systems
Single phase and 3-phase (AC) – Southern Africa
Single Phase: 3 – Phase:
• Single feed: (L) (N) • Necessary for high loads
• Sufficient for normal in industrial application
residential application • 400 VAC
• 230 VAC • 50 Hz
• 50 Hz • Supplies more power
• Easy installation • More complex to install
• Easy fault finding • Fault finding more
• Limited power supply difficult
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Electricity systems
Power factor in AC systems (PF = cosΦ )
Reactive Power
Resistive loads: Inductive loads: Capacitive loads: (kVAR)
(heaters, toasters) (motors, (cables, capacitors)
transformers)
Current in phase Current leads the
with voltage Current lags the voltage Apparent
voltage Power
Power factor = Power factor = Active (kVA)
1 or unity Power factor = “ <1 leading” Power
“ <1 lagging” (kW)
Reactive power = 0 Reactive power < 0
Reactive power > 0
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Electricity systems
Utility earthing system
South Africa mostly uses TN-S
and TNC-S system
T – Terra – Earth
N – Neutral
C – Combined
S – Separate
TN-S: Separate earth supplied
by distributor
TNC-S: Earth and Neutral
combined from distributor,
separated at installation
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