The transition from classical to quantum physics:

Introduction:

Classical mechanics, formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th century, provided a
comprehensive framework for understanding the motion of macroscopic objects. However, as
scientists delved deeper into the microscopic world, classical mechanics failed to explain
phenomena observed at the atomic and subatomic levels. Quantum mechanics, developed in the
early 20th century by physicists such as Max Planck, Albert Einstein, and Erwin Schrödinger,
revolutionized our understanding of the universe, introducing concepts that challenge our classical
intuition.
Fundamental Differences:
1. Determinism vs. Probability:
Classical Mechanics: Quantum Mechanics:
Classical mechanics is based on determinism, In contrast, quantum mechanics introduces
where the future state of a system can be inherent randomness and probability into the
precisely predicted if the present state is description of physical systems. The behavior
known. Given the initial conditions and the of particles at the quantum level is governed by
forces acting upon a particle, its trajectory can probability distributions rather than
be determined using Newton's laws of motion. deterministic trajectories. This departure from
determinism is encapsulated in the
probabilistic nature of wave functions and the
uncertainty principle.

2.Wave-Particle Duality:
Classical Mechanics: Quantum Mechanics:
In classical mechanics, particles are described Quantum mechanics reveals the dual nature
purely as particles with definite positions and of particles, which can exhibit both particlelike
velocities. The concept of wave-particle and wave-like properties. This duality is
duality does not arise, and objects exhibit encapsulated in the wave function, which
either particle-like or wave-like behavior describes the probability amplitude of finding
depending on the context. a particle at a given position. Experimentally,
 particles such as electrons and photons have
been shown to exhibit interference patterns
characteristic of waves, challenging classical
notions of particle behavior.

3. Uncertainty Principle:

In classical mechanics, it is theoretically The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, a

possible to measure both the position and cornerstone of quantum mechanics, states that
momentum of a particle with arbitrary it is impossible to simultaneously measure
precision simultaneously. There are no certain pairs of complementary properties,
fundamental limits to the accuracy of such such as position and momentum, with arbitrary
measurements. precision. The more precisely one property is
measured, the less precisely the other can be
known. This intrinsic uncertainty arises from
the wave-like nature of particles and sets
fundamental limits on the predictability of
quantum systems.

Fundamental principles explained conceptually:

Superposition:

Principle of superposition, in wave motion, the principle that when two or more waves overlap in
space, the resulting disturbance is equal to the algebraic sum of the individual disturbances. This
principle holds for many kinds of waves, such as waves in water, sound waves, and
electromagnetic waves.

Because of the principle of superposition, the old saying that no two things can occupy the same
space at the same time does not apply to waves. Indeed, an infinite number of waves can occupy
the same space at the same time. Furthermore, they do this without affecting one another, so that
each wave retains its own character independent of how many other waves are present at the same
point and time. A radio or television antenna can receive the signal of any single frequency to
which it is tuned, regardless of the existence of any others. Likewise, the sound waves of two
people talking may cross each other, but the sound of each voice is unaffected by the waves’ having
been simultaneously at the same point.

Superposition plays a key role in many of the wave properties of sound. One such example is
interference. There are two types of interference effects. In constructive interference the crests of
two waves coincide, and the waves are said to be in phase with each other. Their superposition
results in a reinforcement of the disturbance; the amplitude of the resulting combined wave is the
sum of the individual amplitudes. Conversely, in destructive interference the crest of one wave
coincides with the valley of a second wave, and they are said to be out of phase. The amplitude of
the combined wave equals the difference between the amplitudes of the individual waves. In the
special case where those individual amplitudes are equal, the destructive interference is complete,
and the net disturbance to the medium is zero.

examples of interference When two waves of identical wavelength (shown in blue and yellow)
are in phase, they form a new wave (shown in blue and yellow stripes) with an amplitude equal to
the sum of their individual amplitudes (constructive interference). When two waves are of
completely opposite phase, they either form a new wave of reduced amplitude (partial destructive
interference) or cancel each other out (complete destructive interference). Much more complicated
constructive and destructive interference patterns emerge when waves with different wavelengths
interact.

Quantum Entanglement:

Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon in quantum mechanics where two or more particles

become linked together in such a way that they share the same quantum state, regardless of the
distance separating them. Measuring the quantum state of one entangled particle instantly
determines the quantum state of the other, even if they are light-years apart. This "spooky action
at a distance," as Einstein called it, is a fundamental aspect of quantum mechanics and has
significant implications for quantum technologies.

• Shared Quantum State:

In entanglement, two or more particles are linked together, meaning they exist in a single,
shared quantum state. This state is not simply a combination of individual states; rather, it
is a single, unified state that encompasses all the entangled particles.

• Instantaneous Correlation:
When one particle's quantum state is measured, the state of the other entangled particle is
immediately determined, regardless of the distance separating them. This "instantaneous"
correlation is what Einstein referred to as "spooky action at a distance" because it seems to
violate the classical understanding of locality, where interactions can only occur between
objects that are in contact or within a limited range.

• Not a Transfer of Information:

It's crucial to understand that entanglement does not involve the transfer of information
between particles faster than the speed of light. Instead, the particles are intrinsically
correlated, and measuring one simply reveals the pre-existing state of the other.
Applications:

Entanglement is a key resource in quantum technologies, including:

• Quantum Computing: Entanglement allows for the creation of qubits, which can exist in
superposition and enable quantum computers to perform computations beyond the capacity
of classical computers.

• Quantum Communication: Entanglement can be used to create secure communication

channels, as any attempt to eavesdrop on the communication would disturb the entangled
state.

• Quantum Sensors: Entanglement can be harnessed to create highly sensitive sensors

capable of detecting minute changes in physical quantities.

Uncertainty Principle:
In everyday life, calculating the speed and position of a moving object is relatively straightforward.
We can measure a car traveling at 60 miles per hour or a tortoise crawling at 0.5 miles per hour
and simultaneously pinpoint where the objects are located. But in the quantum world of particles,
making these calculations is not possible due to a fundamental mathematical relationship called
the uncertainty principle.
Formulated by the German physicist and Nobel laureate Werner Heisenberg in 1927, the
uncertainty principle states that we cannot know both the position and speed of a particle, such as
a photon or electron, with perfect accuracy; the more we nail down the particle's position, the less
we know about its speed and vice versa. In other words, if we could shrink a tortoise down to the
size of an electron, we would only be able to precisely calculate its speed or its location, not both
at the same time.

Though the Heisenberg uncertainty principle is famously known in quantum physics, a similar
uncertainty principle also applies to problems in pure math and classical physics—basically, any
object with wave-like properties will be affected by this principle. Quantum objects are special
because they all exhibit wave-like properties by the very nature of quantum theory.

To understand the general idea behind the uncertainty principle, think of a ripple in a pond. To
measure its speed, we would monitor the passage of multiple peaks and troughs. The more peaks
and troughs that pass by, the more accurately we would know the speed of a wave—but the less
we would be able to say about its position. The location is spread out among the peaks and troughs.
Conversely, if we wanted to know the exact position of one peak of a wave, we would have to
monitor just one small section of the wave and would lose information about its speed. In short:
the uncertainty principle describes a trade-off between two complementary properties, such as
speed and position.
The rollercoaster in the above figure serves as an analogy for how the uncertainty principle works at scales much
smaller than this. Left: When the rollercoaster car reaches the peak of the hill, we could take a snapshot and know its
location. But the snapshot alone would not give us enough information about its speed. Right: As the rollercoaster car
descends the hill, we can measure its speed over time but would be less certain about its position. The uncertainty
principle is a trade-off between two complementary variables, such as position and speed.

The fundamental law comes into play in the quantum world because subatomic particles can
behave like waves. A common misconception about the uncertainty principle in quantum physics
is that it implies our measurements are uncertain or inaccurate. In fact, uncertainty is an inherent
aspect of anything with wave-like behavior.

Wave -Particle Duality:

We have heard about the nature of light and the characters it displays. Interference, reflection,
refraction and diffraction are some of the characteristics. Wave-Particle Duality helps us to
understand the particle and wave nature of light.

Based on the idea that light and all other electromagnetic radiation may be considered a particle or
a wave nature, in 1923 physicists Louis De Broglie suggested that the same kind of duality must
apply to the matter. He proposed that any particle of matter having momentum (p) Has an
associated wavelength (λ).

De Broglie Wavelength formula is given by λ= h/p

Where, h is the Planck constant

for a particle of momentum mv, the wavelength is given by λ=h/mv

This equation is also applicable for photons too.

Early in this century, De Broglie began to realize the extent to which both models describe the
same phenomena. Waves can be described as particles, particles, as waves. Diffraction and
interference phenomena reveal a wave-like character in light. Still, the photoelectric effect,
absorption and emission by atoms show light to have a particle-like character as well. Electrons
have mass but can be diffracted like caves. Nature reveals a particle duality and ambiguity
uncharacteristic of science. While the meaning of this wave-particle duality remains a subject of
intense debate, many physicists now accept the Bohr complement-yarn principle. The two models
exclude one another, yet both are necessary for a complete description of nature.
According to Planck’s Hypothesis of the Quantum Theory, the energy is emitted in quanta, which
are little packets of energy. He states that energy emitted is related to the frequency of the emitted
light, and this can be considered a Wave-Particle Duality definition. According to Planck’s
hypothesis, the quantum energy is related to the frequency by the equation E = hν.

Observing a light is one of the easiest ways to prove the duality between a particle and a wave.
Since light is similar to waves, it can diffract, refract, interface, etc.

Albert Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect significantly contributed to De Broglie’s Theory

and acted as proof that particles and waves could overlap. Light can also be observed in the form
of a particle called a photon. When light is seen on certain objects, electrons are released. A certain
amount of energy is needed to eliminate an electron from the surface of an object. So, an electron
will be emitted when a photon of greater energy than an electron hits a solid.

When the electrons are emitted, they also release kinetic energy. According to classical wave
theory, the greater the intensity, the greater the energy. Because the energy of a wave is directly
proportional to its amplitude, it was complex for scientists to find high-intensity lights that did not
affect its overall kinetic energy.

Researchers discovered that light frequency effectively changed the amount of kinetic energy.
Since some objects do not emit electrons at particular frequencies, a threshold value V0 is applied.
This threshold is used to describe the amount of kinetic energy required for a photon to eject an
electron. The scientists arrived at a linear relationship between frequency and kinetic energy,
which can be shown by the rough sketch below.
The slope of this line is known as Planck’s Constant, h = 6.63 x 10-34

Since the energy of waves and the energy of light do not coincide, we can say that light is a particle
that has the property of waves.

Classical vs Quantum mechanics – theoretical comparison

Classical mechanics and quantum mechanics are two different frameworks for describing the
physical world, with classical mechanics describing the motion of macroscopic objects and
quantum mechanics describing the behavior of microscopic particles.

Here's a comparison of their theoretical underpinnings:

1. Applicability:

Classical Mechanics:
Deals with macroscopic objects like planets, projectiles, and everyday objects. It's based on
Newton's laws of motion and describes the motion of objects with well-defined trajectories.

Quantum Mechanics:
Deals with microscopic objects like atoms, electrons, and other subatomic particles. It describes

the behavior of these particles using concepts like wave-particle duality and quantization of

energy.

2. Determinism:
Classical Mechanics:
Generally deterministic, meaning that if you know the initial conditions of a system, you can
predict its future state with certainty.

Quantum Mechanics:
Fundamentally probabilistic. Even with complete knowledge of a system, quantum mechanics can
only predict the probabilities of different outcomes for measurements.

3. Nature of Particles:

Classical Mechanics:
Particles are treated as having well-defined positions and velocities, and their behavior can be
described by trajectories.

Quantum Mechanics:
Particles exhibit wave-particle duality, meaning they can behave as both waves and
particles. The state of a quantum particle is described by a wave function, which determines the
probability of finding the particle in a particular state.

4. Mathematical Formalism:

Classical Mechanics:
Primarily uses real numbers and differential equations to describe motion (e.g., Newton's laws,
Lagrangian mechanics, Hamiltonian mechanics).
Quantum Mechanics:
Uses complex numbers and operators to describe wave functions and quantum states (e.g.,
Schrödinger equation, Heisenberg's matrix mechanics).

5. Key Differences:
Quantization:
In quantum mechanics, certain physical quantities like energy and angular momentum are
quantized, meaning they can only take on discrete values.

Uncertainty Principle:
Quantum mechanics introduces the uncertainty principle, which states that there is a limit to how
precisely certain pairs of physical properties (like position and momentum) can be known
simultaneously.
6. Examples:

Classical Mechanics:
The motion of planets around the sun, the trajectory of a ball thrown in the air, the flow of fluids.

Quantum Mechanics:
The behavior of electrons in atoms, the properties of semiconductors, the behavior of light and

other electromagnetic radiation at the subatomic level.

Quantum states and measurement: nature of observation

Quantum mechanics, the fundamental theory describing the universe at its smallest scales,
presents a view of reality that is profoundly different from our everyday classical experience.
One of the most perplexing and debated aspects of quantum mechanics revolves around the
concepts of quantum states, measurement, and the enigmatic role of observation. In the classical
world, we assume that objects possess definite properties independently of whether they are
observed. A ball has a specific position and velocity, regardless of whether we are looking at it.
However, in the quantum realm, this assumption breaks down. The act of measurement itself
appears to play a crucial role in determining the properties of a quantum system, leading to what
is known as the measurement problem and raising deep philosophical questions about the nature
of reality and the very act of observation.

Quantum States
In quantum physics, a quantum state is a mathematical entity that encapsulates all the available
knowledge about a quantum system. Unlike classical states, which specify precise values for all
properties (like position and momentum), a quantum state often describes a superposition of
multiple possible outcomes. For instance, an electron might not have a definite spin (up or down)
until it is measured; instead, it exists in a superposition of both states simultaneously. This
probabilistic nature is inherent to quantum mechanics, where the quantum state provides the
probabilities of obtaining certain measurement outcomes, rather than predicting a single,
deterministic result.

Mathematically, a quantum state is represented by a vector in a complex vector space called a

Hilbert space. The evolution of this state over time, in the absence of measurement, is governed
by the deterministic Schrödinger Equation. This equation describes how the probabilities of
different outcomes change, but it does not, by itself, explain why a single outcome is observed
when a measurement is performed.

The Measurement Problem

The measurement problem in quantum mechanics arises from the apparent contradiction between
the continuous, deterministic evolution of the quantum state described by the Schrödinger equation
and the discrete, probabilistic outcomes observed upon measurement. When a quantum system in
a superposition of states is measured, its wave function is said to collapse, instantaneously reducing
to a single, definite state. For example, an electron in a superposition of spin-up and spin-down
states will, upon measurement, be found to have either spin-up or spin-down, but not both.

The central question of the measurement problem is: what constitutes a measurement? What is it
about the act of observation that causes the wave function to collapse? Is it interaction with a
macroscopic measuring device? Is it the consciousness of the observer? Or is there some other, as-
yet-unknown mechanism at play? The lack of a precise and universally accepted answer to these
questions has led to a variety of interpretations of quantum mechanics, each offering a different
perspective on the nature of measurement and reality.

The Nature of Observation

The role of the observer in quantum mechanics is a topic of intense debate and philosophical
inquiry. In classical physics, the observer is assumed to be separated from the observed system,
and their act of observation does not influence the system's behavior. However, in quantum
mechanics, the act of observation seems to be inextricably linked to the outcome of an experiment.
This is often referred to as the observer effect, where the act of observing a quantum phenomenon
necessarily changes it.

It is important to clarify that the term "observer" in quantum mechanics does not necessarily imply
a conscious entity. Rather, it refers to any interaction that causes a quantum system to decohere
and its wave function collapse. This interaction could be with a measuring apparatus, another
particle, or even the environment. The crucial point is that the information about the quantum
system becomes irreversibly recorded in the environment, leading to the selection of a single
classical outcome.
Various interpretations of quantum mechanics offer different perspectives on the observer's role.
The Copenhagen Interpretation, one of the oldest and most widely accepted, posits that the wave
function is not a physical entity but a mathematical description of our knowledge about the system.
Measurement, in this view, is an irreversible act that gains information and thus changes our
knowledge, leading to the wave function collapse. Other interpretations, such as the Many-Worlds
Interpretation, propose that the wave function never truly collapses. Instead, every possible
outcome of a quantum measurement is realized in a different, parallel universe, and the observer
simply becomes entangled with one of these branches. This interpretation removes the need for a
special role for the observer or consciousness in the collapse process.

Regardless of the interpretation, the concept of observation in quantum mechanics forces us to

confront the limits of our classical intuition and the profound interconnectedness between the
observer and the observed at the quantum level. It highlights that reality at its most fundamental
level may not be as fixed and independent as we perceive it to be.

In quantum mechanics, measurement fundamentally alters a quantum state, unlike classical

mechanics where measurement reveals a pre-existing state. The act of observation in quantum
mechanics is not a passive recording but an interaction that affects the system being measured,
causing a "collapse" of the wave function. This interaction links the quantum system with the
measurement apparatus, and the observer, leading to specific, measurable outcomes.

Overview of quantum systems: electrons, photons and atoms

Quantum systems, such as electrons, photons, and atoms, are described by the principles of
quantum mechanics, which governs the behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic
level. These systems exhibit wave-particle duality, meaning they can behave as both waves and
particles. Electrons are fundamental particles that orbit the nucleus of an atom and can exist in
quantized energy levels. Photons are particles of light (electromagnetic radiation) that also exhibit
wave-particle duality. Atoms, the basic building blocks of matter, are composed of a nucleus
(containing protons and neutrons) and electrons orbiting the nucleus, with electrons occupying
specific orbitals characterized by quantum numbers.

Key Concepts:

• Wave-Particle Duality:
 Quantum objects like electrons and photons can exhibit both wave-like and particle-like
behavior.

Atomic Structure

• Quantization:
The particle portion of the wave-particle duality involves how objects can be described
as “quanta.” A quanta is the smallest discrete unit (such as a particle) of a natural
phenomenon in a system where the units are in a bound state. For example, a quanta of
electromagnetic radiation, or light, is a photon. A bound state is one where the particles
are trapped. One example of a bound state is the electrons, neutrons, and protons that are
in an atom. To be “quantized” means the particles in a bound state can only have discrete
values for properties such as energy or momentum. For example, an electron in an atom
can only have very specific energy levels. Energy levels, momentum, and other properties
of quantum systems are quantized, meaning they can only take on specific discrete
values.

• Orbitals:
Electrons in atoms are not confined to specific orbits but rather are described by
probability distributions called orbitals, which represent the likelihood of finding an
electron in a particular region.
 • Quantum Numbers:
These numbers (n, l, ml, ms) describe the properties of electrons in atoms, including their
energy, angular momentum, and spin.
n – Principle Quantum Number
l – Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number
ml – Magnetic Quantum Number
ms - Electron Spin Quantum Number

Electrons:

• Electrons are fundamental particles with a negative charge that orbit the nucleus of an
atom.
• Electrons can only exist in specific energy levels, and they transition between these levels
by absorbing or emitting discrete amounts of energy in the form of photons.
• The behavior of electrons is governed by the laws of quantum mechanics, including wave-
particle duality and quantization.
Photons:

• Photons are particles of light (electromagnetic radiation) that carry energy and momentum.
• They exhibit wave-particle duality, behaving as both particles and waves.
• Photons are emitted and absorbed by atoms when electrons transition between energy
levels.
Atoms:

• Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter, composed of a nucleus (containing protons
and neutrons) and electrons.
• The nucleus is positively charged due to the protons, while the electrons are negatively
charged and orbit the nucleus.
• Atoms can combine to form molecules through chemical bonds.
Interactions:
• Electrons and photons interact with each other through processes like absorption and
emission of photons.
• These interactions are governed by the principles of quantum mechanics, such as the
photoelectric effect and Compton scattering.
• The study of these interactions is crucial for understanding various phenomena, including
light emission, absorption, and the behavior of materials.
The concept of quantization: discrete energy levels:
One concept which finds its applications in various fields of Physics is Quantization. Quantization
involves the transition from understanding classical physical phenomena called quantum
mechanics. Quantization is also involved in the field of digital communication to represent the
sampled values of the amplitude by a finite set of levels, which means converting a continuous-
amplitude sample into a discrete-time signal.

Quantization of the electromagnetic field, light quantization, quantization is involved in chemistry,

nuclear physics, condensed matter physics, particle physics, quantum optics, and atomic physics.

What is Quantization?

We know that in digital communication, information is transmitted in the form of signals.

Quantization refers to the transmission of an analog signal into a digital signal. It is the way of
representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a finite set of levels. It is the process of
converting a sample of continuous-amplitude signals into a discrete-time signal.

The concept of quantization is broad and it is put forth that physical quantities can assume only
certain discrete values. Light, energy, angular momentum, electrical charges, and matter can be
quantized on the microscopic level. Quantization in macroscopic scale is not possible since the
size of the steps between each possible value is comparatively too small.

Example: Particles which are the constituents of matter cannot be subdivided, since the particles
are quantized. We know that it is not possible to have half an electron. The energy levels of
electrons in atoms are quantized. The energy of the electron can take up only certain values, and
cannot assume any other intermediate values.

Quantization of energy refers to the concept in quantum mechanics that energy can only exist in
discrete values, rather than a continuous range. This means that particles such as electrons can only
occupy specific energy levels, and the energy difference between these levels is quantized.

➢ Understand that in classical physics, energy is considered to be continuous, meaning it can

take any value.
➢ In quantum mechanics, energy is quantized, meaning it can only take on specific discrete
values.
 ➢ These discrete values are often referred to as 'energy levels'.
➢ For example, an electron in an atom can only occupy certain energy levels, and the
transition between these levels involves the absorption or emission of a photon with energy
equal to the difference between the levels.

Why quantum? Strategic, scientific, and technological significance:

Quantum technologies are strategically significant due to their potential to revolutionize various
sectors, including computing, communication, sensing, and materials science. Their scientific
significance lies in revealing a deeper understanding of the universe at its most fundamental level,
while the technological implications are vast, promising breakthroughs in medicine, national
security, and economic competitiveness.

Strategic Significance:

• National Security:
Quantum computing could break current encryption methods, potentially compromising
sensitive data and financial systems. Conversely, quantum cryptography offers enhanced
security for communication. Quantum sensors can improve navigation, detection, and
control systems, including those for autonomous weapons.
• Economic Competitiveness:
Quantum technologies are expected to drive advancements in various industries, making
nations that lead in this field more competitive. The ability to solve complex problems
faster and develop new materials can offer a significant economic advantage.
• Geopolitical Power:
Nations that achieve early breakthroughs in quantum computing will gain a strategic
advantage, establishing a technological and knowledge base difficult for others to
replicate.
Scientific Significance:

• Understanding the Universe:

Quantum mechanics, the foundation of quantum technologies, reveals the peculiar
behavior of particles at the subatomic level, like superposition and entanglement. This
exploration deepens our understanding of the universe's fundamental nature.
• Developing New Technologies:
 Quantum principles enable the development of technologies like quantum computers,
quantum sensors, and quantum communication systems, pushing the boundaries of what's
currently possible.
Technological Significance:

• Quantum Computing:
Quantum computers, leveraging superposition and entanglement, can solve complex
problems far faster than classical computers, impacting fields like drug discovery,
materials science, and artificial intelligence.
• Quantum Communication:
Quantum cryptography offers secure communication channels, potentially
revolutionizing data security.
• Quantum Sensing:
Quantum sensors, with their high sensitivity and precision, can be used in diverse
applications, including medical imaging, environmental monitoring, and navigation.
• Quantum Materials:
Quantum phenomena can be harnessed to create new materials with unique properties,
leading to advancements in various industries.

A snapshot of quantum technologies: Computing, Communication, and Sensing

Quantum computing (QC), one of the most revolutionary technologies of our time, is about a
decade away from widespread commercial application. All quantum systems are incredibly
complex, but their benefits are straightforward. QC exponentially decreases processing time, in
many cases, making it possible to solve previously intractable problems. Quantum Sensing (QS)
will allow for more accurate measurements and could offer higher accessibility than existing
sensors (for instance, through device miniaturization). Quantum Communication (QComm) will
enable strong encryption protocols that could greatly increase the security of sensitive information,
and it will also enable some critical quantum-computing functions. With their unique capabilities,
QC, QS, and QComm could transform multiple markets, including high-performance computing,
navigation, pharmaceuticals, and medical imaging.

QC, QS, and QComm may be used independently or in combination as shown in below figure.
When QC becomes commercially available, it may boost market demand for QComm and
potentially for QS. For instance, QComm may be used to connect quantum computers to yield

even more computing power through parallel processing.

Quantum simulation, another quantum technology, is sometimes referred to as special-

purpose quantum computing. It involves simulating activities and their subsequent results within

physical systems. Quantum simulation could find applications within research settings, such as

solving mathematical optimization problems. The underlying technology required to perform

quantum simulations is now available, but experts disagree about whether the simulations that are

possible today offer a quantum advantage.

Devices for applications that use quantum phenomena

Quantum sensing

Quantum sensors can measure different physical properties, including temperature, magnetic field,
and rotation, with extreme sensitivity. Their precision results from the sensitivity of quantum states
to minor changes in the environment. Some quantum sensors can measure much smaller quantities
than current sensors, while others provide better resolution when images are captured. Quantum
sensors, once optimized and decreased in size, will also be able to measure data that can’t be
captured by current sensors, which are either too large to fit in the desired location or lack the
required functionality.

There are two generations of quantum sensors. The first, which includes devices such as
microwave atomic clocks and superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs), has been
available for decades. The second generation, which includes gravity sensors, nitrogen-vacancy
(NV) sensors, and other innovations, is just emerging. Second-generation QS applications fall into
at least eight applications, and they differ regarding maturity levels and market potential as
mentioned in below figure. The most competitive QS applications will include those for which no
technology alternative exists. QS applications are also more likely to gain traction if they provide
higher sensitivity than current sensors at a price that is comparable or less than alternative
technologies.

Each second-generation QS application has different technical requirements, and some must
overcome greater development hurdles than others. They also vary with regard to the advantages
they convey. Within spectroscopy, for instance, quantum sensors could provide more accurate
images of molecular structures, such as proteins, compared with the electron microscopes now
available. QS applications can also capture images at the atom level, where artifacts are less likely
to obscure the image. QS could also help to increase sustainability, as it enables monitoring of
CO2 emissions through higher precision and localized measurements.

Quantum communication

QComm is designed to transfer encoded quantum information between distant locations through

a quantum-communication network. It enables the following functions:

• Full security. QComm applications ensure complete protection when information is

transferred between locations. The most popular method, quantum key distribution

(QKD), involves assigning different people a confidential shared key for accessing data.

Quantum encryption protocols are more secure than classical protocols, most of which

will be broken once quantum computers gain significantly more computing power or

more efficient algorithms. The most common form of classical encryption, RSA, will be

vulnerable once the first relatively mature quantum computers are available. The

classical encryption methods that might withstand the test of quantum computers are not

optimal. Stephanie Wehner, the roadmap leader of the Quantum Internet and Networked

Computing initiative at QuTech, noted, “We know mathematically that they never offer
the same kind of security as QKD.”

• Enhanced quantum-computing power. QComm enables two important types of quantum

processing. In parallel quantum processing, multiple processors are connected and

simultaneously execute different calculations broken down from a larger problem. For

instance, when calculating the route distance between 15 different cities, a classical

computer would sequentially compute the length of the distance between each city and

then total these amounts. In parallel quantum processing, the distance between each city
would be calculated simultaneously. In blind quantum computing, QComm provides
 secure access to remote, large-scale quantum computers in the cloud. The remote

computers do not have full access to the information that they are processing, to increase

security.

The ultimate goal of QComm is to establish a quantum internet. Most areas will rely on fiber-optic

networks, which are reliable but expensive, even though providers can build on existing fiber

networks. The transmission of quantum information along short distances (less than 500 meters)

is already possible via fiber-optic networks. Transmission over longer distances will not be feasible

until researchers create fully functional quantum repeaters, which are devices that amplify signals
and reduce the amount of information lost during transmission. We expect such quantum repeaters

to become available over the next decade.

For some long-distance communications, such as transmissions across the ocean, QComm may

rely on satellites to facilitate transmission. Satellites are not suitable for all locations, such as those

with extreme weather conditions, however. The creation of satellite networks and the related

ground infrastructure needed for QComm also presents many challenges that researchers are still

trying to resolve.

National and global quantum missions: India’s Quantum Mission, EU, USA,
China

India’s Quantum Mission:

The Union Cabinet, approved the National Quantum Mission (NQM) on 19th April 2023 at a total
cost of Rs.6003.65 crore from 2023-24 to 2030-31, aiming to seed, nurture and scale up scientific
and industrial R&D and create a vibrant & innovative ecosystem in Quantum Technology (QT).
This will accelerate QT led economic growth, nurture the ecosystem in the country and make India
one of the leading nations in the development of Quantum Technologies & Applications (QTA).
The Mission objectives include developing intermediate-scale quantum computers with 50-1000
physical qubits in 8 years in various platforms like superconducting and photonic technology.
Satellite-based secure quantum communications between ground stations over a range of 2000
kilometers within India, long-distance secure quantum communications with other countries, inter-
city quantum key distribution over 2000 km as well as multi-node Quantum networks with
quantum memories are also some of the deliverables of the Mission.

The National Quantum Mission will focus on developing magnetometers with high sensitivity in
atomic systems and Atomic Clocks for precision timing, communications, and navigation. It will
also support the design and synthesis of quantum materials such as superconductors, novel
semiconductor structures, and topological materials for the fabrication of quantum devices. Single
photon sources/detectors, and entangled photon sources will also be developed for quantum
communications, sensing, and metrological applications.

Mission Implementation includes setting up of four Thematic Hubs (T-Hubs) in top academic and
National R&D institutes in the domains:

1. Quantum Computing
2. Quantum Communication
3. Quantum Sensing & Metrology
4. Quantum Materials & Devices
The hubs which will focus on generation of new knowledge through basic and applied research as
well as promote R&D in areas that are mandated to them.

NQM has the potential to elevate the country's Technology Development ecosystem to a level of
global competitiveness. The Mission would greatly benefit various sectors including
communication, health, financial, energy with applications in drug design, space, banking, security
etc. The Mission will also provide a huge boost to National priorities like Digital India, Make in
India, Skill India and Stand-up India, Start-up India, Self-reliant India and Sustainable
Development Goals (SDG).