AEROSPACE INSTRUMENTATION
Guidance, Navigation and Control (GNC)
• Guidance defines the desired path or trajectory.
• Navigation determines the current position, velocity, and orientation.
• Control uses actuators to follow the desired trajectory.
• Example: In landing, guidance uses GPS path, navigation senses position, and control uses
rudder and elevator.
Types of Navigation Systems
• Radar: Uses radio waves to detect object position and distance.
• GPS: Satellite-based positioning, provides latitude, longitude, altitude, and time.
• Inertial Navigation System (INS): Self-contained system using gyros and accelerometers.
• Integrated Navigation: Combines GPS and INS for better accuracy.
Inertial Navigation System (INS)
• INS uses accelerometers and gyros to determine position, velocity, and attitude.
• It is self-contained, immune to jamming but suffers from long-term drift.
• Strapdown INS uses fixed sensors and numerical integration, replacing gimbals.
• Basic Elements: Accelerometers, Gyroscopes, Navigation Computer.
Frames of Reference in INS
• Body Frame: Fixed to the vehicle.
• Navigation Frame: Earth or local-level reference.
• Wander Azimuth: Reduces computation burden compared to Earth-fixed frame.
Types of Gyros
• Mechanical Gyros: Use spinning rotors.
• Ring Laser Gyros (RLG): Use light interference in closed path.
• Fiber Optic Gyros (FOG): Use light in optical fibers, immune to EMI.
• MEMS Gyros: Small, cheap, used in modern IMUs and AHRS.
SINS Navigation Equations
• SINS uses Newton's laws to compute navigation states from body-fixed measurements.
• Requires transformation between frames using direction cosine matrix (DCM) or quaternions.
• Equations account for Coriolis and transport rate corrections.
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)
• GPS (USA): 24 satellites, global coverage, accuracy ~10-20m.
• Galileo (EU): Sub-meter accuracy, civilian open access.
• GLONASS (Russia): Good high-latitude coverage.
• BeiDou (China): High accuracy in Asia-Pacific, global since 2020.
• NavIC (India): Regional system, dual-level service.
• QZSS (Japan): Enhances GPS in Asia-Oceania region.
Lambert Guidance
• Problem: Given r1, r2 and time of flight ∆t, find required velocity vector.
• Application: Missile and spacecraft targeting, orbital transfer.
• Based on conservation of angular momentum and Kepler’s second law.
• Algorithm uses semi-major axis, area swept and time-of-flight relationships.
State Estimation Basics
• Velocity cannot be estimated directly from noisy position using differentiation.
• Solution: Use observers like Luenberger Observer or Kalman Filter.
Luenberger Observer
• Estimates states using model equations and output correction.
• Observer gain L is designed to place poles of (A-LC) far left in s-plane.
• Fast convergence depends on model accuracy and initial conditions.
Kalman Filter
• Probabilistic observer assuming known process and measurement noise.
• Prediction: Uses system model to estimate state ahead.
• Correction: Adjusts prediction using new measurement and Kalman Gain K.
• Minimizes estimation error covariance P using recursive updates.
Extended Kalman Filter (EKF)
• EKF handles nonlinear systems using Jacobians for linear approximation.
• Used in aerospace for tracking, INS correction, and sensor fusion.
• Requires state transition and measurement functions and their Jacobians.
Simulation Systems
• Mass-spring-damper system modeled using differential and state space equations.
• Pendulum modeled with angular equations: θ■ = -(g/l)sinθ - (k/m)θ■.
• Inverted pendulum on cart: Highly nonlinear, uses force input u to stabilize.
• TRAS system: Twin rotor aerodynamic system with coupled nonlinear dynamics.
MATLAB/Simulink Implementations
• Used for simulation of continuous and discrete models.
• Kalman filter and observer implemented in MATLAB for estimation.
• State equations are defined using system parameters (mass, damping, spring const.).
Key Equations and Concepts
• Discrete-time model: X(k+1) = A*X(k) + B*u(k), y(k) = C*X(k).
• Observer: dx■ = A*x■ + B*u + L(y - C*x■).
• Kalman Gain: K = P*C'*(C*P*C' + R)^-1.
Common Sensors in GNSS
• Accelerometer: Measures linear acceleration.
• Gyroscope: Measures angular rate.
• Magnetometer: Detects magnetic field direction.
• Altimeter: Measures altitude (usually barometric).
Important Navigation Terms
• Slant Range: Direct line distance between radar and target.
• Ground Range: Horizontal distance considering elevation.
• Azimuth: Horizontal bearing angle from reference direction.
• Elevation Angle: Angle above the horizontal plane.
Light Measurement
• Light: Photon energy E = hc/λ.
• Visible range: 390–760 nm; violet has more energy.
• Photoresistor (LDR): Resistance decreases with light.
• Photodiode: Light to current; fast, reliable; uses p-n junction.
• Applications: Medical imaging, auto headlights, barcode readers.
Humidity Measurement
• Humidity: Water vapor in air; expressed as RH, Dew Point, or ppm.
• Psychrometry: Uses dry and wet bulb.
• Sensors: Hair, capacitive, resistive, microwave-based.
• Common: DHT12, BMP280 for embedded systems.
Vibration Measurement
• Vibration: Oscillation measured in Hz and Gs.
• Accelerometers: Sense displacement → capacitance → voltage.
• Specs: Sensitivity, zero-g bias, dynamic range, noise, bandwidth.
• Gyroscope measures angular velocity; accelerometer measures linear acceleration.
Inertial Sensors & Gyroscopes
• IMU = accelerometers + gyros.
• INS = IMU + computational algorithms.
• Gyroscopes use angular momentum (mechanical/optical/MEMS).
• Precession: Axis shift due to external torque.
Vibratory Gyroscopes
• Use Coriolis effect to detect angular rate.
• MEMS gyro: vibrating mass senses direction-dependent force.
• Resonance improves sensitivity.
Ultrasonic Sensors & Switches
• Ultrasonic range: 38–45 kHz, uses piezoelectric effect.
• Switches: BJT, SCR, Relay, Reed, Hall, Mechanical.
• Proximity sensors: detect presence/contactless.
Position & Speed Measurement
• Potentiometer: Measures angle by resistance.
• Encoders: Absolute (Gray/Binary), Incremental (edge count).
• Switches: Detect limits, used for zeroing/reference.
• Encoder modes: 1X, 2X, 4X resolution.
DC and Brushless Motors
• DC Motor: Uses Lorentz Force, controlled via PWM.
• Parts: Armature, brushes, commutator, field windings.
• BLDC Motor: Uses Hall sensors, ESCs for commutation.
• Benefits: Low maintenance, higher efficiency.
Servo and Stepper Motors
• Servo: Motor + controller, feedback loop, precise control.
• Stepper: Discrete steps, open-loop or closed-loop.
• Types: PM, VR, Hybrid; control via excitation sequence.
• Modes: Full-step, half-step.
