Lecture 4

The Schrödinger Equation and its Interpretation

In this lecture you will learn:

• Schrödinger equation: the time-dependent form

• Schrödinger equation: the probabilistic interpretation
• Breakdown of determinism in quantum physics

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Quantum Physics of Photons
We know that light obeys the following wave equation in free-space:
 2 2
 2
2
 1  E In 1D  E 1  E
 E 2

c 2
t 2
x c 2 t 2
What if we didn’t know this wave equation, and didn’t even know Maxwell’s equations,
and wished to “reverse engineer” the above wave equation from what we know about
photons

1) According to Planck, the energy of a light packet or light quantum or light photon is
related to its frequency by:
E  
2) The momentum magnitude of a photon is related to its wavelength via:

2 
p
   
p2  p.p

3) We also know something else about photons:

2 c 2 c
   E  pc Profound!!
 
Energy goes linearly with the momentum magnitude
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 Wave Equation for Photons: An Example of Reverse Engineering
Lets rewrite the last one as: E  pc
2   2
   c  k 
  
 
   kc   2  k 2c 2  2
k  k .k
Suppose light wave could be written as:
   ik .r  i t
E  r , t   Eoe e
So how about we try the following wave equation for photons and see if any work:

E 2
 Plug in the wave above
1)  constant   E i  constant  k 2
t

2

 E 
2
Plug in the wave above
2)  constant   E  2  constant  k 2
t 2
  
2)
E 

 constant    E 

 E  E .E
E.  0
 
t
t t

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 Wave Equation for Photons: An Example of Reverse Engineering

2

 E 2
 Plug in the wave above
2)  constant   E  2  constant  k 2
t 2

And so the constant must be c2 and we get:

2
 E 2 2 And this is just the wave
c  E
t 2 equation obtained from
Maxwell’s equations!!

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Classical (Newtonian) Physics of Particles
 
p  mv
m

Classical Physics:

1) A particle with mass m and velocity v has momentum given by:
 
p  mv

2) The (kinetic) energy of the particle is:

1 p 2  v 2  v .v For a massive particle,

E  mv 2   2   energy momentum
2 2m  p  p.p relationship is quadratic

Note how difference the above energy-momentum relation for particle with
non-zero mass is compared to that for a photons which is:

E  pc Massless photons (energy momentum

relationship is linear)

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The De Broglie Hypothesis for Massive Particles
1) De Broglie assumed that “associated” with a particle of momentum p=mv, there is a
wave of some sort with a wavelength  equal to:

2  Basically, he just extended the relation

 known previously for light particles to
p matter particles

2) De Broglie further assumed that “associated” with a particle of energy E, there is

a wave of some sort with a frequency  equal to:

E Again, he just extended the relation

 known previously for light particles to
 matter particles

3) There is also something else we know about a massive particle:

1 p 2  v 2  v .v Energy momentum

E  mv 2   2   relationship is
2 2m  p  p.p quadratic

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Schrödinger Equation - I
Statement of the Problem:

We would like to drive a wave equation for particles with mass, so that the amplitude
of the wave, or the wavefunction , can be written as:
 
  2
  r , t   A e ik .r e  i t  k 
 

We start with:
p2
E
2m
  
p 2  p. p
De Broglie second
hypothesis
p2
   De Broglie first
2m hypothesis
2
 2  

    2 2 
   k  p  k
2m   
 2k 2  
  
2m
 2
k  k .k

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Schrödinger Equation: Reverse Engineering
Need to find an equation for the wave amplitude (or the wavefunction):
 

  r ,t   A e e
ik .r  i t

that satisfies:
 2k 2  
 
2m
 2
k  k .k

You have now enough experience to figure out that the desired equation must be
first order in time and second order in space:

  r , t  
 constant  2  r , t 
t
The constant term can be figured out to get:

  r , t  2 2 
i     r ,t 
t 2m
This is one form of the celebrated Schrödinger equation (published in 1926) !!!

Notice how different it is from the wave equation for photons:

2
 E 2 2
c  E
t 2
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 The Schrödinger Equation - III

  r , t  2 2 
i     r ,t  It is complex!!
t 2m
Note that the equation has these three ingredients built into it:

1 2 p 2  2k 2 E 2 
E  mv    p  k
2 2m 2m  
Erwin Schrödinger
Schrödinger suffered from tuberculosis and several times in the (1887-1961)
1920s stayed at a sanatorium in Arosa. It was there that he Nobel Prize 1933
formulated his wave equation.
 

As a check, we take a wave solution:   r , t   A e ik .r e  i t

And plug it into the Schrödinger equation to get:

   
ik .r  i t  2k 2 ik .r  i t
 A e e  Ae e
2m
 2k 2
  
2m
p2
E 
2m
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 The Schrödinger Equation: Adding the Potential Energy

  r , t  2 2 
i     r ,t 
t 2m

Plugging in the solution:

 

  r ,t   A e e
ik .r  i t

gives:
 2k 2
 
2m
p2
E
2m
p2
But what if the energy E of the particle consists of the kinetic energy plus
some potential energy V, i.e.: 2m

p2
E V
2m

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Schrödinger Equation: Adding the Potential Energy

  r , t  2 2 
i     r ,t 
t 2m
There is a problem with the equation: only kinetic energy of the particle is taken
into account in the expression used for deriving it:
1 2 p2  2k 2
E  mv    KE
2 2m 2m
But particle might also have a potential energy ……!! How do we fix this??

We want: E  KE + PE

Right Hand Side:

2

The right hand side differential operator,   2 , when it acts on the wave
2m
amplitude (or the wavefunction), it gives the kinetic energy of the particle:

2 2   2 2 ik .r  i t  2k 2  
    r ,t     Ae e  ik .r  i t
Ae e
2m 2m 2m

Kinetic energy
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 The Schrödinger Equation: Adding the Potential Energy
Right Hand Side:

2 2   2 2 ik .r  i t  2k 2  
    r ,t     Ae e  Ae ik .r e  i t
2m 2m 2m

Suppose the potential energy of the particle is a function of position and is


given by: V  r 


For example: if the particle has charge e and is in a uniform electric field E then
its potential energy (i.e. the electrostatic
  potential energy) will be:
 
V  r   eE .r  e  r 

We try to change the right hand side so that it gives the total energy of the particle
and not just the kinetic energy. In other words,
2 2 change to 2 2
     ??
2m 2m

2 2  
so that    ??   r , t   KE + PE  r , t 
2m

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Schrödinger Equation: Adding the Potential Energy
2 2  
   ??   r , t   KE + PE  r , t 
2m


Try the simplest choice: V  r 

So we have:

  r , t   2 2   
i     V  r    r , t 
t  2m 
 
This is the final form of the celebrated Schrödinger equation (published in 1926) !!!

  r , t  2 2   
i     r , t   V  r   r , t 
t 2m

This is the wave equation for a massive particle!!

But what the heck does this wave equation mean??

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Schrödinger Equation: Time-Dependent Potential Energy
The potential energy could be a function of time as well, so more generally:

  r , t  2 2   
i     r , t   V  r , t   r , t 
t 2m
In this course, we will spend most of the time on time-independent potential energies

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Schrödinger Equation: 3D and 1D Versions


  r , t  2 2   
i     r , t   V  r   r , t  3D version
t 2m

The 1D version below works if the problem is one dimensional – meaning all the action
in the problem is in one dimension and everything is uniform in the other two
dimensions

  x , t  2    x , t 
2
i   V  x   x , t  1D version
t 2m x 2

Also good for building intuition in quantum physics!

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Schrödinger Equation: What Does it mean??

  r , t  2 2   
i     r , t   V  r   r , t  It is complex!!
t 2m
Here are the questions that the scientific community was thinking when Schrödinger
published his wave equation:


1) What is the wave equation about? Meaning, what is oscillating? This   r , t  is
the amplitude of what exactly?

2) Is the electron, or for that matter any other particle to which the Schrödinger
equation applies, a wave or a particle? And is then  the amplitude of this wave?

3) Or is it that the particle is really a particle but it is somehow guided by this wave?
Like a surfer riding a wave!!!

4) Normally, all other wave equations are real and

are for real amplitudes. Complex notation is
used only for convenience and the real part taken
at the end to get physical results. But the Schrödinger
equation is complex, and the wavefunction is
complex too, so how can it represent physical reality!!
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 The Schrödinger Equation: The Probability Interpretation
In 1926, Max Born offered the following interpretation of the
wavefunction   r , t  of a particle:
 2
The real quantity   r , t  is equal
 to the a-priori probability of
finding the particle at location r at time t if a measurement is made
to find the position of the particle
 2   Max Born
  r , t    *  r , t   r , t  (1882-1970)
Nobel Prize: 1954
What this means is that:

1) One cannot know with pure certainty, nor can one calculate with complete certainty,
where a particle might be found BEFORE a measurement is actually made to locate the
particle

2) Schrödinger equation allows one to calculate only the a-priori probabilities of

finding the particle at any place (BEFORE a measurement is made to locate it)

What happened to determinism??

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Statistical Interpretation and the Breakdown of Determinism

The probabilistic interpretation of   r , t  has the following statistical interpretation with
respect to experiments:

1) Initial condition: Suppose at time t=0, a particle is placed at some known location:
 2
  r ,t  0
   
ro r ro r
2) Time evolution: Its subsequent dynamics and evolution are governed by the
Schrödinger equation:

  r , t  2 2   
i     r , t   V  r   r , t 
t 2m

3) Measurement: At a later time t=T, the location of the particle is measured. The a-priori

probability of finding the particle at location r at time t=T is given by:
 2  
  r , T    *  r ,T    r ,T 
4) The above experiment (1 through 3) is then repeated many times under exactly the
same conditions. But the measured location at time t=T would be different each time the
experiment is conducted (notice the breakdown of determinism!). However, the measured
probabilities of finding the particle will agree with the Born probability rule!
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 The Statistical Interpretation and the Breakdown of Determinism

 2
Time t = 0   r ,t  0
Initial condition
(or preparation)

  
  r ,t  0 
ro
r 
ro
r

Time evolution 
  r ,t  T 
Time t=T
  r , t  2 2   
i     r , t   V  r   r , t 
t 2m 

r
ro

Result of
measurement
 2
 r ,t  T  Measurement

 
 r  r
ro ro

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Statistical Interpretation of Quantum Probabilities

Histogram of the results of

position measurements, performed
at time t=T, obtained after
conducting many experiments
under identical conditions:


 r
ro

 2
A-priori probability distribution of  r ,t  T 
position as given by the squared
modulus of the wavefunction:


 r
ro
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 The Schrödinger Equation: The Probability Interpretation
 2
The real quantity   r , t  is equal
 to the a-priori probability of
finding the particle at location r at time t
 2  
  r , t    *  r , t   r , t 

 2
So if   r , t  is really a probability distribution, then it must be properly normalized:

 2 3  2
 dV   r , t    d r   r , t   1 (in 3D)

The probability of finding the

particle in the entire universe
 must be unity
2
 dx   x , t   1 (in 1D)


ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Schrödinger Equation: A Free Particle in 3D

Assume a free-particle (zero potential):


  r , t  2 2   
0

i     r , t   V  r   r , t  V r   0
t 2m

  r , t  2 2 
i    r ,t 
t 2m
Plane wave is a solution: Plane wave
  i t E solution works

 r ,t   A e e 
ik .r
only when:

Plug the solution into the Schrodinger equation: V  r   constant

  r , t  2 2 
i    r ,t 
t 2m
  i E t   i t E
 2k 2
EA e ik .r e   ik .r
Ae e 
2m
 2k 2
E
2m
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 Plane Wave Solutions: A Free Particle in 3D

Plane wave is a solution:

  i t E
  2k 2
  r ,t   A e e 
ik .r
E   
2m
We must have:
 2 3  2
 dV    
r , t  d r   ,t   1
r

2
  i E t
2 2
  dV A e ik .r e   A  dV  A V  1

1
 A  V is the volume of the universe!
V E
 1 ik .r  i  t
   r ,t   e e Properly normalized solution!
V
So the a-priori probability of finding the particle at any location is:

 2 1 The a-priori probability of finding

  r ,t   the particle at any place is the
V same because the wavefunction
is spread over all space
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 A Plane Wave Solution for a Free Particle in 1D
0
  x , t      x,t 
2 2
i   V  x   x , t 
t 2m x 2

Consider a wave-like solution

in a 1D universe of length L:
E
1 ikx  i  t  2k 2
  x,t   e e E
L 2m

2
  x ,t  0
1
L

The a-priori probability of finding the particle is constant in space (i.e. the
particle can be anywhere ?!).

This does not correspond to our notion of a localized particle in classical

physics ………….!
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 A Localized Free Particle in 1D: A Wavepacket
0
  x , t  2    x , t 
2
1D: i   V  x   x , t  V x  0
t 2m 2
x
Plane wave is a solution:
E
i t  2k 2
  x , t   A e ikx e  E
2m

Or more appropriately,
Ek 
i t
  x , t   A e ikx e 

Now consider a superposition solution of many different plane waves:

E  kn 
i t
  x , t    An e ikn x
e 
n

If the superposition consists of plane waves with wavevectors that are very close to
each other we can write the above sum as an integral:
Ek  Ek 
dk i t dk i t
  x,t    A  k  e ikx e      k  e ikx e 
 2  2
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 A Localized Free Particle in 1D: A Wavepacket
Consider the 1D wavepacket solution (a superposition of plane waves):
Ek 

dk i t  2k 2
  x,t     k  e e
ikx  E k  
 2 2m
We must have:
 2
 dx   x , t  1

2
Ek 
 
dk i t 
dk 2
  dx   k  ikx
e e     k   1
  2  2

2
  x ,t  0
The probability of finding the particle is now
non-zero only in a finite section of space
x
The particle is localized !

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 Some Math
 2  dk 2
Show that:  dx   x , t     k  Parseval’s Theorem
  2
Proof:
 2
 dx   x , t 

2
Ek 
  dk i t
  dx   k  ikx
e e 
  2

Ek  E  k '
 dk i t 
dk ' i t
  dx   *  k  e  ikx e 
   k '  e ik ' x e 
  2  2
E  k ' Ek 
 dk  dk ' i t i t 
     k ' e   * k  e 
 dx e
 ikx ik ' x
e
 2  2 
E  k ' Ek 
 dk  dk ' i t i t
     k ' e   * k  e   2    k  k ' 
 2  2

dk 2
   k 
 2
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 The Statistical Interpretation and the Breakdown of Determinism

 2
Time t = 0   r ,t  0
Initial condition
(or preparation)

  
  r ,t  0 
ro
r 
ro
r

Time evolution 
  r ,t  T 
Time t=T
  r , t  2 2   
i     r , t   V  r   r , t 
t 2m 

r
ro

Result of
measurement
 2
 r ,t  T  Measurement

 
 r  r
ro ro

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Collapse of the Wavefunction upon Measurement
 2
Time t = 0   r ,t  0
Initial condition
(or preparation)

  
  r ,t  0 
ro
r 
ro
r

Time evolution

  r , t  2 2   
i     r , t   V  r   r , t 
t 2m

At time t=T Result of

measurement
Measurement
 2
 r ,t  T 
 
  2
  r  r ,t  T 
 ro r1
 r
ro
Time t =T Immediately after 
the measurement   r
ro r1
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 The Schrödinger Equation: Interference Explained

y d
x

     
e ik . r  r1  E
i t ik . r  r2  i
E   
 e t
  r , t   Uo    r1  r2  dez
e   e 
 r r  k  k  sin  cos  e x  sin  sin  ey  cos  ez 
 
       2k 2
ik . r  r1  E ik . r  r2  E 2   E 
 2 2 e i t e i t 2m
  r , t   Uo e   e  k
2
r r 

2       2
Uo Uo2    

r 2
e
ik . r  r1 
e
ik . r  r2 
r 

 2 2 1  cos k .  r1  r2  
 
Uo2 Uo2   2 
2 1  cos  kd cos     2 2 1  cos  d cos   
r2 r    
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 A Detour: Charge Conservation Law in an Electric Wire
Electric wire

Units: Charge
  x,t 
per unit length
Electric current charge Electric current

I  x,t  I  x  x , t 
Units: Charge flow
(in Coulombs per x x+x x
second) x
Conservation of charge requires:

I  x , t   I  x  x , t      x , t  x 
t
Divide both sides by x :

I  x , t   I  x  x , t  
    x , t  
x t 

Rearrange and take the limit x goes to zero:

d   x,t  I  x , t 
 Charge conservation law
dt x
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 The Schrödinger Equation: The Probabilistic Interpretation

  x , t  2    x , t 
2
  x ,t  0 i   V  x   x , t    x,t 
t 2m 2
x

Question: Does Schrödinger equation preserve the probability norm as time

progresses?? It better ….!!!

Suppose at time t= 0:
 2
 dx   x , t  0  1


Then is it true that at any time t > 0 (conservation of probability) we have:

This better not get violated !!
 2 Otherwise, the probability
 dx   x , t  1 interpretation would go down
 the drain!

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Schrödinger Equation: The Probabilistic Interpretation
We must have:
d  2  2
 dx    0
x , t Since  dx   x , t  1
dt  
Start from:

 2    x , t   *  x , t 
  x , t    *  x , t   x , t     *  x , t     x,t 
t t t t
Use the Schrodinger equation and its complex conjugate:

  x , t  2    x , t 
2
i  2
 V  x   x , t 
t 2m x
 *  x , t  2   *  x , t 
2
i   2
 V  x  *  x , t 
t 2m x
To get:

    x,t     *  x,t 
2 2
 2
  x,t    *  x,t  i 2
  x,t  i
t 2m x 2m x 2

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Schrödinger Equation: The Probability Current
    x,t     *  x,t 
2 2
 2
  x,t    *  x,t  i 2
  x,t  i
t 2m x 2m x 2
     x , t    *  x , t  
  *  
x , t    
x , t 
x  2im x 2im x 
I  x , t 

x
Where:
   x , t    *  x , t 
I  x ,t    *  x ,t     x ,t 
2im x 2im x

We showed that:

 2 I  x , t 
  x,t    This is a conservation law for probability
t x
Where:
   x , t    *  x , t  This is the
I  x,t    *  x,t    x,t  probability
2im x 2im x current

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Conservation of Probability
We showed that:

 2 I  x , t 
  x,t    This is a conservation law for probability
t x
Where:
   x , t    *  x , t  This is probability
I  x,t    *  x,t    x,t  current
2im x 2im x

Units: probability
flow
Probability
Probability current density Probability current

 2 I  x , t 
x x+x x   x,t   
t x

Units: probability
x x+x x per unit length
ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University
 The Schrödinger Equation: The Conservation of Probability

We showed that:

 2 I  x , t 
  x,t   
t x
Integrate both sides over all space:

  2  I  x , t 
 dx   x , t     dx
t   0
x Assuming the wavefunction goes to zero
0 as x → ± ∞
 I  , t   I  , t   0
Therefore:

  2
 dx   x , t   0
t 

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Schrödinger Equation: The Probabilistic Interpretation (3D)


   r , t  2 2    
  r ,t  0 i     r , t   V  r   r , t   r ,t 
t 2m

Question: Does Schrödinger equation preserve the probability norm as time

progresses?? It better ….!!!

Suppose at time t= 0:

3  2
 d r   r ,t  0  1


Then is it true that at any time t > 0 (conservation of probability):

This better not get violated !!

3  2 Otherwise, the probability
 d r   ,t   1
r interpretation would go down
 the drain!

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Schrödinger Equation: The Probabilistic Interpretation (3D)
We must have:
 3  2  
t
 d r   r ,t   0 Since  d 3r   r , t 
2
1
Check:
 
  2    r , t   *  r , t  
 r ,t    * r ,t    r ,t 
t t t

Use:

  r , t  2 2   
i     r , t   V  r   r , t 
t 2m

 *  r , t  2 2   
i     *  r , t   V  r  *  r , t 
t 2m

To get:

  2   2    2 
 r ,t    * r ,t  i   r ,t   r ,t  i   * r ,t 
t 2m 2m

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Schrödinger Equation: The Probabilistic Interpretation (3D)
  2   2    2 
 r ,t    * r ,t  i   r ,t   r ,t  i   *  r ,t 
t 2m 2m
       
 .  *  r , t    r , t     r , t   *  r , t  
 2im 2im 
 
 . J  r , t 
Where the probability current density is:
       
J  r ,t    *  r ,t    r , t     r , t   *  r , t 
2im 2im
The conservation law for probability in 3D is expressed as:

  2  
  r , t   . J  r , t 
t

Units: probability flow

Units: probability density per unit time per unit
per unit volume area

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 The Schrödinger Equation: The Probabilistic Interpretation (3D)

The conservation law for probability in 3D is: or

  2  
  r , t   . J  r , t 
t

Stokes’ theorem:
    
 dV .A  r , t   
 dS . A  r , t 
Over a volume Over a surface
surrounding the
volume

Using Stokes’ theorem for any closed surface: charge

  2   
 dV   r , t    
 dS. J  r , t 
t
If the surface is infinitely large:

 3  2   
 d r   r , t     dS . J  r , t   0
t
Assuming the wavefunction goes
to zero over the surface when the
surface is at infinity

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University

 Some Math: Delta Functions in 1D and 3D

A delta function in 1D has the following property: f(x)


 dx f  x    x  xo   f  xo 
 xo x

Integration of plane waves over all space (in 1D):


i  k  k ' x
 dx e  2   k  k ' 


A delta function in 3D has the following property:   

3
 d r   dx  dy  dz
3  3   
 d r f    o  o
r  r  r  f r   
 
  r  ro  
3

Integration of a plane waves over all space (in 3D):   x  xo    y  y o    z  zo 

  
i  k  k '  .r 3 3  
3 
d r e 
  2   k  k ' 

ECE 3030 – Summer 2009 – Cornell University