EC3491

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

1
Pre-requisites

Random Process and Linear Algebra

Signals and Systems

Electronic Devices and Circuits

2
Course Objectives:

1 To introduce Analog Modulation Schemes.

2 To impart knowledge in random process, sampling & quantization.

3 To study various Digital techniques.

4 To introduce the importance of digital modulation techniques.

5 To impart knowledge in demodulation techniques.

3
Course Syllabus
Unit Content Hours
UNIT I - AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Review of signals and systems, Time and Frequency domain representation of signals, Principles of
Amplitude Modulation Systems- DSB, SSB and VSB modulations. Angle Modulation,
1. Representation of FM and PM signals, Spectral characteristics of angle modulated signals. SSB 9
Generation – Filter and Phase Shift Methods, VSB Generation – Filter Method, Hilbert Transform,
Pre-envelope & complex envelope AM techniques, Superheterodyne Receiver.

UNIT II RANDOM PROCESS & SAMPLING

Review of probability and random process. Gaussian and white noise characteristics, Noise in
2. amplitude modulation systems, Noise in Frequency modulation systems. Pre-emphasis and De- 9
emphasis, Threshold effect in angle modulation-Low pass sampling – Aliasing- Signal
Reconstruction-Quantization - Uniform & non-uniform quantization - quantization noise - Nyquist
criterion- Logarithmic Companding-PAM, PPM, PWM, PCM – TDM, FDM.
UNIT III DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
3. Pulse modulation Differential pulse code modulation. Delta modulation, Noise considerations in PCM, 9
Digital Multiplexers, Channel coding theorem - Linear Block codes - Hamming codes- Cyclic codes -
Convolutional codes - Viterbi Decoder.
UNIT IV DIGITAL MODULATION SCHEME
4. 9
Geometric Representation of signals - Generation, detection, IQ representation, PSD & BER of
Coherent BPSK, BFSK, & QPSK - QAM - Carrier Synchronization - Structure of Non- coherent
Receivers Synchronization and Carrier Recovery for Digital modulation, Spectrum Analysis –
Occupied bandwidth – Adjacent channel power, EVM, Principle of DPSK

UNIT V DEMODULATION TECHNIQUES

5. 9
Elements of Detection Theory, Optimum detection of signals in noise, Coherent communication
with waveforms- Probability of Error evaluations. Baseband Pulse Transmission- Inter symbol
Interference, Optimum demodulation of digital signals over band- limited channels.

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Course Outcomes (CO):
Course Outcomes
RBTL
Upon completion of the course, the students should be able to
C214.1 Illustrate the various Analog Modulation techniques. L2
Apply the concepts of Random Process, Sampling and Quantization in the design
C214.2 L3
of communication systems.
C214.3 Describe various digital techniques. L2
C214.4 Distinguish various digital modulation techniques. L2
C214.5 Implement the importance of demodulation techniques. L3

CO-PO/PSO MAPPING BASED ON WEIGHTAGE

Contributions: 1- Low, 2- Medium, 3- High

CO/PO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2

C214.1 2 3 - - - - - - - - - 1 2 -

C214.2 1 2 3 - - - - - - - - 1 2 -

C214.3 2 3 - - - - - - - - - 1 2 -

C214.4 2 3 - - - - - - - - - 1 2 -

C214.5 1 2 3 - - - - - - - - 1 2 -

C214 1.60 2.60 3.00 - - - - - - - - 1.00 2.00 -

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 UNIT I
Amplitude Modulation

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Introduction
 A communication that does not use modulation is
called baseband communication
 A communication that uses modulation is
called Carrier communication

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Example of AM transmitter

8
Example of AM (radio) Receiver

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 MODULATION

• Modulation
– In the modulation process, some characteristic of a high-
frequency carrier signal (bandpass), is changed according to
the instantaneous amplitude of the information (baseband)
signal.
• Why Modulation
– Suitable for signal transmission (distance…etc)
– Multiple signals transmitted on the same channel
– Capacitive or inductive devices require high frequency
AC input (carrier) to operate.
– Stability and noise rejection
10
 About Modulation
• Application Examples
– broadcasting of both audio and
video signals.
– Mobile radio communications, such
as cell phone.

• Basic Modulation Types

– Amplitude Modulation: changes the amplitude.
– Frequency Modulation: changes the frequency.
– Phase Modulation: changes the phase.

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TYPES OF MODULATORS

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AM Modulation/Demodulation
Source Sink
Channel

Modulator Demodulator

Baseband Signal Band pass Original Signal

with frequency Signal with with frequency
fm frequency fc fm (Modulated
(Modulating Signal) (Modulated Signal) Signal)
fc >> fm

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Voice: 300-3400Hz GSM Cell phone: 900/1800MHz
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
• Process of changing the amplitude of the carrier signal in accordance
with instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

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 MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION
OF AM WAVE:

Let the carrier signal be represented as: =

Let the message signal be represented as: =

The amplitude of modulated carrier wave is given by the equation

= + = +

= 1+

= 1+

Where, = =

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 * AM Signal Math Expression*
• Mathematical expression for AM: time domain
S A M (t)  (1  c o s m t ) c o s ct
• expanding this produces:
S A M (t )  c o s  ct  c o s  m t c o s  ct
u sin g : co s A c o s B  1
2  cos(A  B )  c o s ( A  B) 
= + cos − + cos +
2 2
• In the frequency domain this gives:
Carrier,A=1.
Amplitude /2 /2

frequency
lower fc-fm fc fc+fm
sideband upper sideband
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AM Power Frequency Spectrum
• AM Power frequency spectrum obtained by squaring the amplitude:

Carrier, A2 =12 = 1

Power
2/4 2/4

fc-fm fc fc+fm freq .

• Total power for AM = + +

4 4

=1+
2

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 Modulation Index of AM Signal

• Modulation index k is a measure of the extent to which a carrier voltage

is varied by the modulating signal.
• When k=0 - no modulation,
• When k=1 -100% modulation,
• When k>1 - over modulation.

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Modulation Index of AM Signal

19
Modulation Index of AM Signal

20
Modulation Index of AM Signal

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High Percentage Modulation
• It is important to use as high percentage of modulation as possible (k=1)
while ensuring that over modulation (k>1) does not occur.

• The sidebands contain the information and have maximum power at 100%
modulation.

• Useful equation
Pt = Pc(1 + /2)
Pt = Total transmitted power (sidebands and carrier)
Pc = Carrier power

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 Modulation Efficiency

For single tone modulation: = ⅹ 100%

• If =1, then the transmission efficiency from above equation will be

= ×100% = 33.3%

• Only 33.3% of transmitted power is used and remaining power is wasted

by the carrier along with the sidebands.

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 Advantages/Disadvantages of AM

 Advantages
 Simple modulator and demodulator circuits are used.
 AM wave can travel long distance.
 It covers larger area than FM.

 Disadvantages
 Poor performance in the presence of noise.
 Inefficient use of transmitter power.
 Transmission bandwidth twice the message bandwidth.

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 DSBSC MODULATION:

• DSB-SC is basically an amplitude modulation wave without the

carrier, therefore reducing power waste, giving it a 50% efficiency.
• This is an increase compared to normal AM transmission (DSB),
which has a maximum efficiency of 33.333%, since 2/3 of the power
is in the carrier.
Generation of DSB – SC – AM

• In DSB – SC, the transmitted wave consists of only upper and lower
side bands.
• Transmitted power is saved here through the suppression of the
carrier wave because it does not contain any useful information, but
the channel bandwidth required is the same as before.

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Expression for DSB –SC:

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 PROBLEMS
1. A 400 watt carrier is modulated to a depth of 75%. Calculate the total
power in the modulated wave.
PT = 512.4 W
2. A modulating signal 20 cos 2 × 10 is used to modulate a carrier
signal 40 cos 2 × 10 . Find out
I. Modulation Index 0.5
II. Percentage modulation 50 %
III. Frequencies of the sideband components and their amplitudes
11 kHz , 9 kHz
IV. Bandwidth of the modulating signal 2 kHz
V. Also draw the spectrum of the AM wave.

3. The tuned circuit of the oscillator in an AM transmitter uses a 50µH coil and a 1nF
capacitor. Now, if the oscillator output is modulated by audio frequencies upto 8kHz,
then find the frequency range occupied by the sidebands.
= 714
= 706 kHz
= 722 kHz
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TYPES OF AM MODULATORS

 Generating circuits of AM wave- Amplitude modulator circuits

Non-linear modulator circuits

Linear modulator circuits

 Based on the power level at which the modulator is carried out may be
termed as,

 Low level modulator (Square law modulators)

 High level modulator (Linear modulators)

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Balanced Modulator

Ring Modulator

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Generation of AM Signals
diode as NLE or as switch

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 SSB MODULATION
SSB – SC – AM waves can by generated in three ways.
1. Frequency discrimination (or) Filter method
2. Phase discrimination method.
3. Third method or Weaver’s method

Filter Method: (Frequency Discriminator)

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 SSB MODULATION
Phase Shift Method to Generate SSB (Phase Discriminator)

Lower sideband
= cos[2 − ]

Upper Sideband
= cos[2 + ]

Note: By properly choosing the polarities of inputs at summer block, we will get
SSBSC wave having a upper sideband or a lower sideband.
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SSB MODULATION

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 VSB MODULATION
• A technique is chosen, which is a compromise between DSBSC and
SSBSC. This technique is known as Vestigial Side Band Suppressed
Carrier (VSBSC) technique.
• The word “vestige” means “a part” from which, the name is derived.
• VSB Modulation is the process, where a part of the signal called as
vestige is modulated along with one sideband.

• We know that the bandwidth of

SSBSC modulated wave is
• Vestige frequency

Bandwidth of VSB Modulated Wave = +

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 VSB MODULATION
Advantages
• Highly efficient.
• Reduction in bandwidth when compared to AM and DSBSC waves.
• Filter design is easy, since high accuracy is not needed.
• The transmission of low frequency components is possible, without any
difficulty.
• Possesses good phase characteristics.

Disadvantages
• Bandwidth is more when compared to SSBSC wave.
• Demodulation is complex.
Applications
• The most prominent and standard application of VSB is for the transmission
of television signals.

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 Generation of VSB
The output of the product modulator is
= 2π ( )

Apply Fourier transform on both sides

= [ − + + ]
2

DSBSC frequency spectrum

Let the transfer function of the sideband shaping filter be H(f). This filter has the
input p(t) and the output is VSB modulated wave s(t). The Fourier transforms
of p(t) and s(t) are P(f) and S(f) respectively.
= ( )
Substitute P(f) value in the above equation.

= − + + ( )

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Detection of AM Waves
• The process of extracting an original message signal from
the modulated wave is known as detection or demodulation.
• The circuit, which demodulates the modulated wave is
known as the demodulator.
• The following demodulators (detectors) are used for
demodulating AM wave.
1. Square Law Demodulator
2. Envelope Detector

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Envelope Detector
• There are various ways to measure or detect the amplitude (as opposed
to the power) of a waveform. Here we'll consider one of the simplest,
used by most portable radios, etc., the Envelope Detector.

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SSB DEMODULATION

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ANGLE MODULATION
Angle Modulation
• Angle modulation is a class of analog modulation.

• These techniques are based on altering the angle (or phase) of a

sinusoidal carrier wave to transmit data, as opposed to varying the
amplitude, such as in AM transmission.

• Angle Modulation is modulation in which the angle of a sine-wave carrier

is varied by a modulating wave.

• The two main types of angle modulation are:

1. Frequency modulation (FM)

2. Phase modulation (PM)

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Angle Modulation – Frequency Modulation

Consider again the general carrier vc t  = Vc cosωc t + φc 

ωct +φc  represents the angle of the carrier.

There are two ways of varying the angle of the carrier.

a) By varying the frequency, c – Frequency Modulation.

b) By varying the phase, c – Phase Modulation
 Frequency Modulation
In FM, the message signal m(t) controls the frequency fc of the carrier. Consider the
carrier

vc t  = Vc cosωc t 

then for FM we may write:

FM signal vs t  = Vccos2π  f c + frequencydeviationt  ,where the frequency deviation

will depend on m(t).
Given that the carrier frequency will change we may write for an instantaneous
carrier signal
Vc cosωi t  = Vc cos2πf i t  = Vc cosφi 

where i is the instantaneous angle = ωi t = 2πf i t and fi is the instantaneous

frequency.
The picture can't be displayed.

Frequency Modulation

dφi 1 dφi
Since φi = 2πf i t then = 2πf i or fi =
dt 2π dt
i.e. frequency is proportional to the rate of change of angle.

If fc is the unmodulated carrier and fm is the modulating frequency, then we may

deduce that
1 dφi
f i = f c + Δf c cosωm t  =
2π dt

fc is the peak deviation of the carrier.

1 dφi
Hence, we have = f c + Δf c cosωm t  ,i.e. dφi = 2πf c + 2πΔf c cos ωm t 
2π dt dt
The picture can't be displayed.

Frequency Modulation

After integration i.e.  ωc + 2πΔf c cosωm t dt

2πΔf c sin ωm t 

φi = ωc t +
ωm
Δf c
φi = ωc t + sin ωm t 
fm

Hence for the FM signal, v s t  = Vc cosφi 

 Δf c 
vs t  = Vc cos ωc t + sin ωm t 
 fm 
The picture can't be displayed.

Frequency Modulation

Δf c
The ratio is called the Modulation Index denoted by  i.e.
fm
Peak frequency deviation
β=
modulating frequency

Note – FM, as implicit in the above equation for vs(t), is a non-linear process – i.e.
the principle of superposition does not apply. The FM signal for a message m(t) as
a band of signals is very complex. Hence, m(t) is usually considered as a 'single
tone modulating signal' of the form

mt  = Vm cosωm t 
The picture can't be displayed.

Frequency Modulation

 Δf c 
v
The equation s t  = Vc cos ω
 c t + sin ω t  
m  may be expressed as Bessel
 fm 
series (Bessel functions)

v s t  = Vc  J  β cosω
n c + nωm t
n= 

where Jn() are Bessel functions of the first kind. Expanding the equation for a few
terms we have:

v s (t )  Vc J 0 (  ) cos( c )t  Vc J 1 (  ) cos( c   m )t  Vc J 1 (  ) cos ( c   m )t

            
Amp fc Amp fc  f m Amp fc  f m

 Vc J 2 (  ) cos( c  2 m )t  Vc J  2 (  ) cos ( c  2 m )t  
     
Amp fc 2 f m Amp fc 2 f m
 FM Signal Spectrum.

The picture can't be displayed.

The amplitudes drawn are completely arbitrary, since we have not found any value for
Jn() – this sketch is only to illustrate the spectrum.
The picture can't be displayed.

Generation of FM signals – Frequency

Modulation.

An FM demodulator is:

• a voltage-to-frequency converter V/F

• a voltage controlled oscillator VCO

In these devices (V/F or VCO), the output frequency is dependent on the input voltage
amplitude.
The picture can't be displayed.

Summary of the important points of FM

• In FM, the message signal m(t) is assumed to be a single tone frequency,

mt  = Vm cosωmt 
• The FM signal vs(t) from which the spectrum may be obtained as

v s t  = Vc  J  β cosω
n c + nωm t
n= 
Δf c αVm
where Jn() are Bessel coefficients and Modulation Index, β = =
fm fm

•  Hz per Volt is the V/F modulator, gradient or Frequency Conversion Factor,

 per Volt
•  is a measure of the change in output frequency for a change in input amplitude.

• Peak Deviation (of the carrier frequency from fc) Δf c = αVm

 FM Signal Waveforms.

Assuming d (t )  V for 1' s f OUT  f1  f c  V for 1' s  the output ‘switches’


 V for 0' s f OUT  f 0  f c  V for 0' s  between f1 and f0.
 FM Spectrum – Bessel Coefficients.

The FM signal spectrum may be determined from


v s (t )  V c J
n  
n (  ) cos( c  n m )t

The values for the Bessel coefficients, Jn() may be found from
graphs or, preferably, tables of ‘Bessel functions of the first kind’.
 FM Spectrum – Bessel Coefficients.

Jn()

 = 2.4 =5

In the series for vs(t), n = 0 is the carrier component, i.e. Vc J 0 (  ) cos( c t ) , hence the
n = 0 curve shows how the component at the carrier frequency, fc, varies in amplitude,
with modulation index .
 Carson’s Rule for FM Bandwidth.

An approximation for the bandwidth of an FM signal is given by

BW = 2(Maximum frequency deviation + highest modulated
frequency)

Bandwidth  2(f c  f m ) Carson’s Rule

 Narrowband and Wideband FM

Narrowband FM NBFM

From the graph/table of Bessel functions it may be seen that for small , (  0.3)
there is only the carrier and 2 significant sidebands, i.e. BW = 2fm.

FM with   0.3 is referred to as narrowband FM (NBFM) (Note, the bandwidth is

the same as DSBAM).

Wideband FM WBFM

For  > 0.3 there are more than 2 significant sidebands. As  increases the number of
sidebands increases. This is referred to as wideband FM (WBFM).
Phase Modulation (PM)
• The modulating signal only changes the phase of the carrier signal.

• In phase modulation, the instantaneous amplitude of the baseband signal

modifies the phase of the carrier signal keeping its amplitude and
frequency constant.

• The phase of a carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing signal

level (amplitude) of the message signal.

• The peak amplitude and the frequency of the carrier signal are maintained
constant, but as the amplitude of the message signal changes, the phase of
the carrier changes correspondingly

• The bandwidth is higher than AM.

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57
Mathematical Representation
The equation for instantaneous phase in phase modulation is
= ( )
Where,
• kp is the phase sensitivity
• m(t) is the message signal
The standard equation of angle modulated wave is
= (2 + )
Substitute, value in the above equation.
= (2 + ( ))
This is the equation of PM wave.
If the modulating signal, = (2 )
then the equation of PM wave will be
= (2 +β (2 )
Where,
• β = modulation index = Δϕ = kpAm
• Δϕ is phase deviation 58
Relationship between FM and PM

59
HILBERT TRANSFORM

• Fourier, Laplace, and z-transforms change from the time-

domain representation of a signal to the frequency-
domain representation of the signal
• The resulting two signals are equivalent representations of
the same signal in terms of time or frequency
• In contrast, The Hilbert transform does not involve a
change of domain, unlike many other transforms

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HILBERT TRANSFORM

• Strictly speaking, the Hilbert transform is not a transform in

this sense
• First, the result of a Hilbert transform is not equivalent to the
original signal, rather it is a completely different signal
• Second, the Hilbert transform does not involve a domain
change, i.e., the Hilbert transform of a signal x(t) is another
signal denoted by xˆ (t ) in the same domain (i.e., time domain)

61
HILBERT TRANSFORM

• The Hilbert transform of a signal x(t) is a signal xˆ (t ) whose frequency

components lag the frequency components of x(t) by 90

• xˆ (t ) has exactly the same frequency components present in x(t) with

the same amplitude–except there is a 90 phase delay

• The Hilbert transform of

x(t) = A cos(2f0t + )

is

A cos(2f0t +  - 90) = A sin(2f0t + )

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 HILBERT TRANSFORM

• A delay of /2 at all frequencies

• ej2f0t will become j 2f 0t  2
e   je j 2f 0t
 j ( 2f 0t  2 )
• e-j2f0t will become e  je j 2f 0t
• At positive frequencies, the spectrum of the signal is multiplied by -j

• At negative frequencies, it is multiplied by +j

• This is equivalent to saying that the spectrum (Fourier transform) of the

signal is multiplied by –j sgn(f).

63
HILBERT TRANSFORM

• Assume that x(t) is real and has no DC component : X(f)|f=0 = 0, then

F xˆ (t )   j sgn( f ) X ( f )
1
F  j sgn( f ) 
1

t
1 1  x( )
xˆ (t )   x(t )   t   d
t 

The operation of the Hilbert transform is equivalent to a

convolution, i.e., filtering

64
HILBERT TRANSFORM
• Obviously performing the Hilbert transform on a signal is equivalent to a
90 phase shift in all its frequency components
• Therefore, the only change that the Hilbert transform performs on a
signal is changing its phase
• The amplitude of the frequency components of the signal do not change
by performing the Hilbert-transform
• On the other hand, since performing the Hilbert transform changes
cosines into sines, the Hilbert transform xˆ (t ) of a signal x(t) is orthogonal
to x(t)
• Also, since the Hilbert transform introduces a 90 phase shift, carrying it
out twice causes a 180 phase shift, which can cause a sign reversal of the
original signal

65
 HILBERT TRANSFORM - ITS PROPERTIES

 Evenness and Oddness

 The Hilbert transform of an even signal is odd, and the
Hilbert transform of an odd signal is even
 Proof
 If x(t) is even, then X(f) is a real and even function

 Therefore, -jsgn(f)X(f) is an imaginary and odd function

 Hence, its inverse Fourier transform x ˆ (t ) will be odd

 If x(t) is odd, then X(f) is imaginary and odd

 Thus -jsgn(f)X(f) is real and even

 Therefore, x ˆ (t ) is even

66
HILBERT TRANSFORM - ITS PROPERTIES

 Sign Reversal
 Applying the Hilbert-transform operation to a signal
twice causes a sign reversal of the signal, i.e.,

xˆˆ (t )   x (t )
 Proof

F [ xˆˆ (t )]   j sgn( f ) X ( f )
2

F [ xˆˆ (t )]   X ( f )
 X( f ) does not contain any impulses at the origin

67
HILBERT TRANSFORM - ITS PROPERTIES

 Energy
 The energy content of a signal is equal to the energy content
of its Hilbert transform
 Proof
 Using Rayleigh's theorem of the Fourier transform,
 2  2
E x   x(t ) dt   X ( f ) df
 
 2  2  2
E xˆ   xˆ (t ) dt    j sgn( f ) X ( f ) df   X ( f ) df
  

 Using the fact that |-jsgn(f)|2 = 1 except for f = 0, and the

fact that X(f) does not contain any impulses at the origin
completes the proof
68
 HILBERT TRANSFORM - ITS PROPERTIES

 Orthogonality
 The signal x(t) and its Hilbert transform are orthogonal
 Proof
 Using Parseval's theorem of the Fourier transform, we
obtain
 
 x (t ) xˆ (t )dt   X ( f )[ j sgn( f ) X ( f )]* df
*
 
0 2  2
  j X ( f ) df  j  X ( f ) df  0
 0

 In the last step, we used the fact that X(f) is Hermitian;

| X(f)|2 is even

69