MODULE – 4 – Motion Control

Introduction – components of a motion control system – sensors for

motion control – drives / actuators for motion control – transmission
mechanisms – control devices

Self-Study:
1. Study of Basic control structures and loops of a motion control system
2. Study of AC servo and Induction motor Model

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Unit/ Topic Learning Outcomes
CO- 3 - Comprehend various drives, controls, transmission mechanisms and
motion profiles of a motion control system
Overview of Motion control systems and their basic elements

Sensors and control devices used in motion control systems.

Identify suitable drives and actuators for a typical motion control application

Identify a suitable transmission device for a typical motion control application

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 Overview

Sensors for motion control

Contents Drive-trains, Drives and Actuators

AC Servo and Induction Motor

Models

Converters and Inverters

(VFD)

4/26/2021 MHB4321-SMC-RMKP-HITS 4
Quick Overview
Motion Control
• Sub field of Automation encompassing systems / sub systems
involving moving parts of machines in controlled manner
• Controlling mechanical movements of a load
• E.x. Using a computer to control an actuator in a controlled
manner
• Often includes a blend of electronics and mechanical
components divided into three parts

Motion Control Humans

Processor or Motion
Brain
Controller

Actuator Muscles and joints Typical Motion Control System

Sensors Senses
Functions of a Motion Control Systems
• Controls the following parameters governing motions of
an axis in a system
• Position
Ability to precisely control and coordinate
• Velocity complex motions of multiple axis is the vital
functions of a Motion Control System
• Torque
X-Y Stage
• Acceleration of an axis
• Controls
• Open loop
• Closed loop

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Components of a Motion Control Systems

1. Human Machine Interface (HMI)

2. Motion Controller
3. Drives
4. Actuators / Prime movers
5. Transmission Mechanisms
6. Feedback
COMPONENTS OUTLINE

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Drives
• Operates and controls the speed, torque and direction of
moving objects
• Generally
• Machine tools
• Transportations
• Robots, Fans etc.
• Amplifies the smaller command signals to High-power
voltage and current signals to drive the prime mover
• Drive operation methods
• Converter or DC link
• PWM controller
• Inverters
• Variable Frequency Drive
• Vector Controlled Drive
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Actuators and Transmission Mechanisms

Linear Actuator Stepper Motor Induction Motor

Induction Motor

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Feedback Devices - Sensors
• Devices used to measure the physical
quantities of Interest
Resolver
• Quantities of Interest in motion control
• Position
• Velocity Encoders

• Acceleration
• Temperature
Limit Switches
• Force / Strain

Inductive Sensor

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Push buttons with displays 11
Sensors for Motion Control
The primary functions of sensors on a motion system are:
✓ Monitoring machine operation
✓ Monitoring machine condition
✓ Monitoring interaction with the load or with other
systems

Functions Physical Quantities of Interest

Monitoring machine operation Speed, Velocity, Acceleration and
Position
Monitoring Machine Vibrations, Acceleration,
Conditions Inclination, Temperature, Current
Monitoring Interaction with Force, Strain, Torque,
load or other systems displacement, position
Presence or absence of an object
Courtesy: www.motioncontrolonline.org
Sensors for Measurement of Speed, Position, Velocity

Position Velocity Temperature

Potentiometer Accelerometer Thermocouples
Encoders Tacho - generator RTD
• Absolute Encoder Thermistor
• Incremental Hall Effect Sensor Fibre Optic
• SinCos
Bimetallic
Inductive, Capacitive
and Eddy Current Pyrometer
Magneto strictive
Hall Effect
Fibre Optic
Absolute Encoder https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Qk--Sjgq78&t=532s

Main components of an optical

encoder
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Qk--Sjgq78
Incremental Encoder
Encoder (contd.)
• Pulses Per Revolution (PPR)
• Represents encoder resolution - number of
high pulses an encoder will have on either of its
square wave outputs A or B over a single
revolution.
• Lines Per Revolution (LPR)
• The line refers to the bars etched or printed
onto an optical encoder’s disk.
• Counts Per Revolution (CPR)
• number of quadrature decoded states that exist
between the two outputs A and B
• CPR of an encoder is the encoder’s PPR
multiplied by 4
• Consider an Encoder which has 2000 lines on the disk with quadrature in nature,
• how many counts will it corresponds to one revolution?
• what could be its PPR?
• What could be its angular resolution?
Solution:
Counts per revolution = 2000 * 4 = 8000 counts
Pulse Per Revolution = CPR = 8000
Angular Resolution = 360 / 8000 = 0.045/Count

• A Servo motor has a 1024 line incremental encoder. If the motor is running at 3600rpm and
the controller uses quadrature decoding, how many counts per second will be generated by
the encoder?
Solution:
Counts Per Revolution = 2, 45, 760 cts/s
Resolver (Sin – Cos Encoder)
• Provides 1024 sine wave cycles per channel per
revolution
• A channel is Cosine and B channel is sine
• Incremental angle
−𝟏
𝑽𝑩
𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏
𝑽𝑨
• Counts per revolution is given by

• Where,
• n is the resolution of the A/D converter
• Shaft position can be determined in counts as
A SinCos encoder provides 1024 (= 210) sine waves per revolution.
(a) If a 12-bit A/D is used by the motion controller circuitry, what will be the position
resolution?
(b) If the position counter reads 4 124 244 cts, what is the mechanical angular position of the
encoder shaft?

overall position resolution will be = 1024 × 212= 4 194 304 = 222

Smallest detected positional change = 360/ 222 = 8.853*10-5
No of counts for 22 bit resolution = 4194304
No of counts shown in position counter = 4193102
𝟒𝟏𝟐𝟒𝟐𝟒𝟒
Angular position  = * 360 = 353. 98
𝟒𝟏𝟗𝟒𝟑𝟎𝟒
Velocity Estimation
• Fixed – time (FT) method • 1/T interpolation method
𝑷 𝒌 − 𝑷(𝒌 − 𝟏) • Time elapsed between two encoder pulses
𝑽 𝒌 =
𝒕𝒔 𝟏
Where, 𝑽 𝒌 =
𝑻 𝒌 − 𝑻(𝒌 − 𝟏)
𝑽 𝒌 = velocity estimate at the kth
Where,
sampling instant
𝑽 𝒌 = Velocity estimate at the kth
𝑷 𝒌 − 𝑷(𝒌 − 𝟏) = position estimate at
sampling instant
the kth and (k-1)st samples
𝑻 𝒌 − 𝑻(𝒌 − 𝟏) = time at the kth and (k-
1)st encoder pulse
• Let ts be the sampling period where
controller samples position • a highly accurate timer is required (s)
• For a controller with sampling
frequency of 2500 kHz has ts of
1/2500s
Example:

Consider a motor with a 1000-line incremental encoder and quadrature decoder.

a. Assume that the controller has 2500 kHz sampling rate and uses the fixed-time method
for velocity estimation. What will be the speed estimation error if a one-count error was
made in the position counts while the motor was running at the minimum detectable
speed?
b. Assume that the encoder is connected to a controller that uses the 1∕T interpolation
method with a 1 μs timer. If the motor is running at the same minimum speed as in the
first case, what will be the speed estimation error if a 1-count error was made in the
timer counts?
Solution
Vmin is the velocity that
• Find the sampling period: ts = 1/Fs = 1/2500 kHz = 0.0004s needs to a change of one
𝟏𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝟏 𝒓𝒆𝒗 𝟔𝟎 count in the position in
𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 = ∗ ∗
𝒕𝒔 𝑪𝒕𝒔 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝟏𝒎𝒊𝒏 this time
• = (1/0.0004) * (1/(1000* 4))*(60/1) = 37.5 rpm

• V = (2/0.0004) * (1/(1000* 4))*(60/1) = 75 rpm If one count error in position

• % error = ((75 – 37.5)/37.5)*100 = 100% controller will have two
counts in sampling interval
(b) Find out the no of counts at the minimum speed
• Cts = (37.5/60)*4000 = 2500; ts = 1/2500 = 0.0004s
• Calculate the no of controller counts for 0.0004 s = 0.0004/1s = 400 counts
• One count error = 401 counts (400 +1)
• V = (2/0.000401) * (1/(1000* 4))*(60/1) = 37.406 rpm
• Error = (37.5 – 37.406)/37.5 *100 = 0.25% of measurement error.
Activity / Assignment
An incremental encoder with 1024 PPR and quadrature decoding is used with a measuring
wheel with 4 in diameter as shown in Figure 5.29. What is the minimum change in linear
distance that can be measured with this wheel? If the measured part is moving at 4 ft∕s
speed, what will be the frequency of the encoder pulses in cts ∕ s?
Solution

➢ Find CPR = PPR * 4 = 1024 * 4 = 4096 cts / rev

➢ Find the minimum linear distance travelled for one count
• 1 Count = ( 3.14 * 4 * 25.4)/4096 = 0.078 mm
➢ Given speed is 4 ft / s = 4 * 30 * 10 = 1200 mm
➢ Find the no of counts required for travelling 1200mm / s
• 1200 / 0.078 = 15, 384 cts / s
➢ Find out the no of revolutions at this speed
• Rps = 15384 / 4096 = 3.75 rev / s
• Rpm = 3.75 * 60 = 225 rpm
Detection Sensors
• Limit Switches
• Monitoring Interaction with load or other
systems
• Need to detect the presence or absence of an
object
• Sensors are
• Limit Switches
• Proximity Sensors
• Photoelectric Sensors
• Ultrasonic Sensors
 Photoelectric

Ultrasonic
Pilot Control Devices
• Push Buttons
• Selector Switches
• Indicator Lights

1. Operator – Buttons – Pushed, Pulled, Twisted etc.

2. Legend plate – Label part (START, STOP etc.)
3. Contact Block – Electrical Contact Sections
• NO, NC or Memory Coil
Pilot Control Devices
• Selector Switches
industrial-electronics.com/electric_mts--cntrl_syst--4.html
Pilot Control Devices
• Indicator Lights
• Visual status of the system
• Red – Stop, Danger, Abnormal
• Green – Running, Ready, Safety
• Yellow / Amber – Caution,
Change or Impending change of
conditions

Tower Light
Control Devices for a Typical AC Motor

Overload Relay

Contactor
Drive Trains
• Used to transmit motion from actuator to the load (tool).
• Motor and transmission combination is called as drive-train

Selection of motor
and transmission
mechanism

Iterative drive-train design process

Drive Trains – Selection and Design
• Types of Drive train design process • Goals of the design process are to ensure

Type Given Find/ Size

1 Desired load motion Transmission and Torque available from motor > than the torque
Motor required by the application by a safety margin
𝑻𝒎 > 𝑺𝒇 ∗ 𝑻𝑨
2 Existing motor and Resulting motion
transmission
3 Existing motor, Transmission
desired load motion
Inertia between the motor and load should
4 Desired load motion, Motor be met
transmission

Additional Criteria
Motor Sizing? (cost, stiffness, precision, cycle time etc.)
Transmission Mechanisms Inertia and Torque Reflection
• Gears
෍ 𝑻 = 𝑱𝜶 = ෍ 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
• Pulleys and Belts
• Lead and Ball Screws Rotational dynamics Linear motion
• Rack and Pinion both rotating and translating masses are simply referred
to as inertia
• Belt drive
𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
• Conveyor Gearbox ratio 𝑵𝑮𝑩 =
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
𝑽𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝝎𝒎 𝒓𝒎 = 𝝎𝒍 𝒓𝒍
Transmission Mechanisms
Reflected Inertia

Equation of motion under directly couples as in (a) = 𝑻𝒎 = 𝑱𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝜽ሷ 𝒎

Equation of motion under directly couples as in (b) neglecting gear inertia = 𝑻𝒍 = 𝑱𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝜽ሷ 𝒍
Transmission Mechanisms
Reflected Inertia
When the gears rotate, the distance traveled is

Reflected Torque

Hence, the term in front of 𝜽ሷ 𝒎 is

the load inertia reflected to the
motor through the gears
Transmission Mechanisms
Efficiency

Load and Inertia Reflection through Transmission Mechanisms

Transmission Mechanisms

gear ratio = rotations of a driver gear : rotations of a driven gear

What is the gear ratio of a 75-tooth driver gear and a 15-tooth

driven gear?

Drawing of Teeth on Teeth on Rotations on Rotations on

Gear pair driver Gear Driven gear driver gear driven gear
Transmission Mechanisms
Pulley-and-Belt
• Two pulleys and a belt to connect
• Transmission Ratio =
Top view

Schematic of Pulley and Belt transmission

Transmission Mechanisms
Lead Screw (ACME) and Ball Screw
• Converts rotary motion into linear motion
• ACME - screw and Nut
• Ball Screw – replace thread to thread contact with balls
• Reduced backlash and friction
• Efficiency – 85% - 95%

Pitch (rev/in):
• Number of screw revolutions required for the nut to travel 1 in (or
rev/m in SI units).
• Distance from the crest of one thread to the next
Lead (in/rev):
• Distance traveled by the nut in one revolution of the screw (m∕rev in SI
units).
Transmission Mechanisms Relationship between the inertia of the translating mass
and reflected inertia
Transmission Ratio of Lead Screw
Pitch can be expressed as ∆𝜃 = 2𝜋 ∗ 𝑝 ∗ ∆𝑥 kinetic energy of the total mass m in linear motion is

Where,
• ∆𝜃 is rotation of input shaft (rad),
• p is pitch
• ∆𝑥 is the linear displacement of the nut (m or in).

Transmission Ratio = motor speed / load speed

Note: Since the speed is expressed as angular speed, the term

in front of it is equal to the reflected inertia
Transmission Mechanisms
The total mass in linear motion

The inertia reflected by the mechanism to its input shaft

is
Schematic of Lead (ball) screw transmission

Load Torque
The nut on the screw works against all external forces,

Where, Jscrew is the inertia of the screw

Where,
• Ff is the friction force
• Fg is the gravitational force component along the screw
axis,
• Fp is an external force acting on the carriage
Transmission Mechanisms
• Screw Mechanism is at an angle 
• Total weight in motion = WL + WC
• Friction force and the gravitational force component

where 𝜇 is the friction coefficient for the screw

Forces on a lead screw transmission at an angle with
𝑭𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝑭𝑷 + 𝝁 𝑾𝑳 + 𝑾𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷 + 𝑾𝑳 + 𝑾𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷 the horizontal
𝑭𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝑭𝑷 + 𝑾𝑳 + 𝑾𝒄 ∗ (𝝁𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷)

when the mechanism is horizontal (𝛽 = 0), the

gravitational force component Fg that the
mechanism must work against becomes zero
Rack-and-Pinion Drive

Schematic for rack-and-pinion transmission

rotational motion into linear motion

Transmission ratio

𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
𝑵𝑮𝑩 = where Jpinion is the inertia of the pinion gear.
𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅

𝝎𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏
𝑵𝑹𝑷 = = Torque demand reflected to the input shaft of the pinion is
𝒓𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝝎𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒐𝒏
Belt – Drive for Linear Motion
• 2 identical pulley’s and a Load
• Rotary motion of the motor -> linear motion of the load
• Used in low inertia and low speed motion control applications
Kinematics of belt drive for
linear motion
Transmission ratio
𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝝎𝒊𝒑 𝟏
𝑵𝑮𝑩 = 𝑵𝑩𝑫 = =
𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒊𝒑 𝝎𝒊𝒑 𝒓𝒊𝒑

The inertia reflected by the mechanism to its input shaft

Schematic for belt-drive for linear motion

where JP = JIP = JLP are the inertia of the two pulleys

Transmission ratio from the load pulley to the input

pulley through the belt is equal to one
Conveyor
• One or more idler rollers, longer belts and
handle heavier loads
• Transmission Ratio
• Linear motion of the load to rotational
motion of the roller

Reflected Inertia

Schematic for conveyor

where JDR is the inertia of the drive roller, JID and JBR are the inertia of the idler roller and the back roller
Conveyor – Load Torque

Where,  is the angle between the horizontal to the top of the conveyor
Drives and Actuators
• 3 Phase AC Servo Motors
• 3 Phase AC Induction Motors
• Converter or DC link

• PWM controller

• Inverters

• Variable Frequency Drive

• Vector Controlled Drive

AC Servo Motors AC Induction Motors
3 Phase stator @ 120 3 Phase stator @ 120
Closed loop system Open loop system
Permanent magnet rotor Squirrel Cage or Slip ring rotor
Less rotor inertia Very high inertia
Fast dynamic response Less dynamic response when compared
to servo motor
Finds applications in constant velocity with a large load and
• Accurate positioning of load very high power
Higher performance and faster speeds Rugged and
Small size Larger size
40% to 60% more torque than equivalent
sized Induction motor
More expensive simple, low cost, and straightforward
100 – 2400 r/min 5500 r/min
Speed control, position control and Speed control when accuracy is not
torque control required
Operation at fixed speed Positioning, speed and torque control
Speed needs to be changed quickly Multi speed operation
Basics

One-phase stator. (a) One phase winding made with two coils. (b) Bar magnet rotor
Winding of one phase for a four-pole motor Winding of Three phase four-pole motor
Electrical and Mechanical Cycles
• Mechanical Cycle - 360M of rotor rotation
• Electrical Cycle - 360E – magnetic orientation of rotor
become as initial magnetic orientation

No. of poles of Mechanical Electrical orientation

rotor orientation
2 360 M 360E
4 180 M 360E Electrical and mechanical cycles. (a) Two pole rotor.
(b) Four pole rotor

a. P = 2, 𝜽𝒆 = 𝜽𝒎
b. P = 4, 𝜽𝒆 = 𝟐 ∗ 𝜽𝒎

where 𝜃e is the electrical position, 𝜃m is the mechanical

half a rotation of the rotor is equal to one
position, and p is the number of poles.
electrical cycle in 4 pole rotor
Rotating Magnetic Field
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒇
• 𝑵𝒔 =
𝑷
• Rotating magnetic field effect is produced that travels
around the inside of the stator core, as three-phase
current passes through the stator windings
• Poles must be energized sequentially so that the rotor
gets aligned with stator poles
• At any given time, two phases of the motor are applied
voltages and the third phase is floating.
AC Servo Motor

• comparison of two angular positions between the

control transformer and the synchro generator provides
the error signal
• servo amplifier which generates variable control
voltage.
• rotor again attains a specific speed and starts rotation
and sustains until the value of the error signal reaches
“0”
AC Servo Motor
3 control Modes
• Position control
• external input frequency pulses to
determine the size of the rotational speed
• Speed Control
• The most common and efficient way of
changing the speed is to vary the
frequency by using an inverter as the
power supply
• Torque Control
• Current loop controls the torque
• TI
• Actual torque is compared with the desired
torque and adjust the current delivered to
the motor

Applications of Servo Motors?

AC Servo Motor

When multiple control loops are used, current control is the innermost loop, with the velocity control
loop around it, and position control forming the outermost loop
AC Induction Motor
• When a 3-phase stator winding is connected to a
3-phase voltage supply, 3 phase current will flow
in the windings, which also will be induced 3
phase flux in the stator.
• These flux will rotate at a speed called a
Synchronous Speed, ns. The flux is called as
Rotating magnetic Field
• Synchronous speed: speed of rotating flux

120 f
ns =
p
• Where; p = is the number of poles, and
f = the frequency of supply
26-04-2021 RMKP-EMD-INDM-UNITII 59
3 Phase & 1 Phase Induction Motor

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 Exact Equivalent Circuit

Here, R1 is the winding resistance of the stator. X1 is the inductance of

the stator winding. Rc is the core loss component. XM is the
magnetizing reactance of the winding. R2/s is the power of the rotor,
which includes output mechanical power and copper loss of rotor.
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Comparison between Single Phase and Three Phase Induction Motors
• Single Phase Induction Motors:
Single Phase Three Phase • electrical devices in house hold
Construction Simple Complicated using 3 applications such as
stator windings • FANS, MIXERS, GRINDERS,
WASHING MACHINES, PUMPS

Power Factor Low High •3 Phase Induction Motors:

Output of same size 50% 100% • Used in Industrial applications
motor • PUMPS, Drilling Machine,
Starting Torque Less High Bull dozers, Compressors,
Pumps, Lathe’s, Press etc.
Efficiency Less High • Heavy machineries, lifts,
Cost Economical High conveyors,
Reliability High Less No industry works
Power rating Low High without three phase
Availability Upto 1KW More than 1KW
Induction motors
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 Methods of Speed Control – Induction Motor

Where,
E2 is the rotor emf
Ns is the synchronous speed
R2 is the rotor resistance
X2 is the rotor inductive reactance

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Methods of Speed Control – Induction Motor
The Speed of Induction Motor is changed from Both Stator and Rotor Side

Stator side speed control are further classified as :

• V / f control or frequency control.
• Changing the number of stator poles.
• Controlling supply voltage.
• Adding rheostat in the stator circuit.
Rotor side speed control are further classified as:
• Adding external resistance on rotor side.
• Cascade control method.
• Injecting slip frequency emf into rotor side.

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V/F (Volts – Hertz) control method
• Most popular method for controlling the speed of an induction
motor
• Speed of the motor can be controlled by varying the supply
frequency.
• if we change frequency, synchronous speed changes, but with
decrease in frequency, flux will increase
• This change in value of flux causes saturation of rotor and stator
cores which will further cause increase in no load current of the
motor .
• If the ratio V/f is constant, the magnetic flux will also be constant,
its important to maintain flux , φ constant and it is only possible if
we change voltage.
• For controlling the speed of three phase induction motor by V/f
method we have to supply variable voltage and frequency which is
easily obtained by using converter and inverter set.
26-04-2021 HITS_UNIT III_SPEED CONTROL_RMKP 65
VFD – Variable Frequency Drive https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y
EPe7RDtkgo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
g7jFGOn6xfU

26-04-2021 HITS_UNIT III_SPEED CONTROL_RMKP 66

 three major section
• Rectifier
• Filter
• Inverter

• Converter - Rectifies the

incoming three-phase AC
power and converts it to DC
• DC filter - Provides a smooth,
rectified DC voltage
• Inverter - Switching the DC on
and off so rapidly that the
motor receives a pulsating
voltage that is similar to AC
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
EPe7RDtkgo g7jFGOn6xfU
Characteristics of V/F (Volts – Hertz) control method
• The variable frequency supply is obtained by the following converters.
• Voltage source inverter
• Current source inverter
• Cyclo converter
• An inverter converts a fixed voltage DC to a fixed or variable voltage AC with variable frequency.
• Cyclo converter converts a fixed voltage and fixed frequency AC to a variable voltage and
variable AC frequency.
• The variable frequency control allows good running and transient performance to be obtained
from a cage induction motor.
• Cyclo converter controlled induction motor drive is suitable only for large power drives and to
get lower speeds.

26-04-2021 HITS_UNIT III_SPEED CONTROL_RMKP 68

Self Study / Assignment
• Explain with the neat sketch, the Construction, Working Principle and characteristics of
the following used in speed control of induction motors
• Voltage source inverter
• Current source inverter
• Cyclo converter
• Vector Control or Field Oriented Control

References:
• Hakan Gürocak, INDUSTRIAL MOTION CONTROL - MOTOR SELECTION, DRIVES, CONTROLLER
TUNING, APPLICATIONS, Wiley Publishers, 2016.
• N.K.De, P.K.Sen, Electric Drives, PHI
• http://www.vfds.org/what-is-vfd-how-it-works-964803.html
• https://www.motioncontroltips.com/what-are-methods-for-vfd-control-of-ac-motors/
• https://vfds.com/blog/what-is-a-vfd/