CEE-245

SUEVEYING

LECTURE : LEVELLING

By
Mohaiminul Haque
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engg., SUST
 LEVELLING
Definition:

• Level: A level is an instrument by which relative height

of different points on the surface of the earth is
determined.
• Levelling: Levelling is a process by means of which the
difference in elevation of various points on the earth’s
surface is calculated.
• Level Surface: A level surface is defined as a surface on
which each point is perpendicular to the direction of
gravity. The surface of still water is truly level surface.
Any surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the
earth is, therefore, a level surface.
• Level line: A level line is a line lying in a level surface. It
is, therefore, normal to the plumb line at all points. 2
3
 Horizontal Plane: Horizontal plane through a point is a
plane tangential to the level surface at that point. It is,
therefore, perpendicular to the plumb line through the
point.
 Horizontal Line: It is straight line tangential to the level
line at a point. It is also perpendicular to the plumb line.
 Vertical Line: It is a line normal to the level line at a
point. It is commonly considered to be the line defined by a
plumb line.
 Mean sea-level: It is average elevation of the surface of
the sea for all stage of tides.
 Geoid: The surface of the earth at mean sea-level is
termed as Geoid.

4
 Datum: It is an imaginary surface with respect to which
the heights of different points on the earth surface are
determined. In levelling operations a certain datum is
assumed (known as assumed datum) and the relative
height of different points are calculated with respect to this
datum.
 Elevation: The elevation of a point is its vertical distance
above or below the datum.
 Reduced Level (R.L): The elevation of any point with
reference to the assumed datum is termed as reduced level
(R.L) of that point.
 Bench Mark: A bench mark is a fixed point on the ground
of known elevation.

5
 METHODS OF LEVELLING
❑ The Principal methods are used for determining
difference in elevation, namely, barometric
levelling, trigonometric levelling and spirit levelling.
• Barometric levelling: difference in elevation
between two points is proportional to the difference
in atmospheric pressures at these points.
• Trigonometric levelling (Indirect levelling):
the elevations of points are computed from the
vertical angles and horizontal distances measured
in the field

6
• Sprit levelling (Direct levelling):
• The vertical distances with respect to a horizontal line
(perpendicular to the direction of gravity) may be used to
determine the relative difference in elevation between
two adjacent points.
• A horizontal plane of sight tangent to level surface at
any point is readily established by means of a spirit level
or a level vial.
• In spirit levelling, a spirit level and a sighting
device(telescope) are combined and vertical distances are
measured by observing on graduated rods placed on the
points.
• The method is also known as direct levelling.
• It is the most precise method of determining elevation
and the one most commonly used by engineers. 7
 LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS
The main instruments of leveling operations are
 1. A level
 2. A staff

1. Level
 The purpose of a level is to provide a horizontal line of sight.
Essentially, a level consists of the following four parts:
▪ A telescope to provide line of sight
▪ A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal
▪ A levelling head to bring the bubble in its center to run
▪ A tripod to support the instrument.

Types of level:
 1. Dumpy level
 2. Wyes or Y-level
 3. Reversible level 8
 4. Tilting level
2. Levelling staff
 A levelling staff is a
straight rectangular rod
having graduation, the
foot of the staff
representing zero
reading.
 The purpose of the
levelling staff is to
determine the amount by
which the station (i.e.
foot of the staff) is above
or below the line of sight.

9
 TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

• Station: In levelling, a station is that point where the

level rod is held and not where level is set up. It is the
point whose elevation is to be ascertained or the point
that is to be established at a given elevation.
• Height of Instruments (H.I): For any set up of the
level, the height of instrument is the elevation of plane
of sight (line of sight) with respect to the assumed 10
datum.
• Back, Inter and Fore Readings: In any set up of the levelling
instrument, the first staff reading on a station is termed as back reading
(B R.) and the last staff reading on a station is termed as the fore reading
(F.R) And the reading on the intermediate stations are termed as inter
reading (I.R)

• Turning Point: Turning point or change point is a point on which both

minus sight and plus sight are taken on a line of direct levels. The minus
sight (fore sight) is taken on the point in one set of instrument to
ascertain the elevation of the point while the plus sight (back sight) is
taken on the same point in other set of the instrument to establish the
new height off the instrument.

• Intermediate Station: Intermediate station is a point, intermediate

between two turning points.

Purpose of leveling:
• This is performed to know the undulation of the ground along and across
the alignment of a route project such as roads, railways, irrigation canals,
water and sewer lines, etc, so as to determine the amount of earth work
in cutting and in embankment.
• This also determines the area from contour map.
• This helps in setting out the formation level of roads, canals and sewer 11
lines.
 SPECIAL METHODS OF SPIRIT LEVELLING
(i) Differential Levelling: It is the method of direct levelling
the object of which is solely to determine the difference in
elevation of two points regardless of the horizontal positions
of the points with respect of each other.
(ii) Profile Levelling: It is the method of direct levelling the
object of which is to determine the elevations of points at
measured intervals along a given line in order to obtain a
profile of the surface along that line.
(iii) Cross-Sectioning: It is process of taking levels on each
side of a main line at right angles to that line.
(iv) Reciprocal Levelling: It is the method of levelling in
which the difference in elevation between two points is
accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal observations
when it is not possible to set up the level between the two
points.
(v) Precise Levelling: It is the levelling in which the degree of
precision required is too great to be attained by ordinary
methods and in which, therefore, special equipment or
special precautions or both are necessary to eliminate all
12
sources of error as far as possible.
 STEPS IN LEVELLING
There are two steps in levelling
(i) To find by how much amount the line of sight is
above the bench mark
(ii) To ascertain by how much amount the next point
is below or above the line of sight

13
• A level is set up approximately midway between the
bench mark and the point, the elevation of which is to
be ascertained by direct levelling. A back sight is taken
on the rod held at the B.M. Then
H.I. = Elevation of B.M. + B.S.
• Turning the telescope to bring into view the rod held on
point B, a foresight is taken. Then 14
Elevation = H.I. – F.S.
HAND SIGNALS DURING OBSERVATIONS

15
 BOOKING AND CALCULATION R.L.
These are two methods
1. Line of collimation method
2. Rise and fall method

1. Line of Collimation Method (or Height of instrument

method)
• In this method the elevation of the line of collimation for every
set up of the instrument is found out and the reduced levels of
different points with reference to the line of collimation are
obtained.
• After setting the instrument at a point on the ground, staff
reading is taken on a bench mark.
• This staff reading is added to the known R.L. of the B.M.
which gives the R.L. of the line of collimation.
• Now, intermediate staff readings are taken. Each of these
readings is subtracted from R.L. of the line of collimation 16
giving the elevations of the intermediate points.
LINE OF COLLIMATION METHOD
• When it is found that no more staff readings are
possible by the telescope, the instrument is then
shifted to another suitable position.
• From this second set up of the instrument, again a
reading on the last station of the preceding set up
is taken.
• This reading is added to the R.L. of this last point
which will now give the R.L. of the line of
collimation for the second set up of the instrument.
• The reduced levels of the intermediate stations are
now calculated by taking reading as before.
• The process is continued till the work finished.
• Arithmetic Check: 17
σ 𝐵. 𝑆 − σ𝐹. 𝑆. = 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑅. 𝐿 − 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑅. 𝐿.
2. Rise and fall method
• In this method the difference of level between
consecutive points is found out by comparing each
reading with the preceding one.
• If the staff reading at a point is greater than the
preceding one, it indicates a fall.
• And if the staff reading at a point is smaller than
the preceding one, it indicates a rise.
• The R.L. of different points are then calculated by
adding the rise or subtracting the fall to or from the
R.L. of the preceding point.

• Arithmetic Check:
σ𝐵. 𝑆. −σ𝐹. 𝑆. = σ𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 − σ𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑅. 𝐿. −𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑅. 𝐿. 18
Problem:
In a leveling operation; two station A & B are taken &
the staff 5.42,7.24,6.46,5.38,6.55 & 6.92 are taken
successively from station A(where 5.42 is the back
reading & RL of the point is 100). From position B,
the staff reading are 8.78, 8.52, 6.24, 5.96, 6.35 &
7.54(where, 8.78 is back reading). Calculate the
reduced level of each point by
1. Height of instrument method

2. Rise & fall method

Also apply necessary check.

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20
21
EXM: THE FOLLOWING FIGURE WERE EXTRACTED FROM A LEVEL
FIELD BOOK, SOME OF THE ENTRIES BEING ILLEGIBLE OWING TO
EXPOSURE TO RAIN. INSERT THE MISSING FIGURES AND CHECK
YOUR RESULTS.

Statio Remark
Back Inter Fore Rise Fall R.L.
n s
232.46
1 2.285 B.M. 1
0
2 1.650 x 0.020
3 2.105 x
4 x 1.960 x
5 2.050 1.925 0.300
232.25
6 x x B.M. 2
5
7 1.690 x 0.340
8 2.865 2.100 x
233.42
9 x x B.M. 3
5 22
Soln:
(i) F.S. of station 2 = 2.285 – 0.020 = 2.265m
R.L. of station 2 = 232.460 + 0.02 = 232.480m

(ii) Fall of station 3 = 2.105 – 1.650 = 0.455m

R.L. of station 3 = 232.480 – 0.455 = 232.025m

(iii) B.S. of station 4 = 1.925 – 0.300 = 1.625m

Also, Rise of station 4 = 2.105 – 1.960 = 0.145m
R.L. of station 4 = 232.025 + 0.145 = 232.170m

(iv) R.L. of station 5 = 232.170 – 0.300 = 232.870m

(v) Rise of station 6 = 232.255 – 231.870 = 0.385m

I.S. of station 6 = 2.050 – 0.385 = 1.665m

(vi) F.S. of station 7 = 1.665 – 0.340 = 1.325m

R.L. of station 7 = 232.255 + 0.340 = 232.595m

(vii) Fall of station 8 = 2.100 – 1.690 = 0.410m

R.L. of station 8 = 232.595 – 0.410 = 232.185m

(viii) Rise of station 9 = 233.425 - 232.185 = 1.240m

F.S. of station 8 = 2.865 – 1.240 = 1.625m 23
Statio Remar
Back Inter Fore Rise Fall R.L.
n ks
1 2.285 232.460 B.M. 1
2 1.650 2.265 0.020 232.480
3 2.105 0.455 232.025
4 1.625 1.960 0.145 232.170
5 2.050 1.925 0.300 231.870
6 1.665 0.385 232.255 B.M. 2
7 1.690 1.325 0.340 232.595
8 2.865 2.100 0.410 232.185
9 1.625 1.240 233.425 B.M. 3
Check 12.165 11.200 2.130 1.165 233.425
11.200 1.165 232.460

0.965 Rise 0.965 Rise 0.965 Checked

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Adjustment of levels
There are mainly two types of adjustments
1. Temporary adjustments
2. Permanent adjustments
1. Temporary adjustments
These are performed at each set up of the level. These
include planting the tripod and leveling the instrument
by foot screws and focusing the eye-piece and objective to
eliminate parallax

2. Permanent adjustments
In spite of all the care of the instruments, the relative
positions of the principal parts are very often disturbed
and hence the level does not give correct results. So it is
required to test all these parts and set them in their
proper position. This operation is termed as the
permanent adjustment of the leveling instruments. The
number, nature, order and the procedure of adjustments 25
are different for different instruments.
Permanent adjustments of the dumpy level
It has got two adjustments
1. Adjustment of the bubble tube
2. Adjustment of the line of collimation
1. Adjustment of the bubble tube
The purpose of this adjustment is to set the vertical axis of the
telescope at right angles to the bubble tube

• Align the bubble tube parallel

to two foot screws.
• Facing the instrument rotate
both foot screws in opposite
directions at the same time.
Either thumbs moving
inwards or thumbs moving
outwards.
• The bubble moves in the
direction of the left thumb. 26
• When the bubble has settled
in the exact center of the tube
the instrument is level on this
axis.
• Rotate the telescope through
90° so the bubble tube is
aligned with the third
levelling screw.

• The first two screws are level

so they must not be touched.
• Using the left hand adjust the
third levelling screw to centre
the bubble. Again the bubble
will move in the same
direction as the left thumb. 27
• With the bubble centered the
instrument should be level.
• As a check rotate the instrument
through 90°. If necessary re-level
the original two foot screws and
repeat the rotation to check the
third one.
• You may have to do two sets of
adjustments before the instrument
is level and the bubble remains in
the center of the tube as the
telescope is rotated.

28
2. Adjustment of Line of Collimation
The purpose of this adjustment is to set the line of
collimation at right angles to the vertical axis.

29
Adjustment of Line of Collimation
• The adjustment is done by two peg method

• Two pegs A & B are driven at a distance apart on

level and firm ground.
• The level is set up at P, just mid-way between A &
B.
• After bringing the bubble to the center of its run,
the staff readings on A & B are taken. Suppose the
reading are a & b.
• Now the difference of level between A & B is
calculated, this difference is true difference, as the
level is set up just mid-way between BS and FS.
• Then the rise or fall is determined by comparing the
staff reading. 30
31
• The level is shifted and set up at P1 (very near to A), say
at a distance d from A.
• Then after proper leveling, staff readings at A & B are
taken. Suppose the readings are a1 and b1
• Then the apparent difference of level is calculated
• If the true difference and apparent difference are equal,
the line of collimation is in adjustment, if not the line of
collimation is inclined.
• Let e be the staff reading on B at the same level of the
staff reading a1
• Then e = a1 ± true difference
• Use positive sign in case of fall and negative sign when it
is rise
• If b1 is greater than e, the line of collimation is inclined
upwards and if b1 is less than e, it is inclined
downwards.
32
• Collimation error = b1 – e (in distance D)
• By applying the principle of similar triangle
𝒅
• Correction to near peg 𝑪𝟏 = (𝒃𝟏 − 𝒆)
𝑫
𝒅+𝑫
• Correction to far peg 𝑪𝟐 = (𝒃𝟏 − 𝒆)
𝑫
• Correct staff reading on 𝑨 = 𝒂𝟏 ± 𝑪𝟏
• Correct staff reading on 𝑩 = 𝒃𝟏 ± 𝑪𝟐
• If the line of collimation is sloping downwards, the
correction is to be added, and if sloping upwards, it
is to be subtracted.
• Then the cross-hair is brought to the calculated
correct reading by rising or lowering the diaphragm
by means of diaphragm screw.

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Example: To test the line of collimation of a Dumpy
level, the instrument was placed exactly mid-way
between two points A and B, 200 ft apart, on a fairly
level ground. The staff readings at A and B were 6.78
and 3.92 respectively. The instrument was then
placed at D, 45 ft behind A in the same straight line
and staff reading at A and B were 5.25 and 2.20
respectively.
(a) is the line of collimation in adjustment?
(b) if not is it inclined upwards or downwards?
(c) what should be the staff reading at A and B when
the level is adjusted?

34
Solution:
True difference of level between A and B = 6.78 – 3.92
= 2.86…………(i)
Since the staff reading at B is smaller, it is at higher
level.
The apparent difference of level when the instrument
was shifted = 5.25 – 2.20 = 3.05…………..(ii)
(a) As (i) and (ii) differs, so the line of collimation is
not in adjustment.
(b) In order to have B at the same level as A, the
reading on B should be e.
e = 5.25 – 2.86 = 2.39
Since e > b1 ( 2.39 > 2.20), the line of collimation is
inclined downwards. 35
(c) Correction on staff reading at A
45
= 2.39 − 2.20 = 0.043 𝑓𝑡
200
Correct reading on A = 5.25 + 0.043 = 5.293 ft
Correction on staff reading at B
200+45
= 2.39 − 2.20 = 0.233 𝑓𝑡
200
Correct reading on B = 2.20 + 0.233 = 2.433 ft

36
• Errors of leveling:
1. Instrumental
a) Due to imperfect adjustment
b) Due to sluggish bubble
c) Due to movement of the objective slide
d) Rod not of std. length
e) Due to defective joint
2. Natural:
a) Earth’s curvature.
b) Atmosphere refraction
c) Variation if temperature
d) Wind vibration
3. Personal:
a) Mistakes in manipulation
b) Mistakes in rod handling
c) Mistakes in reading the rod
d) Mistakes in sighting
37
e) Mistakes in recording
CURVATURE AND REFRACTION
• In fig. AC is the horizontal line which deflects
upwards from the level line AB by an amount BC.
AD is the actual line of sight.

38
Curvature:
• BC is the departure from the level line.

• Actually the staff reading should have been taken at

B where the level line cuts the staff, but since the
level provides only the horizontal line of sight (in the
absence of refraction), the staff reading is taken at
the point C.
• Thus, the apparent staff reading is more and
therefore, the object appears to be lower than it
really is.
• The correction for curvature is, therefore, negative
as applied to the staff reading, its numerical value
being equal to the amount BC.
• In order to find the value BC, we have, from Fig.
39
 OC2 = OA2 + AC2, <CAO being 90
Let BC = Cc = correction for curvature
AB = d = horizontal distance between A and B
AO = r = Radius of earth in the same unit as that of d
 (R + Cc)2 = R2 + d2

or R2 + 2RCc + Cc2 = R2 + d2
 Cc(2R + Cc) = d2
𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟐
or 𝑪𝒄 = ≈ , neglecting Cc in comparison to 2R
𝟐𝑹+𝑪𝒄 𝟐𝑹
The radius of the earth can be taken equal to 6370 km.
if d is to be in km, and R = 6370 km, Cc = 0.07849 d2 m

40
Refraction:
• The effect of refraction is the same as if the line of sight
was curved downward or concave towards the earth’s
surface and hence the rod reading is decreased.
• Therefore, the effect of refraction is to make the objects
appear higher than they really are.
• The correction, as applied to staff readings is positive.
• The refraction curve is irregular because of varying
atmospheric conditions but for average conditions the
correction is generally taken as 1/7th of the correction due
to curvature.
• The correction for refraction, Cr is therefore, given by,
𝟏 𝒅𝟐
• 𝑪𝒓 = +𝒗𝒆 = 0.01121 𝒅𝟐 meters, when d is in km
𝟕 𝟐𝑹
• The combined correction due to curvature and refraction
will be given by
𝒅𝟐 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝟔 𝒅𝟐 41
• 𝑪= − + = − = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟖 𝒅𝟐 , meter, d is in km
𝟐𝑹 𝟕 𝟐𝑹 𝟕 𝟐𝑹
• The corresponding values of the corrections in
English units are:
𝟐 𝟐
• 𝑪𝒄 = 𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝒅 ft
𝟐
𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
• 𝑪𝒓 = 𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓 𝒅𝟐 ft
𝟐𝟏
𝟒 𝟐
• 𝑪 = 𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟐 𝒅 ft
𝟐
𝟕
where d is in miles and radius of earth = 3958 miles

42
Distance to the visible horizon
In fig , let P be the point of observation, its height
being equal to C and let A be the point on the horizon
i.e., a point where the tangent from P meets the level
line. If d is the distance to visible horizon, it is given
by,

𝐶
𝑑= 𝑘𝑚
0.06728
= 3.8553 𝐶 𝑘𝑚, 𝐶 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
(taking both curvature and
refraction into account)

43
• H.W.: 9.8 – 9.12
44
56