UNIT – III

Disaster Impacts: Disaster impacts (Environmental, Physical, Social,

Economic, Political etc.); Health, Psycho-social issues; Demographic aspects
(Age); Hazard locations; Global and National disaster trends; Climate change
and Urban disasters.

– Disaster Impacts/Impact of Disasters (Environmental, Physical, Social,

Economic & Political):

Disaster Impacts/Impact of Disasters: These are the physical and social

disturbances that a hazard agent inflicts when it strikes a community. Physical
impacts comprise casualties (deaths, injuries, and illnesses) and damage to
agriculture, structures, infrastructure, and the natural environment. Social impacts
comprise psychological impacts, demographic impacts, economic impacts, and
political impacts.

1. Environmental impacts:

i. Water.
ii. Land/Soil.
iii. Land-use.
iv. Landscape.
v. Crops.
vi. Lake/Rivers/Estuaries.
vii. Aquaculture.
viii. Forests.
ix. Animal/Livestock.
x. Wildlife.
xi. Atmosphere.
xii. Energy.

2. Physical impacts:

i. Injuries.
ii. Death.
iii. Physical disability.
iv. Burns.
v. Epidemic.
vi. Weakness/uneasiness.
 vii. Physical illness.
viii. Sanitation.
ix. Miscarriage.
x. Reproductive health.
xi. Fatigue.
xii. Loss of Sleep.
xiii. Loss of Appetite.

3. Social impacts:

i. Change in individual’s role.

ii. Disruption of social fabric.
iii. Isolation.
iv. Change in marital status.
v. Sexual abuse & domestic violence.
vi. Orphans.
vii. Single parent children.
viii. Family & social disorganization.
ix. Migration.
x. Life style changes.
xi. Breakdown of traditional Social Status.

4. Economic impacts:

i. Loss of life.
ii. Unemployment.
iii. Loss of Livelihood.
iv. Loss of property/land.
v. Loss of household articles.
vi. Loss of crops.
vii. Loss of public infrastructure.

5. Political impacts: There is substantial evidence that disaster impacts can

cause social activism resulting in political disruption, especially during the
seemingly interminable period of disaster recovery. The disaster recovery period
is a source of many victim grievances and this creates many opportunities for
community conflict (Bates and Peacock, 1993; Bolin, 1982, 1993). Victims
usually attempt to recreate preimpact housing patterns, which can thwart
government attempts at relocation to less hazardous areas (Dove, 2008). Such
attempts also can be problematic for their neighbours if victims
attempt to site temporary housing, such as mobile homes, on their own lots while
awaiting the reconstruction of permanent housing.

Conflicts arise when such housing is considered to be a blight on the

neighbourhood and neighbours are afraid the “temporary” housing will become
permanent. Neighbours also are pitted against each other when developers
attempt to buy damaged or destroyed properties and build multifamily units on
lots previously zoned for single family dwellings. Such rezoning attempts are a
major threat to the market value of owner-occupied homes but tend to have less
impact on renters because they have less incentive to remain in the
neighbourhood. There are exceptions to this generalization because some ethnic
groups have very close ties to their neighbourhoods, even if they rent rather than
own.

– Health:

An epidemic is an outbreak of a contractible disease that spreads through a human

population. A pandemic is an epidemic whose spread is global. There have been
many epidemics throughout history, such as the Black Death. In the last hundred
years, significant pandemics include:

 The 1918 Spanish flu pandemic, killing an estimated 50 million people

worldwide.
 The 1957–58 Asian flu pandemic, which killed an estimated 1 million
people.
 The 1968–69 Hong Kong water flu pandemic.
 The 2002-3 SARS pandemic.
 The AIDS pandemic, beginning in 1959.
  The H1N1 Influenza (Swine Flu) Pandemic 2009–2010.

Other diseases that spread more slowly, but are still considered to be global health
emergencies by the WHO, include:

1. Impact events: One of the largest impact events in modern times was the
Tunguska event in June 1908.

2. Solar flare: A solar flare is a phenomenon where the sun suddenly releases a
great amount of solar radiation, much more than normal. Some known solar flares
include:

 An X20 event on August 16, 1989.

 A similar flare on April 2, 2001.
 The most powerful flare ever recorded, on November 4, 2003, estimated
at between X40 and X45.
 The most powerful flare in the past 500 years is believed to have occurred
in September 1859.

Ten milliseconds to several minutes. The initial burst is usually followed by a

longer-lived "afterglow" emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet,
optical, infrared, microwave and radio).

All the bursts astronomers have recorded so far have come from distant galaxies
and have been harmless to Earth, but if one occurred within our galaxy and were
aimed straight at us, the effects could be devastating. Currently orbiting satellites
detect an average of about one gamma-ray burst per day. The closest known GRB
so far was GRB 031203.

– Psycho-Social Issues:

Various psychosocial consequences were observed. They are:

1. Post‐traumatic symptoms.
2. Depression.
3. Anxiety.
4. Dissociation.
5. Suicidality.
6. Dissocial behaviour.
7. Substance abuse were common.
Most symptoms started soon after the disaster and were evident in the majority of
victims. A number of victims continued to have psychiatric symptoms with
considerable intensity, clarity and multiplicity, which suggested probable
syndromes. Religious observations and self‐help groups were the usual coping
methods of the community. Psychosocial manifestations could be conceptualized
in five phases depending upon the period around the disaster and the availability
of outside help.

– Demographic Aspects:

Age:

1. Impaired balance (balance disorder).

2. Decreased strength.
3. Poor exercise tolerance.
4. Deterioration of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.
5. Unable to hear danger signals, alarms, etc.
6. Difficulty in evacuation.
7. Difficulty in protection.
8. Difficulty in getting access to relief and compensation money.
9. Difficulty locating avenues of escape.
10. Have to face the shock of losing all that they had attained in life
i. Home.
ii. Family.
iii. Security.

– Hazard/Hazardous Locations:

Hazardous Locations consist of areas where there is the potential for a fire or
explosion due to electrical equipment that is in operation in this area with a
reaction to flammable or ignitable gases, liquids, vapours, combustible dusts,
fibers or flyings. The need for Explosion-Proof equipment then arises due to this
potential for fire or explosion.

The National Electrical Code (NEC) along with the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) and Underwriters Laboratories (UL) have published a guide
along with codes that classify hazardous areas into classes, divisions and zones.
The “Combustion” or “Fire” Triangle is used to classify Hazardous Locations in
the Explosion-Proof industry. A source of fuel (explosive gases, liquids, or
vapours), source of ignition (fire, spark, or explosion) and oxygen must be present
in the appropriate consistencies for an explosion to occur. Our Explosion-Proof
Enclosures & Systems operate to prevent these three criteria from mixing in such
a way that would generate an explosion and be hazardous to the surrounding
environment.

CLASS I:

Class I locations consist of areas where gases, vapors or liquids may exist that
have the potential to become flammable or ignitable. There are two different
divisions that exist in Class I, Division 1 and Division 2, along with three Zones;
Zone 0, 1 & 2. Locations that would be considered to be Class I include Petroleum
Refineries, Gasoline Storage Areas, Dry Cleaning Plants, Spray Finishing Areas,
Fuel Servicing Areas, etc.

Division 1 is a subset of Class I and is classified as an area where the explosive

or flammable gases, vapors or liquids mentioned above can exist under normal,
everyday operating conditions.

Division 2 is also a subset of Class I and is classified as an area where the

explosive or flammable gases, vapors or liquids mentioned above are not likely
to exist during regular operation.

Zone 0 is described as the presence of explosive or flammable gases, vapors or

liquids for long periods of time during operating conditions or during a large
portion of the operating conditions.

Zone 1 is described as the presence of explosive or flammable gases, vapors or

liquids for some of the time during normal operating conditions.

Zone 2 is described as there not being a likelihood of explosive or flammable

gases, vapors or liquids present during normal operating conditions.

CLASS II:

Class II locations consist of locations where combustible dusts may exist that
have the potential to become flammable or ignitable. Locations that would be
considered to be Class II include Grain elevators, Flour and feed mills, Metal
powder manufacturers, and Coal plants, etc.
Division 1 is a subset of Class II and is classified as an area where the explosive
or flammable combustible dusts mentioned above can exist under normal,
everyday operating conditions.

Division 2 is also a subset of Class II and is classified as an area where the

explosive or flammable combustible dusts mentioned above are not likely to exist
during regular operation.

CLASS III:

Class III locations consist of locations where fibers and flyings may exist that
have the potential to become flammable or ignitable. Locations that would be
considered to be Class III include Cotton Gins, Cotton Seed Mills, Sawdust or
flyings plants, or Textile mills.

Division 1 is a subset of Class III and is classified as an area where ignitable

fibers or flyings may be manufactured, stored or handled.

Division 2 is also a subset of Class III and is classified as an area where ignitable
fibers or flyings may be stored or handled.

Hazardous Location Equipment:

Sources of Ignition: Now that we've completed our Code translation, we're ready
to move to the next part of our discussion hazardous location equipment. To do
this, let’s first take a look at the ways in which electrical equipment can become
a source of ignition. There are three of them:

1. Arcs and sparks produced by the normal operation of equipment, like motor
starters, contractors, and switches, can ignite a hazardous location atmosphere.

2. The high temperatures of some heat producing equipment, such as lamps and
lighting fixtures, can ignite flammable atmospheres if they exceed the ignition
temperature of the hazardous material. The National Electric Code requires
special marking of heat producing equipment with temperatures above 100 C
(212aP).

3. Electrical equipment failure is another way an explosion could be set off. A

burn out of a lamp socket or shorting of a terminal could spark a real disaster in
a hazardous location.
 – Global & National Disaster Trends:

Development and relief agencies have long recognized the important role played
by data and information in mitigating the impacts of disasters on vulnerable
populations. Systematic collection and analysis of these data provides invaluable
information to governments and agencies in charge of relief and recovery
activities. It also aids the integration of health components in development and
poverty alleviation programs.

However, there is a lack of international consensus regarding best practices for

collecting these data. Together with the complexity of collecting reliable
information, there remains huge variability in definitions, methodologies, tools
and sourcing. CRED has a long history of standardized data compilation,
validation and analysis. It provides free and open access to its data through its
website. One of CRED’s core data products is the EM-DAT the International
Disaster Database. EM-DAT provides an objective basis for vulnerability
assessment and rational decision-making in disaster situations.

For example, it helps policymakers identify disaster types that are most common
in a given country and have had significant historical impacts on specific human
populations. In addition to providing information on the human impact of
disasters, such as the number of people killed, injured or affected, EM-DAT
provides disaster-related economic damage estimates and disaster- specific
international aid contributions.
 – Climate Change:

Climate change is a phrase that is essentially self‐explanatory, it is the change in

the climate of a country, region, or the world over, and is believed to be caused
either directly or indirectly by the activity of the human race.

The type of climate we experience now might be prevailing over the last 10,000
years with minor and occasionally wide fluctuations. The planet earth has
witnessed many variations in climate since the beginning. Geological records
show alteration of glacial and inter‐glacial periods. The geomorphological
features, especially in high altitudes and high latitudes, exhibit traces of advances
and retreats of glaciers. The sediment deposits in glacial lakes also reveal the
occurrence of warm and cold periods. The rings in the trees provide clues about
wet and dry periods. Historical records describe the vagaries in climate. All these
evidences indicate that change in climate is a natural and continuous process.

India also witnessed alternate wet and dry periods. Archaeological findings show
that the Rajasthan desert experienced wet and cool climate around 8,000
B.C. The period 3,000‐ 1,700 B.C. had higher rainfall. From about 2,000‐1,700
B.C., this region was the centre of the Harappan civilisation. Dry conditions
accentuated since then.

Climate in the recent past: Variability in climate occurs all the time. The
nineties decade of the last century witnessed extreme weather events. The 1990s
recorded the warmest temperature of the century and some of the worst floods
around the world. The worst devastating drought in the Sahel region, south of the
Sahara desert, from 1967‐1977 is one such variability. During the 1930s, severe
drought occurred in southwestern.

Great Plains of the United States, described as the dust bowl. Historical records
of crop yield or crop failures, of floods and migration of people tell about the
effects of changing climate.

Causes of Climate Change: Climate refers to the long‐term average of the

aggregation of all components of weather: precipitation, temperature and
cloudiness, for example. The climate system includes processes involving ocean,
land and sea ice in addition to the atmosphere.

The Earth system encompasses the climate system. Many changes in Earth
system functioning directly involve changes in climate. However, the Earth
system includes other components and processes, biophysical and human those
are important for its functioning. Some Earth system changes, natural or driven
by humans, can have significant consequences without involving changes in
climate. Global change should not be confused with climate change; it is
significantly more, indeed, climate change is part of this much larger challenge.

The causes for climate change are many. They can be grouped into:

1. Astronomical causes.
2. Terrestrial causes.

Astronomical causes: The astronomical causes are the changes in solar output
associated with sunspot activities. Sunspots are dark and cooler patches on the
sun which increase and decrease in a cyclical manner. According to some
meteorologists, when the number of sunspots increase, cooler and wetter weather
and greater storminess occur. A decrease in sunspot numbers is associated with
warm and drier conditions. Yet, these findings are not statistically significant.

Climate Change – Inter relationships with earth subsystems:

1. Geosphere: The global distribution of water and land at the Earth’s surface
significantly affects the circulations in the ocean and the atmosphere. Thus, plate
tectonics contribute to the development of climate and to changes in global
environment. Volcanic eruptions, even though local in origin, can affect the Earth
system as a whole. They devastate wide areas of land and drastically change the
habitat of flora, fauna and man, and for climate purposes the volcanic output
reflects in the substance composition of the atmosphere.

Submarine volcanoes create and destroy groups of islands. Some large volcanic
events cause eruptions of volcanic ash reaching the stratosphere, where it remains
for many years, substantially influencing the radiation balance of the Earth.
Identification of volcanic ash of particular volcanic events in ice cores obtained
in the Arctic and the Antarctic provide evidence for the worldwide distribution of
volcanic ash in the atmosphere.

Volcanism is considered as another cause for climate change. Volcanic eruption

throws up lots of aerosols into the atmosphere. These aerosols remain in the
atmosphere for a considerable period of time reducing the sun’s radiation
reaching the Earth’s surface. After the recent Pinatoba and El Cion volcanic
eruptions, the average temperature of the earth fell to some extent for some
years. The most important anthropogenic effect on the climate is the increasing
trend in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which is likely
to cause global warming.

2. Hydrosphere: It is generally accepted that the oceanic circulation has a

profound influence on the mean state of the Earth’s climate and on climate
changes on decadal and longer time scales. Large‐scale transports of heat and
fresh water by ocean currents are key climate parameters. The stratification and
circulation in the upper ocean is crucial for the penetration of heat and substances
into the ocean.

The circulation is determined by the structure and strength of the wind systems,
the regional distribution of precipitation patterns, and the heat exchange with the
atmosphere. The shape of the sea floor, particularly the great deep‐sea basins,
also has a decisive influence on ocean current systems.

The World Ocean plays a twofold role in the Earth’s climate system. On the one
hand climate fluctuations are caused by long‐term changes in the heat distribution
of the ocean. On the other hand the thermal ‘inertia’ of the great water masses
slows down climatic changes. The close link between ocean and atmosphere is
also effective on shorter time scales. This is seen by the close correspondence
between the surface temperature of the ocean and the air temperature close to the
ground. The surface winds also strongly contribute to changes in the oceanic
circulation and thus regional weather conditions.

3. Biosphere: The most important anthropogenic effect on the climate is the

increasing trend in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
which is likely to cause global warming.

– Urban Disasters:

Disasters are the result of the interaction of hazards and vulnerable conditions
and as such the product of the social, political, and economic environments.
When disasters affect cities or urban areas (nonrural contexts) they are referred
to as urban disasters.

There is general agreement that urban disasters & risk are linked to broader
development processes, & disaster risk reduction should be mainstreamed into
the general development process. Risk is becoming highly urbanized, with
increasing populations & assets exposed to hazards, combined with difficulties in
addressing vulnerability and risk drivers, especially in low & middle income
countries. The quality and capacity of city governments is highly relevant to
the distribution of local risk levels, those associated with everyday life as well
as less frequent, more extreme events. Tackling urban disasters and creating
more resilient cities capable of managing disaster risk and climate change
requires good governance.