Food Manufacture Notes

Production & Processing of Food

Quality & quantity of raw materials
Raw Materials: Any product that is used in the manufacture or production of a processed good

All raw materials must undergo testing to ensure they are the right quality before being used.

Quality of raw materials

●​ Raw materials supplied must be free of impurities, pollutants, and contaminants.
●​ Raw materials that fail to meet the guidelines are rejected.
●​ Raw materials are tested through their physical, sensory, chemical, and biological characteristics.

Quality control: testing of raw materials to ensure quality & detect problems. Raw materials that fail to meet the
strict guidelines in the raw materials specifications are rejected / returned to the supplier

Role of Food Additives in the manufacturing process

Food additive: A substance added to food that isn't normally consumed by
themselves.
↪​ Improve taste or appearance of processed food
↪​ Improve keeping quality or stability of a food
↪​ Extend product shelf life
↪​ Provide foods for special dietary needs

Code numbering system:

●​ Food additives required to be identified by class name (e.g emulsifiers) + individual name or code
number.
●​ It is a universal system used, helping consumers to identify present additives, especially helpful for
people with additive intolerances.
●​ FSANZ are in charge of the use of additives

List of what each code number stands for:

○​ E100s – generally food colours.
○​ E200s – preservatives and acids.
○​ E300s – antioxidants and acid regulators.
 ○​ E400s – emulsifiers, stabilisers, and thickeners.
○​ E500s – anti-caking agents and acidity regulators.
○​ E600s – flavour enhancers.
○​ E900s – sweeteners, glazing agents, foaming agents, and gases.

Additive Function in specific food product Examples + numbers Typical products

Flavouring (largest Restore flavour + odour lost in 1. naturally extracted from Soups, biscuits
additive group) processing plants/animals 2.
synthetically made to mirror
natural ones 3. Completely
artificial & cannot be made in
nature e.g. bubblegum flavour

Flavour enhancers Improve existing flavour *Monosodium glutamate Snack foods,

(MSG) (621)**, *Glutamic acid flavoured noodles
(620)

Artificial sweeteners Impart sweet taste in low-kJ food, *Sucralose (955)**, Diet soft drinks,
usually substitutes for sugar *Saccharine (954) sugarless gum

Colours (Only 22 Restore colour lost in processing or Food green 5 (142), Caramel Confectionary, soft
permitted in Aus) improve physical appearance (150) drinks, jellies

Antioxidants Prolong shelf-life by preventing Ascorbic acid (300), Sodium Edible fats,
(preservatives) oxidation which causes severe ascorbate (301) margarine
colour changes

Preservatives Inhibit growth of bacteria, yeast, Sulfur dioxide (220), Sorbic Pickles, tomato
mould & viruses acid (200) products

Emulsifiers Allow oil + water to be combined in a Lecithin (322) Salad dressings,

product while ensuring they don’t ice cream
separate during storage

Anti-caking agents Ensures no clumping in powdered Talc (533b), Calcium Salt, flour
products carbonate (170)
 Vegetable gums Impart consistency and texture Pectin (440), Xanthan gum Jam, cocoa
(415)

Thickeners (texture Used to make a food more viscous Starch acetate (1420), Instant puddings,
modifiers & and ensure a consistent texture Dextrins (1400) desserts, sauces
processing agents)

Vitamins/minerals Replace nutrients loss from Vitamin C (300), Vitamin B2 Fruit juices,
processing and storage, can also be (101) cereals
added to supplement dietary intake

Raising Agents Allow baked goods to rise by Bicarbonate soda (500) Cakes, bread
reacting chemically to release
carbon dioxide​

Humectants Absorb moisture from atmosphere so Sorbitol (420), Glycerine (422) Pre-packaged
food doesn't dry out cakes, dried fruit

Types of Equipment used in production

Food manufacturing equipment was created and designed to perform the tasks in a similar way to domestic
kitchen appliances, but at a much larger scale. Food manufacturing equipment varies in size and shape
depending on the amount of food to be produced.
↪​ Food technologists manage the processes along the production line. They design the production flow to
the standards required, meaning they need adequate knowledge of microbiological and biochemical
characteristics of food products.
↪​ Skilled tradespeople e.g. fitters, machinists, electricians) work on production floor monitoring equipment
operation

Equipment needs to be:

↪​ Strong—to work continuously with large quantities
↪​ Durable—so production isn't held up by breakages and for reliability
↪​ Hygienic—easily cleaned, non reactive, scratch resistant surfaces
↪​ Efficient—automated with conveyors transporting the product, must be energy efficient since it may
operate 24h
Production Systems used in the manufacture of food
Production System Description

e.g. cake and pastry shop / small handmade chocolate factory → piping bag and
Small scale kitchen aid mixer
-​ Domestic level
-​ Less complex in operation
-​ Small scale organisations use manual production systems

e.g. biscuit manufacturer → forklifts, hugh industrial ovens, ingredient handling

Large scale systems
-​ Produces large volumes of production in short periods of time
-​ Based on a production line (conveyor belt)
-​ Automated and computerized systems as larger organisations can afford it

e.g. the filling of pie cases → hand dripping chocolate truffles

Manual -​ Operator physically adding food components
-​ Small scale organisation
-​ Labour intensive

e.g. manufacturer of breakfast cereals → automated production line

Automated -​ Machines handle & control process from raw material to finished product
-​ Predetermined conditions for operations e.g. sterilization temperatures and
times, humidity levels and mixing times
-​ Ensures standardisation of production & optimum results from each process
-​ Can handle greater volume in less time

e.g. cheese making → storing data and keeping records of dates, times
Computerised -​ Use of sensors in production line
-​ Large, complex operations can be undertaken due to data being stored and
compared to pre-set specifications
-​ Designed to respond to variations in raw materials & conditions

Quality management considerations to achieve safe food

Quality Management Systems are a set of processes and procedures required to execute a safe and reliable
food supply for consumers. Quality Management Systems leads to improved business performance and better
product quality.

Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP)

HACCP is a quality assurance and food safety system that identifies potential food hazards and their control
points.
Seven steps of HACCP:

1)​ Conduct a Hazard Analysis - This includes ingredients e.g. eggs / chicken cooking temperatures
(danger zone), use of chemical cleaning agents.
2)​ Identify Critical Control Points - CCP’s are stages where problems may arise. This includes temperature
control, cross-contamination, safety, sanitation issues.
3)​ Establish Critical Limits - minimum and maximum limits for acceptable temperature which foods should
be cooked / chilled.
4)​ Monitor Critical Control Points - establish a system to check that critical limits are not exceeded.
Businesses need to observe and record data at regular intervals.
5)​ Establish Corrective Actions - must identify actions to be taken if a problem occurs. e.g. food being
discarded, staff being retrained.
6)​ Establish Verification Procedures - the HACCP system must be reviewed regularly and modified if
necessary.
7)​ Establish Record Keeping Procedures - procedures must be recorded for auditing purposes / potential
improvement.

Work health and safety and hygiene

Businesses must be aware of potential accidents and put policies and procedures in place to ensure a safe
working environment.

Employees must ensure that:

●​ The work environment, systems of work, equipment, and machinery are safe and properly maintained.
●​ Chemicals are used, handled, and stored safely.
●​ Adequate workplace facilities are available, such as PPE.
●​ Information, training, instruction, and supervision are provided.
●​ Workers' health and workplace conditions are monitored.

A safe and hygienic working environment ensures staff are more efficient and productive, whilst also
maintaining a safe and reliable food supply delivered to customers with high quality.
Preservation
Food preservation is the processes used to prolong the lifespan of food to eliminate the conditions that cause
spoilage and prevent foodborne illnesses. Food preservation prevents or slows down the rate of food spoilage,
whilst maintaining nutritional value, texture, and flavour.

The aim is to extend the life and availability of good quality, safe food. There are 5 main reasons to preserve
food:

Reasons for preserving food

●​ To ensure food can be safely consumed for longer periods of time
Safety ●​ To destroy foodborne illness microorganisms

●​ So that the contents of the food haven’t gone off or moldy

Acceptability ●​ To reduce waste
●​ Maintain a form of acceptance to consume

●​ Increase the nutritive value

Nutritive value ●​ Maintain for future consumption

●​ So that more people can access the food

Availability ●​ To make perishable foods available all year round through preservation
methods e.g. apples, pears, grapes are best in the winter, but canning,
dehydrating, and freezing have allowed them to be available for the
whole year

●​ So that food companies can start making the product earlier, and it will
Economic viability still be good for longer periods of time
●​ This means that more people buy the product which leads to more
money
●​ More money spent to create products for human convenience

Causes of food deterioration and spoilage

Microorganisms grow due to oxygen, moisture, low pH, warm temperatures, and time.
Types:

Chemical Caused by a chemical breakdown of food / contaminated by another substance e.g. cheese
and milk becoming rancid, pesticides

Physical Caused by exposure to light, oxygen, and water e.g. freezer burn

Infestation Caused by pest / rodents / meal worms e.g. worms in flour, fruit flies

Microbial Caused by yeast, mold, bacteria e.g. mold on bread, sour milk

Enzymatic Enzymes are chemical substances that act as a catalyst to speed up chemical reactions e.g.
oper ripening of fruit / vegetables

Food spoilage: occurs when the quality of a food product deteriorates

Food poisoning: occurs when a person consumes food contaminated by bacteria

4 Phases of microorganism growth

1.​ Lag phase—adjustment period, where microbes must adapt to

their environment
2.​ Exponential phase—when conditions are favourable, bacteria
will multiply exponentially
3.​ Stationary phase—decline in bacterial growth. Growth and
death rates are equal in the stationary phase
4.​ Death phase—bacteria loses the ability to reproduce

Principles behind food preservation techniques

Temperature control
●​ Pathogens grow best when between 5 to 60 degrees celsius. This is called the danger zone.
●​ Enzymes and microbes are impaired by temperatures over 60 degrees celsius.
●​ Holding food above 100 degrees celsius for a few minutes is enough to destroy all enzymes and kill
most forms of bacteria.
●​ Rapid cooling of food below 5 degrees celsius is vital for slowing microbial growth.

Restriction of moisture
●​ Foods with a high moisture content tend to be highly perishable e.g. meat, poultry, fish. This is because
the excess water supports the growth of microorganisms.
●​ When substances e.g. salt, sugar, acids, are added to water, they change the way water acts, making it
unsuitable for microbes to grow and reproduce.
●​ Using dehydration and evaporation are effective ways to prevent enzyme and microbial activity.
Exclusion of air
●​ By eliminating air and oxygen these microbes become dormant or inactive because most microbes
require oxygen to be active and survive
●​ Air can be excluded from food using packaging techniques including canning, bottling, vacuum sealing

Control of pH
●​ The range is 0 (acidic) to 14 (alkaline), with 7 being neutral.
●​ The more acidic the food product, the safer the food product is from food poisoning bacteria
●​ Adding acids e.g. vinegar / lemon juice to foods can minimise food spoilage by denaturing enzymes and
destroying microorganisms

Preservation processes
Preservation methods are used to either prevent, delay, or reduce food spoilage.

Canning (exclusion of air)

●​ Involves two preservation principles:
↪​ Control of temperature: heating the food inside the can creates a temperature that destroys all
microorganisms.
↪​ Exclusion of air: vacuum created inside the sealed container prevents microorganisms from reaching
food inside.
●​ Conventional canning–cans are filled with food products and a liquid (syrup, juice, brine, oil) is added to
force air out of the package, then cooled quickly. This kills microorganisms.
●​ Aseptic canning–food heated to correct temperature then put in a sterile can ensures all food has been
evenly heated & sterilization has occurred.
●​ Cans should be slightly concave, this indicates a vacuum is inside the can. If it bulges, one of three
scenarios may have occurred:
↪​ Microbial action:​bacteria may be present because of poor can-closing procedures or
underprocessing produces gas and acid in can which exerts pressure
↪​ Physical action:​overfilling in low temperatures can cause permanent bulging after heating. Small
space should be left to allow for expansion caused by heat.
↪​ Chemical action:​acidic foods can corrode containers and cause a chemical reaction producing
hydrogen gas.

Advantages Disadvantages Suitable food sources

●​ Long storage life ●​ Heavy ●​ Fruits

●​ Easy to store and transport ●​ Expensive equipment ●​ Vegetables
●​ Unable to view contents ●​ Meats
●​ Some nutrients destroyed ●​ Poultry; fish
Drying (removal of moisture)
Drying is a type of dehydration used to remove moisture from foods. Salt and sugar may be used to help
preserve dry foods.

●​ Air drying–food is in temperatures of 40°C to 100°C. The water inside the food evaporates, which may
cause food to lose its structure and proteins will denature.
●​ Drum dryers–drums are rotated and heated with food inside, causing the food to stick to the drum
surface. Then the dried product is scraped off and the process is repeated.
●​ Freeze drying–food is frozen and the moisture in the food product is removed through allowing ice to
sublime (turn from ice to water vapour without going through the liquid stage of water) under a vacuum.
e.g. instant coffee

Pasteurising (heat)
Pasteurisation is a type of heat treating used to significantly reduce the number of microorganisms present in
raw products.

The raw material is heated to a temperature high enough to kill pathogenic bacteria. It is held at that
temperature for a period until most if not all pathogenic bacteria are destroyed.
●​ HTST (high temperature, short time)–most common method. Uses a heat exchanger to quickly heat
milk to 72°C and held for 15 seconds, before cooling quickly to -5°C.
●​ Holder process method– milk is quickly heated to 65°C, held at this temperature for 30 min, then
quickly cooled.
●​ UHT (ultra high temp treatment)–milk is heated to 140°C for a few seconds, to kill all heat-resistant
bacteria. Can be stored unopened in the cupboard unopened for up to six months without spoilage.

Advantages Disadvantages Suitable food sources

●​ Kills specific pathogenic ●​ Flavour change ●​ Milk

microorganisms e.g. ●​ Enzymes required for soft ●​ Cream
listeria, salmonella, cheeses may be destroyed ●​ Cheese
tuberculosis ●​ Yoghurt

Chilling (cold)
Chilling slows microbial growth, and is the most efficient way for storing perishable food.

Freezing

Freezing is the process of delaying the activity of microorganisms by storing food at temperatures below –18°C.
Causes enzymatic activity to slow and microorganism numbers are reduced / made inactive.

However once thawed, surviving microorganisms can multiply again, meaning food should be defrosted in the
refrigerator or microwaved. This reduces the time that the food is left in the danger zone.
 Advantages Disadvantages Suitable foods

●​ Keeps food longer ●​ Texture of food may be ●​ Fruits, vegetables, meat,

●​ Reduces waste altered after defrosting poultry, seafood, cooked
●​ Allows seasonal foods to ●​ Doesn’t destroy foods
be available microorganisms
●​ Contains little
preservatives

Fermenting (addition of chemicals to control pH)

Fermentation occurs when carbohydrates are converted to acids through microorganisms to change the flavour,
texture, and / or nutritional value of food.

Fermentation is commonly used in the production of alcohol

↪​ The yeast acts on sugars in honey, grapes, fruits and converts them to alcohol.

Fermentation is also used in the production of bread. Through lactic acid producing bacteria being added to
foods, this bacteria feeds on carbs and creates lactic acid.
Packaging, storage, and distribution
Functions of packing
All food packages must contain labels and important consumer information by law.

Food Packaging: Providing correct environmental conditions for food while it is stored and distributed to the
customer. Enhances product appeal by promoting / informing the contents.

●​ Provides a container for the food

●​ Protects the food products—from microbial, chemical, and physical bacteria.
○​ e.g. plastic shrink wrap seals, screw top jars, foil seal, plastic wrapping that surrounds the
product as such in chewing gum.
●​ Preserves food—prevents contamination, food spoilage, and food poisoning
●​ Provides convenience—foods can be consumed directly from their package, microwave meals, and
easy to carry e.g. milk has built in handles
●​ Informs consumer and promotes the product—food packaging must display the 12 labelling
requirements

12 mandatory labelling requirements

1.​ Nutritional information
2.​ Name and description of food
3.​ Use by date
4.​ Allergen advice
5.​ Ingredient list
6.​ Country of origin
7.​ Storage / direction for use
8.​ Weight and measurement of contents
9.​ Name and address of manufacturer
10.​ Health related claims ‘Sugar free’ ‘carb free’
11.​ Batch lot number
12.​ Characterising ingredients

Some packaging may additionally include, but not compulsory

●​ Barcodes
●​ Serving suggestions, preparation techniques, and different cooking methods

No packaging is inhibited to include

●​ Any false or misleading information
●​ Claims that state a particular food is able to cure a specific illness or disease
●​ The word ‘health’, if used in conjunction with the name of the food
 ●​ Claims that the food has weight reducing properties ‘eat this and you WILL lose weight’

Choosing the best packaging

●​ Selected according to the characteristics of food and likelihood of spoilage.
●​ Manufacturers consider how the consumers will use the product as well as the desired shelf life
●​ Packaging increases the cost of the product
●​ Some packaging materials have a detrimental impact on the environment.

Combination packaging
●​ Primary packaging—the layer of packaging that comes into direct contact with the food product. Primary
packaging's main role is to protect the food product.
●​ Secondary packaging—the layer surrounding a group of primary packaged food products. Secondary
packaging is the layer that keeps the food safe.
●​ Tertiary packaging—used to secure multiple items of secondary packaging for bulk handling and
distribution

Types of material
●​ Is chemically inert– does not react to food
Glass ●​ Is odourless, hygienic, and easy to sterillise
●​ 100 percent recyclable
●​ Can be clear of coloured to protect food from light
●​ Easy to reseal
●​ Allows for a range of processing techniques

Plastic ●​ Are lightweight, tough, and durable

●​ A less expensive option when compared with other materials
●​ Can become misshapen when dropped or exposed to high temperatures
●​ Not all plastics are recyclable and it is not an environmentally friendly material
Paper and ●​ Is versatile and cost effective
cardboard ●​ Comes in different shapes, styles, and forms
●​ Carton board is commonly used for liquid stocks, dry foods, frozen foods, and
fast food products
●​ Corrugated board is thick and sturdy as commonly used as secondary
packaging.

Metal ●​ Steel and aluminium are the most popular and widely used packaging materials.
●​ Steel cans are generally coated with a thin layer of protective coating, acting as a
barrier between packaging and food.
●​ Can be inexpensive, really available, easy to use and safe and hygienic.
●​ Cans that are dented or damaged can be unsafe to consume.

Laminations ●​ When two or more flexible packaging products are joined together using a
bonding agent.
●​ Consists of films, paperboards and aluminum foils.
●​ Plastic pouches that hold sauces are examples of lamination.
●​ Aluminium laminates (yoghurt pouches) are thin and fragile, and are usually
laminated with other materials such as plastic to add strength.

Current developments in packaging

Modified atmosphere packaging
Modified ●​ Modified atmosphere packaging is a method of packaging used to extend the shelf
atmosphere life of fresh food products.
packaging ●​ Atmosphere air is substituted for a protective gas mix such as oxygen, nitrogen, or
(MAP) carbon dioxide
●​ Used for meats, fruits, vegetables

Barrier-specific packaging Vacuum packaging

●​ Allows some gases into ●​ Involves removing the air from inside the
the packaging at different package to create a vacuum
rates and excludes others Used for cheeses, salami, coffee, and sun dried
●​ The packaging material tomatoes
used must prevent Gas packaging
condensation ●​ The ‘head space’ in the packaging is replaced
●​ Used for pre-cut fruits and with gases before the package is sealed.
vegetables, salad mixes ●​ Packaging material must not be porous to
maintain the correct gas balance
Used for chips, pretzels, and popcorn
 ●​ A method of cooking food, especially meat or fish, by vacuum-sealing and
Sous vide immersing in warm water.
●​ Cooked foods are vacuum packed and blast chilled to 3°C.
●​ Packaging ensures shelf life is around six weeks; meaning close to fresh foods are
easily available to consumers.

●​ Modifies the environment within the package as it changes during storage

Active ●​ Small reactive pouches or sachets placed inside the packaging to control the
packaging internal environment

Storage conditions and distribution systems at different food manufacture

stages
During Manufacture
●​ Storage in food manufacture takes place:
○​ After raw materials arrive at the factory
○​ When a product is held while it changes manufactures
○​ Before distribution after the final product has been packaged (warehousing)
●​ Storage conditions include
○​ Cold storage → 0-5°C
○​ Freezer storage → -18 to -30°C
○​ Dry Storage → room temperature (below 24°C), controlled humidity.
●​ Container used depends on
○​ The product
○​ What is happening to it at the time
○​ Scale of production.
●​ Ingredients are usually stored in steel vats (hoppers) after delivery
●​ Smaller quantities are stored in plastic containers—glass isn’t used because of the risk of breakage
●​ Manufacturers often have very little storage space in their factories. The distribution of a product refers
to the movement of goods once the product has undergone the required processing

After Manufacture
●​ From the warehouse the goods are sent out to food wholesalers, supermarket chains or interstate
warehouses.
●​ Goods need to be handled efficiently, packaging must suit the system used in warehousing, as well as
standing up to handling during distribution.