Computer Fundaments
Digital Computer :-
A digital computer is a device that reads binary instructions from its memory, accepts binary
data as input and processes data according to the instruction and provides result as output.
Block diagram of digital computer
CPU
Control
Unit
Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU)
Input Primary Output
(main) memory
Secondary Data Flow
(Auxiliary) Control
memory Signal
The block diagram of computer consists of five main blocks :-
1) Input 2) Output 3) Memory 4) Control Unit 5) ALU
1) Input Devices :-
This converts data and program instruction into a format that is understandable by the
computer. I/O devices acts as an interface between user and computer. The function of of
an input device is to give information into CPU. Input device must be capable of accepting
data and profram at fast speed. Keyboard is the most popular input device. There are some
direct entry input devices like mouse, digitizers,OCR, MICR etc.
2) CPU (Central Processing Unit) :-
The CPU is the brain of the computer. It temporarily stores current data and program
instruction and acts on tem, as directed. CPU cosists of following blocks :-
i) ALU (Arithmatic & Logic Unit):- A computer can solve complex mathematical problems
within a short-interval of time because of arithmatic algorithm. This section can
add,subtract,multiply, divide and can perform some logic operation also.
ii) Control Unit :- This part eliminates the need of human operator. This section directs
other parts of the computer to manipulate the data as prescribed in the program by
providing timing and control signal to all units of computer. Hence it is called as nervous
system of the computer.
3) Memory Unit (Primary or main memory) :- Data and program are stored in the main
memory before calculation begins. Also during the calculation, the memory stores
intermidiate answers. Types of memories are magnetic core memory and semiconductor
(cache) memory. Types of semiconductor memory are RAM, ROM, EPROM etc.
Concept of Bus
Bus :-
A Bus is basically a communication path between the processing unit and peripherals. It is a
group of wires that carry bits.
There are three types of buses :–
1) Address Bus :- It is a group of lines and is unidirectional i.e. bits flow in one direction only.
It is used by the CPU to send out the address of the memory location to be accessed.
2) Data Bus :- This is bidirectional i.e. data flow occurs both to as well as from CPU and
peripheral devices. It is a group of parallel lines numbering 8, 12, 16 or even more. The word
length and the quantum of data that can be manipulated at a time are determined by size of
data bus.
3) Control Bus :- This contain a number of individual lines carrying synchronizing signals. The
control bus sends out control signals to memory, CPU and the I/O ports to ensure proper
operation.
Input Devices
The input devices convert the raw data to be processed into a computer understandable
format. Some commonly used input devices are as follows :-
1) Keyboard :-
It is the most common input device and works like typewriter keyboard but has some
additional keys, handling control functions. The computer keyboard is divided into three
parts.
i) Alphanumeric keys :- A to Z, 0 to 9 and other characters like space, colon etc.
ii) Special keys :- These perform tasks e.g. Enter, back space, shift, delete etc.
iii) Functional keys :- These are used to perform a set of operation by a single keystroke.
The interfacing device and the monitor program convert any keystroke into equivalent binary
code for the computer to accept.
2) Mouse :-
The mouse is a small device containing the tracking ball at its bottom which fits into the palm
of a hand. A mouse can be rolled across a flat surface which moves the tracking ball, thus
transmitting pulses according to its motion. The mouse also has additional buttons on it to
facilitate other functions like pointing, selecting etc.
3) Light Pen :-
It consists of a light sensitive pen. When placed against the CRT screen of a particular type of
terminal, its X-Y co-ordinates are identified to the machine. Thus it can be effectively used to
make drawing right on the CRT screen. The computer can identify the specific location to
which the pen is pointing.
4) Digitizer / Scanner :-
This is direct entry input device that can be moved over a drawing or a photograph or any
other document to convert it into digital data. This document now available in the form of
digital data which then be seen on a CRT screen. Digitizers are used in DTP work.
5) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) :-
This is a process of reading by machine the characters that have been printed in an ink
containing magnetized particles. MICR is widely used in banking industry in the processing of
cheques, credit cards etc.
6) Optical Character Recognition (OCR) :-
In optical scanner a light source converts some special characters including letters, numbers
and symbols into electrical signals which are then sent to the computer for processing. Most
of the OCR devices can read only a standard type face (font). An OCR device has large number
of characters as compared to MICR.
Output Devices
The output devices are used to convert the processed data back into user understandable
form. Important output devices are printers, plotters, COM, terminals etc.
1) Printers :-
Printers are used as output devices for computers. There are two types of printers :
i) Impact Printers :- Here the device strikes a ribbon to deposit ink carbon onto paper. E.g.
Dot-matrix printers, type bar printers, ball printers, chain printers etc.
ii) Non-impact Printers :- These are the printers in which do not strike the paper to form
characters. E.g. Ink-jet printers, laser printers, thermal printers and magnetic printers etc.
Dot-matrix Printers :- This is a serial printer i.e. prints one character at a time. The dot-matrix
is formed by arranging a number of small rods in a specific number of rows and columns. The
sharpness or quality of print depends upon the number of dots included in the matrix. Higher
number of dots gives rise to better print quality.
Ink-jet Printers :- An ink-jet printer sprays small droplets of ink rapidly from tiny nozzles onto
the surface of paper to form characters. The print is letter quality and a wide variety of colours
is available. These printers are able to duplicate colours directly from CRT for colour graphics
work.
Laser Printers :- These printers produce very high quality output of text or data generated
from a word processing or a data processing system. It look like a photocopier machine. But
instead of working photographically, it uses a laser beam to create the image.
2) Plotters :-
A plotter is a printer like device used for producing hard copy outputs of maps, charts,
drawings and other forms of graphics. The data to be plotted can also be recorded on a
magnetic media like magnetic tape and then fed off-line to the plotter to produce graphic
output or it can be used for on-line plotting. Types of plotters are pen plotters, electrostatic
plotters and dot-matrix plotters.
3) Computer Output Microfilm (COM) :-
A COM system consists of a computer that produces the original documents or images and a
recording machine that produces the microfilm. It is called on-line if produced directly from
the computer and off-line if produced from magnetic tape. It requires special equipment for
reading and producing hard copy documents. It is made both in roll form and sheet form. Its
advantages are increased storage capacity and capability to store figures and graphics.
Memory Devices
Classification of Computer memory :-
Computer Memory
Primary (Main) Memory Secondary (Auxiliary) Memory
Magnetic Core Semiconductor Direct Access Sequential Access
Memory Memory secondary storage secondary storage
(On-line storage) (Off-line storage)
RAM ROM Ex. Floppy disks, Ex. Magnetic
Hard disks tape
Static Dynamic
RAM RAM PROM EPROM EEPROM
There are two types of memory devices used in a computer i.e. Primary & Secondary memory
Primary (main) memory :-
There are two types primary memory devices i.e. Magnetic Core and Semiconductor memory.
Magnetic Core memory :- This was used in the computers of first and second generations.
Semiconductor Memory :- This memory is compact, economic and reliable. But it is volatile
i.e. the content of the memory vanish as the power to the computer is switched off.
Cache memory :- This is very fast semiconductor memory which improves the overall
performance of a computer. This memory is also the most expensive one. Cache memory is
also called as ‘scratch pad memory’.
The semiconductor memories are mainly of two types :-
1) Random Access Memory (RAM) :-
These memories are also known as Read / Write memories. The data in RAM can be changed
frequently. This is also called as Volatile memory because when power supply switches off,
the data stored in the RAM will be lost. RAM are of two types :-
a) Static RAM :- In this memory data will be stored as long as power supply is ON. Its drawback
is that its power consumption is more.
b) Dynamic RAM :- In this memory data is to be stored again and again with particular rate.
This is because these cells are not capable of storing the data for more time.
The advantage of this memory is low power consumption and high speed but
disadvantage is that extra timing signal is required.
2) ROM (Read Only Memory) :-
This memory is used by the manufacturer in mass production. The information can be stored
permanently in ROM at the time of manufacturing. The information stored in the ROM can’t
be altered. This is called non-volatile memory. Common example of this type is in calculator,
the storage of mathematical functions like sin, cos, log etc.
3) PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) :-
The basic difference between ROM and PROM is, in case of ROM manufacturer decide the
data of the memory and in case of PROM, user can decide the data of memory by special
programming. But once PROM is programmed it can’t be altered again. Thus this is also known
as non-volatile memory.
4) EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) :-
In EPROM data can be erased and fresh data can be stored by reprogramming for number of
times. The data can be erased be exposing EPROM to ultraviolet light. In this difficulty is that
the memory is to be disconnected from main circuit. Secondly if erasing is not proper then
there is mixing of old and new data. Also the time required for reprogramming is
comparatively more.
5) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) :-
This is also an EPROM but the method of erasing the data is different. In this case data can be
erased electrically by applying voltage. Means it is completely erased or have certain bytes
changed using electrical pulses. The advantage of this method is removal of memory from the
main circuit is not needed. Writing to EEPROM is slower than writing to RAM, so it cannot be
used in high-speed circuits.
Comparison between Primary and Secondary memory
Primary (main) memory Secondary (auxiliary) memory
1) It is a part of CPU & found inside 1) It is physically located outside
the computer. the computer.
2) It is an essential component of 2) A computer system is complete even
a computer system without the secondary memory
3) It is much faster than any secondary 3) Computer access to the stored data is
Storage due to its semiconductor slower than that to main memory.
nature.
4) To increase the storage capacity in 4) Secondary storage is economical and
the primary itself, increases cost & size. has almost unlimited storage capacity.
Types of Secondary storage
1) Direct Access secondary storage :- (On line storage) Ex. Floppy disks, Hard disks
Floppy disk :- It is a small random access disk which can be used both for input and output
operations. The disk is made of flexible plastic and coated with magnetic oxide. For
protection, it is normally contained within a plastic sleeve often called as a cartridge. The head
on a floppy disk unit makes contact with the disk surface while reading or writing. Floppy disk
is a low cost device suited to support personal computer system and for small business &
word processing system. These are available in various sizes and capacities.
Hole to accommodate Disk
Capstan drive
Write protect
notch
5.25
Inch
Index hole
Plastic Read / Write
Sleeve head access
Hard disk :- A hard disk consists of metallic disk coated with metallic oxide. These are available
in different sizes. It is permanently fixed in the disk drive unit in case of microcomputers. The
tracks onhard disk are closely spaced concentric circles. The no. of tracks varies from 200 to
800. There is Read/Write head that moves over the desire track to read data from or write
data onto the disk. In read/write operation, the access arm does not physically touch the disk
surface, it floats above the surface. But is is close enough to detect the magnetised data. A
hard disk can store more data than the floppy disk of same size.
Track
199
Track
000
2) Sequential Access secondary storage :- (Off line storage) Ex. Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape :-
Magnetic tape is a sequential access type secondary storage device. It is available in form
of reel, cassettes and cartridges. In the reel type ½ inch wide plastic tape is used with a
ferromagnetic coating on one side. It normally comes in reel of 2400 ft.
The magnetic tape drive unit consists of supply reel, take-up reel, a set of read/write
heads and an erase head. Two vacuum channels are present which are used as buffers to
prevent the tape from snapping or stretching when starting from a stationary position or
slowing down from full speed. The heads are used either to access information or to place
information on the tape.
When a fresh data is to be written, previously recorded data is erased and new data
is recorded.
Magnetic
tape
Supply Take-up
reel reel
Read / Write
Heads
Loop Varying
Vacuum in height
chamber
s
Advantages :-
1) They are economical as cost per unit data item is low.
2) They can be erased and reused many times.
3) High recording density.
Disadvantages :-
1) They are slow as process is off-line and data is accessed sequentially.
2) Magnetic tapes are affected by heat, dust etc.
CD – ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) or Optical Disk :-
This is a single silvery plastic disk called as ‘Optical disk’ or ‘platter’. It has enormous
storage capacity and it can be used from huge mainframes to small desktop systems.
CD-ROM uses metal-coated, plastic platters as used for digital audio recordings. Digital
information is recorded by a laser during manufacturing. The playing surface is coated with
a thin film of aluminium and this reflects the scanning laser beam of CD-ROM player. A
layer of clear resin covers the aluminium for protection.
Information stored in CD-ROM can be read only. It is useful when change in the data
is not necessary at least over a reasonale period of time.
Personal Computer (PC)
Personal computer is a type of microcomputer. It has put ranging capabilties in the hands of
an individual user. A PC can be used for desktop publishing, playing video games, enquiring
about Railway and Air schedules, simple graphics to designing an advertisement and so on.
There are four main parts of a PC :-
1) Input device to enter information & instruction e.g. keyboard.
2) A processor that processes the information as per program called as center processing unit.
3) A memory where information can be stored e.g. RAM, Floppy disk etc.
4) Output device as mean for communicating to the outside world e.g. printer.
The types of PC are – 1) PC 2) PC – XT 3) PC – AT
These depends upon memory size, processing speed and also whether the computer contains
a hard disk. PC – XT stands for personal computer with extended technology. PC – AT stands
for person computer with advanced technology.
Specifications of PC :-
Normally manufacturer and PC dealer gives the following specifications.
1) Clock frequency i.e. processing speed of PC.
2) Type of microprocessor.
3) Main memory ( size of RAM )
4) Secondary storage device ( hard disk capacity )
5) Number of floppy drives and its size.
6) Serial and parallel port of connect I/O devices like printer, MODEM, mouse etc.
7) Other facilities like CD drive, multimedia kit with sound blaster card and UPS, TV tunner
card etc.
Modem :- This a device containing both a modulator and a demodulator. It is used to convert
binary signals into analog siganls capable of being transmitted over the telephone lines and
demodulate such analog signals and reconstruct the equivalent binary output.
Ports :- A port is a term referring to an electrical inter connection point to which another input
or output device can be connected so that it is now under the control of the computer to
which it is attached.
UPS ( Un-interrupted Power Supply ) :- For important and delicate instrument like computer
UPS is used in the circuit. When supply is ON, the computer gets power in usual way and the
battery in UPS continue to charge. When there is break in the power supply, there is no break
in power supply to the computer because the battery in UPS provides the power to computer.
Multimedia kit with sound blaster :-
This is a text to speech package which has three interesting applications as follows –
1) Monologue for windows :-
This allows to add the element of speech to every windows application.
2) Talking Scheduler :-
This is an appointment scheduling and planning program with speech and voice annotation
capabilties.
3) SB Talker :-
This is text to speech synthesizer program with an unlimited vocabulary that reads ASCII text,
performs functions on the text and outputs it vocally through the speakers.
Applications of Computer :-
1) Scientific research
2) Business application
3) Office automation
4) Word processing
5) Desktop publishing ( DTP )
6) Engineering design
7) Banking
8) Communication
9) Information systems
10) Meterology
11) Insurance and stockbroking
12) Electronic office
13) Payroll and personnel records
14) Stock control and sales etc.
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