Most of the electronic devices and circuits are operated by DC power supplies.
Power supply consist
of main four stages as explained below.
It is a device that has two windings: primary and secondary used to convert a high
AC voltage (240V/ 50Hz) to a required low AC voltage.
: It is a device has one or more diodes, converts secondary AC voltage to pulsating DC.
: It is a circuit used to remove fluctuations (ripple or ac) present in rectifier output.
Example: Capacitor filters, LC filters, - filters, etc.
: Voltage regulator is a circuit which provides constant DC output voltage irrespective of
changes in the load current or changes in the input voltage.
Fig. 2, shows important electronic components that are used in the block diagram of fig. 1. Step-down
transformer is made of iron core that feeds low level AC voltage from its secondary windings to a rectifier.
Rectifier output is applied to a high value capacitor to minimize ripples. Capacitor filter charges as the rectifier
output voltage increases until its peak value. When the voltage value reduces, it discharges gradually through
the regulator. Finally, a series transistor regulator and Zener diode provides a constant DC voltage.
Semiconductor diodes are commonly used as rectifiers. It converts AC voltage into rippled DC
voltage. There are two types: Half-wave and full wave rectifiers.Fig. 3 shows half-wave rectifier that
allows one half of an AC waveform to pass through to the load.AC voltage (240V r.m.s) is applied to
the primary of step-down transformer (T1). The secondary of T1,
reduces to 12V r.m.s. (Taking turns ratio: 240: 12 = 20:1). Diode D1 will allow current only in positive half
cycle being forward biased and operates as a closed switch, see fig. 3(b). For negative half cycle, D1 will not
allow current passing through it, because it is reverse biased and acts like an open switch, see fig. 3(c).
The switching action of D1 results in pulsating output voltage available at load resistor (RL). During positive
half cycle, silicon diode will drop 0.6V to 0.7V as forward threshold voltage. During negative half cycle, D1
is reverse biased, hence secondary of T1 peak voltage will be dropped across it.
:
Secondary of T1 = 12V r.m.s voltage
Peak voltage across secondary
windings:
= 1.414 x 12 = 16.968V ~ 17V
Silicon diode drop voltage = 0.7V
Actual output voltage across load
R = 17- 0.7 =16.3V
L
Smoothening circuit is a capacitor filter C1 connected in parallel to the load RL as shown in the fig.5. It
is used to remove fluctuations (ripple or AC) present in rectifier output. When 240V AC voltage is applied to
primary of T1, its secondary reduces to 12V r.m.s value and peak value is 16.3V.
During +ve half cycle of secondary voltage, diode is
forward biased, C1 charges as the rectifier output
voltage increases to its peak value (16.3V).
When the rectifier voltage starts to decrease, C1
discharges slowly through the load RL, until the next
+ve half cycle is met.
Charging Time of C1 to the peak value = Rseries C1 Discharging Time of C1 = RL C1
Rseries = Rsecondary winding + Rdiode + Rwiring and connections Practically, RL is very much larger than Rseries
Hence C1 charges quickly as soon as diode conducts. Hence C1 discharges slowly through RL.
C1 stores charge during +ve half cycle of secondary Vpeak and releases it during ve
half cycle, maintaining reasonably constant output voltage across RL. This causes to a small DC ripple at the
output. The DC ripples can be drastically reduced by choosing a larger C1 value in place of smaller value.
in filers the value of the capacitor plays an important role in determining the output ripples and the average DC
level. If the capacitor value is high, the amount of charge it can store will be high and the amount it discharges
will be less. Thus, the ripples will be less and the average dc level will be high.
If the capacitor value is larger, the amount of current required to charge the capacitor will be high. So, diodes
are subjected to high surge currents. Thus, there is a limit in increasing the capacitor value in half-wave
rectifiers.
Additional components R1 and C2 are
connected as shown in the fig.6. C1 and C2
offer low reactance to AC components of
ripple. In effect R1 and C2 act like a voltage
divider and amount of ripple is reduced. But
certain amount of DC voltage will drop
across R1. The value of C2 isselected in
such way that it exhibits negligible reactance
at low frequencies
(50Hz 100Hz).
Amount of ripple reduction is determined by
From the fig.7, at the ripple frequency, C1
exhibits low value of capacitive reactance.
Hence it bypasses most of AC components
of ripples. L1 exhibits high value of
inductive reactance, therefore it allows
most of DC components. Further, C1
bypasses remaining AC components
offering low value of capacitive reactance.
Thus the combined effect of L C greatly
reduces the ripples.
Advantage: Half wave rectifier is cheap, simple and easy to construct.
Disadvantage:
1. Ripple factor is high at the output.
2. Rectification efficiency is quite low, that means, power is delivered only during one half cycle of
the input alternating voltage.
3. Transformer utilization factor is low.
Full-wave rectifier there are two types:
Bi-Phase or Center Tapped full wave rectifier - uses two diodes and center tapped power transformer.
Bridge full wave rectifier - uses four diodes and ordinary power transformer.
The AC mains (240V) is applied to the primary of T1 which has two identical secondary windings each
providing 12V r.m.s, as shown in the fig.8.
On +ve half cycles, point A will be +ve with respect to On -ve half cycles, point C will be +ve with respect to
point B. similarly, point B will be +ve with respect to point B. similarly, point B will be +ve with respect to
point C. point A.
D1 will forward bias, acts like a closed switch hence D2 will forward bias, acts like a closed switch hence
conducts. While D2 will reverse bias, acts like an open conducts. While, D1 will reverse bias, acts like an open
switch hence do not conduct. Thus, D1 alone conducts switch hence do not conduct. Thus, D2 alone conducts
on +ve half cycles. on -ve half cycles.
It is as shown in the fig. 9(a). It is as shown in the fig. 9(b).
NOTE: i) Vpeak produced by each of secondary windings = 17V 0.7V = 16.3V
ii) Pulses of voltage developed across RL = 100Hz (if primary is 50Hz)
Two diodes D1 and D2 are used in this circuit. They feed a common load resistor R L, with the help of a center
tapped transformer as shown in the fig.10.
When diode D1 conduct, C1 charges quickly to the peak value (16.3V) of the +ve half cycle. When diode D2
is in non-conducting state, C1 discharges slowly through the load RL. Similarly, when diode D2 conduct, C1
charges to the peak value of the -ve half cycle and C1 starts to discharge during diode D1 non-conducting state.
Note that in this case capacitor C1 charge and discharge twice through RL during one full cycle.
Charging Time of C1 to the peak value = Rseries C1 Discharging Time of C1 = RL C1
Rseries = Rsecondary winding + Rdiode + Rwiring and connections Practically, RL is very much larger than Rseries
Hence C1 charges quickly as soon as diode conducts. Hence C1 discharges slowly through RL.
Disadvantages of Bi-phase Rectifier:
It is difficult to construct and locate the center-tap on secondary winding of the transformer.
The diodes used must have high PIV.
Bridge full wave rectifier employs four diodes, but only two diodes will conduct during each half cycle.
The AC mains (240V) is applied to the primary of T1 and
secondary windings providing 12V r.m.s, as shown in the
fig.11.
During positive half cycle:
Point A will be +ve with respect to point B, then diodes D1D2 are forward biased act like closed switches, and
hence conduct. While, diodes D3D4 are reverse biased act like open switches, hence do not conduct.
During negative half cycle:
Point B will be +ve with respect to point A, then diodes D3D4 are forward biased act like closed switches, and
hence conduct. While, diodes D1D2 are reverse biased act like open switches, hence do not conduct.
In both +ve and ve half cycles current IL flows through load resistance RL. The complete input-output
voltage waveforms of the bridge full wave rectifier are shown in fig. 11(b).
Bridge rectifier with capacitor filter works very similar to that of bi-phase rectifier circuit.
Voltage regulator is a device by which output voltage VO, is maintained constant regardless of change in the
input voltage (Vin) or load (RL). See fig. 12(a). The circuit diagram of the Zener diode as a simple voltage
regulator is shown in the fig.12 (b).
The series resistor, RS is connected in the circuit to limit the current through the zener diode to a safe value when
load RL is disconnected. Also, the voltage drop across it is a part of unregulated input voltage, Vin. WhenRL is
connected, zener current IZ will reduce as current (I = Iz + IL) is split into load RL.
Output voltage VO, remains constant until regulation fails. Regulation fails at a point at which potential
divider formed by RS and RL produces lower voltage than VZ voltage.
Series resistor value (ohms) = (Vi Vz) / (Zener current + load current). Maximum value of RS can be calculated
as,
and
Also,
The zener diode conducts the least current (Iz (min)) when the load current IL is maximum and it conducts the
maximum current when the load current is minimum, I = Iz + IL.
The power dissipation of Zener diode is described as:
In a perfect power supply output voltage (VO), remain constant regardless of the current taken by the
load. However practically, VO reduces as load current increases. This is due to internal resistance (ri) of the
power supply. That means, this internal resistance appears at the output of the power supply. It is defined as
The regulation of a power supply is given by
Ideally, the value of the regulation should be very small. Various regulators produce value of regulation as
tabulated below:
Voltage multiplier is a modified capacitor filter circuit that delivers a DC voltage twice or rnore times of the
peak value of the input AC voltage. Such power supplies are used for high-voltage and low-current devices such as
cathode-ray tubes (the picture tubes in TV receivers, oscilloscopes and computer display).
The circuit diagram for a full-wave voltage doubler is given in the fig.13.
Assume in the beginning all capacitors are cleared (stored 0V) and diodes are ideal (act as switches).
During the +ve half cycle of VIN voltage
D1 conducts (forward biased) and
capacitor C1 gets charged to the peak
of VIN voltage. While, D2 is reverse-
biased and does not conduct.
Using KVL,
VIN VC1 = 0
or, VC1 = VIN
During the -ve half-cycle,
D2 being forward biased (conducts),
while diode D1 is reverse biased does
not conduct.
C2 gets charged to sum of C1 = VIN and
ve peak voltage of VIN.
Using KVL,
VIN VC2 VC1(VIN) = 0
or, VC2 = 2VIN
Final output voltage will be equal to sum of voltages across capacitors C1 and C2.
i.e., VC1 + VC2 = 2 VIN
Practical output voltage = 2VIN voltages drop across diodes
The voltage doubler can be extended to produce 3 times voltages (tripler) using the cascade
arrangement shown in Fig. 14.
Assume in the beginning all capacitors are cleared (stored 0V) and diodes are ideal (act as switches).
During the first +ve half cycle
D1 conducts (forward biased) and
capacitor C1 gets charged to the peak
of VIN voltage. While, D2 is reverse
biased. Though D3 is forward biased,
C2 = C3 = 0V(no effect).
Using KVL,
VIN VC1 = 0 or, VC1 = VIN
During the -ve half cycle
D2 is forward biased and D1& D3 are
reverse biased. C2 gets charged to sum
of C1 = VIN and ve peak voltage of
VIN. Using KVL,
VIN VC2 VC1(VIN) = 0
or, VC2 = 2VIN
so, C2 gets charged to 2VIN.
During the second + half cycle
D1 and D3 conduct and D2 get
reverse biased. So, the capacitor C2
charges the capacitor C3 up to 2VIN.
Using KVL,
VC3 VC2(2VIN) = 0
or, VC3 = 2VIN
Since, C1 and C3 are in series so the total voltage across these capacitors is VIN + 2VIN = 3VIN.
Practical output voltage = 3VIN voltages drop across diodes
Amplifier is an electronic circuit which increases the amplitude of its input signal without changing other
parameters.
AC coupled amplifiers: In this case, stages are coupled together in such a way that DC levels are blocked and
only the AC components of a signal are transferred from one stage to another stage.
DC coupled amplifiers: Also known as direct coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way
both AC and DC signal components are transferred from one stage to another stage.
Large-signal amplifiers: Large-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for appreciable voltage and/or current
levels (typically from 1 V to 100 V or more).
Small-signal amplifiers: These amplifiers are designed to cater for low-level signals (normally less than 1V).
Small-signal amplifiers have to be specially designed to combat the effects of noise.
Audio frequency amplifiers: Audio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is normally
associated with audio signals (e.g. the range of human hearing 20 Hz to 20 kHz).
Wideband amplifiers: Wideband amplifiers are capable of amplifying a very wide range of frequencies,
typically from a few tens of hertz to several megahertz.
Radio frequency amplifiers: Radio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is normally
associated with radio signals (e.g. from 100 kHz to over 1 GHz).
Note that it is desirable for amplifiers of this type to be frequency selective and thus their frequency response
may be restricted to a relatively narrow band of frequencies (see fig.15).
Low-noise amplifiers: These amplifiers are designed for use with very small signal levels (usually less than
10 mV) so that they contribute negligible noise (signal disturbance) to the signal being amplified.
Voltage Amplifier Current amplifier Power amplifier
The purpose of a voltage amplifier The purpose of a current amplifier In a power amplifier, the product
is to make the amplitude of the is to make the amplitude of the of voltage and current (i.e. power
output voltage waveform greater output current waveform greater = voltage x current) at the output is
than that of the input voltage than that of the input current greater than the product of voltage
waveform. waveform. x current at the input.
The amount of amplification (or gain) is simply the ratio of output voltage to input voltage, output current
to input current, or output power to input power (see Fig. 7.2). These three ratios give, respectively, the voltage
gain, current gain and power gain.
Power is the product of current and voltage (P = I V ),
Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and it is expressed in
The input of an amplifier is normally purely resistive (i.e. any reactive component is negligible) in the middle
of its working frequency range (i.e. the mid-band). In some cases, the reactance of the input may become
appreciable (e.g. if a large value of stray capacitance appears in parallel with the input resistance). In such cases
we would refer to input impedance rather than input resistance.
Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit output
As with input resistance, the output of an amplifier is
normally purely resistive and we can safely ignore any
reactive component. If this is not the case, we would
once again need to refer to output impedance rather
than output resistance.
[Note: This resistance is internal to the amplifier and
should not be confused with the resistance of a load
connected externally]
It is the graph plotted for gain verses input frequency of an amplifier. The frequency
response of an amplifier is usually specified in terms of the upper (f2) and lower (f1) cut-off frequencies of the
amplifier. These frequencies are those at which the output power has dropped to 50% (otherwise known as the
3 dB points) or where the voltage gain has dropped to 70.7% of its mid-band value.
Fig. 16 show how the bandwidth can be expressed in terms of either power or voltage.
The bandwidth of an amplifier is usually taken as the difference between the upper and lower cut-
off frequencies (i.e. f f1 in Fig.16). The range of frequencies within a band is known as bandwidth
: Audio amplifiers have a flat frequency response (as shown in fig.17) over the audio range of
frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This range of frequencies, for an audio amplifier is called its Bandwidth,
(BW).
The bandwidth of an amplifier must be sufficient to accommodate the range of frequencies present within the
signals that it is to be presented with.
Phase shift is the phase angle between the input and output signal voltages measured in degrees.
The measurement is usually carried out in the mid-band where, for most amplifiers, the phase shift remains
relatively constant. Note also that conventional single-stage transistor amplifiers provide phase shifts of either
180° or 360°.
Many practical amplifiers use negative feedback system in order to attain the following
advantages
i) precisely control the gain,
ii) reduce distortion,
iii) improve bandwidth and
iv) improve input/output impedances.
: In a negative-feedback amplifier system a portion of the amplified output is
feeding to the input butin opposite phase, so that negative feedback opposes the
original signal.
i.e, input and outputs are out of phase (180o). This causes reducing the
overall gain of the circuit.Fig.18 shows the block diagram of an amplifier
stage with negative feedback applied.
A= Vo/Vin
Vo=A Vin, where Vin=VS Vf
and Vf =
Vo = A(Vs
Vo =AVs
AVs =Vo
So, the equation of overall gain with
negative feedback is given by
In this circuit, the proportion of the output voltage fed back to the input is given by
and the overall voltagegain will be given by:
Where A=Open loop gain and Af= Closed loop
gain
Output of first stage is connected to the input of the second stage through a
suitable couplingdevice and so on. In order to provide sufficiently large gain, it is
frequently necessary to use a number of interconnected stages within an amplifier.
The overall gain of an amplifier with several stages (i.e. a multi-stage amplifier) is
simply the product of the individual voltage gains. Hence:
.. etc.
Note, however, the bandwidth of a multistage amplifier will be less than the
bandwidth of each individualstage. In other words, an increase in gain can only be
achieved at the expense of a reduction in bandwidth.
Coupling devices transfer energy from one stage to the other.
(a) In RC coupling
Resistor (R) used as load impedance and capacitor (C) is used as the coupling
element. The capacitor connects the output of one stage to the input of the next stage
which allows the AC signal while blocking the DC voltages. Since the DC resistance
of R is high, the efficiency of the amplifier is decreased.
Disadvantage: i) Causes loss for the low frequency signals.
ii) Difficult to match the impedance from stage to stage
(b) In L C coupling
Inductance (L) as load impedance and capacitance (C) used as coupling elements.
The capacitor connects the output of one stage to the input of the next stage which
allows the AC signal while blocking the DC voltages. The impedance of coupling
coil (L) depends on its inductance and signal frequency. Since the DC resistance of
the coil (L) is low, the efficiency of the amplifier is increased.
Disadvantage: only used in RF and high-frequency amplifiers.
(c) In transformer coupling
Transformer is used as the coupling device. The transformer coupling provides two
functions:
i) to pass AC signal and blocking DC and
ii) permits impedance matching.
Disadvantage: i) Coupling transformer is expensive and bulky
ii) Transformers tend to produce hum noise
iii) It has a poor frequency response.
1.Mike Too
DOI https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315737980. eBook ISBN9781315737980
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