History of pelleting

BY DOM CASTALDO

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY CHARLES STARK, CASSANDRA JONES, AND ADAM FAHRENHOLZ

extrusion process greatly enhanced feed

In the past 50 years, considerable changes have digestibility and improved handling, extruders were
occurred in the structure of animal agriculture. No expensive and complicated to operate with early
longer are agricultural animals produced to any 20th century technology.
scale in “back yard” type production settings.
Rather, animal production has evolved into a highly According to Pitsch, one of the first successful
integrated volume-based business. This is pellet mills was a molding machine in which two
particularly true for the swine and poultry industries counter-rotating rollers with pockets, formed and
where essentially every phase of production is pressed mash into wafers (see Figure 1-1). The
owned and/or controlled by a single entity. wafers had a much lower density than modern feed
pellets, which provided no advantage to feed
With the wholesale consolidation of the meat, milk, transportation. Also, the mash was not conditioned
and egg production industries, feed manufacturing with heat and moisture; therefore, the “wafering”
has become more industrialized. Though today, process did not greatly enhance nutrient utilization.
there are fewer feed mills in operation, feed
production has increased and continues to grow. Figure 1-1. Diagram of a mold type pellet mill.
This general shift from on-farm or small-
cooperative type feed processing operations to
larger industrial-type feed manufacturing facilities
has made processing technologies, such as pelleting,
more economically feasible.

As such, the pelleting process has become a

standard feed processing technique. Since the
introduction of pelleting in the early 1900’s, the
pelleting process has evolved in size and capacity
enabling pellet mills to be operated with less labor
and greater precision than ever before. The In the 1920s, feed manufacturing equipment
following chapter reviews how the pellet process designers introduced the Schueler pellet press
has evolved to become a standard feed processing (Pitsch 1990). This design used a spur gear
integrated with two rolls (see Figure 1-2). The
machine moved mash through indentions in the gear
teeth, resulting in a dense pellet. Although this was
Pellet evolution
an improvement over the earlier designs, the
Between 1900 and the 1930s, equipment designers Schueler pellet press was relatively expensive to
proposed several feed processing machines, operate and the gear and roll assembly was subject
according to pelleting expert Larry Pitsch (1990). to wear.
Around 1910, feed manufacturers began extruding
feed to increase its value. The extruders conditioned
the mash with heat and moisture prior to forcing it
through a die plate and knife assembly. While the
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: History of Pelleting
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: History of Pelleting

Figure 1-2. Diagram of Schueler type pellet system. through the die holes. Compared to the flat-die
pellet mills, the ring-die design had the advantage
of quick die change, allowing feed manufacturers to
produce a variety of different pellet sizes from a
single pelleting system.

Pitsch (1990) pointed out that in the first modern

ring-die pellet mills, the rollers rotated along the
inside surface of the die. However, in later designs,
the die rotated while the rolls remained in a fixed
position. Other major improvements in ring-die
A short time later, the flat-die mill—a machine that pelleting systems have included the addition of a
was an immediate precursor to the modern roll-and- second and third roller, greater mash conditioning,
die pellet mill—was introduced to the commercial the incorporation of binding aids to feed formations,
feed industry. The flat-die mill consisted of rollers larger dies, more efficient coolers and greater power
traveling around a vertical axis on a stationary motors (see Table 1-1). Generally, these
horizontal die (see Figure 1-3). The movement of modifications have increased pelleting throughput
the rollers forced the mash through holes in the die, and pellet quality, while reducing the relative cost
compressing the mash forming pellets. Flat-die of the process.
mills are still used in the production of some
specialty feeds today. Table 1-1. Changes in the power of pellet mills.
Year Maximum motor kW
Figure 1-3. Diagram of flat die pellet mill. 1930s 22
1940s 37
1950s 93
1960s 187
Mid 1970s 261
Late 1970s 448
1990s 522
2000s 597
2010s 750

During the remainder of the 1930s and 1940s,

equipment designers and feed manufacturers
focused on using pelleting technology to the
In 1928, the first commercial pellet mills were greatest advantage. For example, in 1936, Beacon
imported from England to the United States Milling produced pelleted duck feed. This
(Schoeff, 1976). The S. Howes Co. sold one of the achievement was important because ducks are
first U.S. built pellet mills in 1930 (Schoeff, 1994). particularly sensitive to fines. Other feed companies
The next year, California Pellet Mill Company began producing pelleted dog food. In 1946,
designed a 22 kW pellet mill that utilized a stainless Wenger Mixer Manufacturing Company developed
steel horizontal-plate die. Shortly thereafter, feed a method of producing high-molasses pellets, an
manufacturers and livestock producers began to important feed for beef cattle and dairy cows. The
recognize the numerous benefits of feeding next year, coarsely ground pellet crumbles were fed
pelletized feed and the design which employed a to young chickens for the first time. Crumbles
roller inside a vertically-positioned cylindrical enabled broiler producers to obtain the advantages
die—the modern ring-die pellet mill—was of pelleting over the entire growth curve of the bird.
developed into a commercial machine. In the ring-
die pellet mill, the roller forces the mash outward
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: History of Pelleting

After World War II, US pellet mill manufacturers pelleting temperatures kill bacterial pathogens,
began a period of expansion. California Pellet Mill including Salmonella and E. coli, and deactivate
Company built three manufacturing plants in the anti-nutritional factors. In the 1970s, feed
United States and began exporting machines to companies were building completely automated
Europe. During the following years, several feed mills. Improvements in the control of heat and
pelleting technology experts made moisture addition to the mash enabled equipment
recommendations on the most efficient operation of engineers to develop steam jacketed conditioners by
pelleting systems (Behnke, 2001). the mid-1970s. Jacketed conditioners were used
mainly to manufacture high-quality fish feeds
(Pitsch, 1990).
Century of the conditioner
Few pellet mills in the early 1930s had the Table 1-2. Changes in mash
capability of conditioning the mash with heat and conditioning temperature (°C) over
moisture prior to pelleting. Though it was time. Source: BASF, 2001.
recognized that steam conditioning enhanced pellet General Broiler Pig
quality, concerns over nutrient degradation, such as 1970 65 68 65
the destruction of the water-soluble vitamins, 1975 66 71 68
overrode the desire to strive to produce a perfect 1980 68 74 71
pellet. 1985 70 76 74
1990 71 79 76
By the end of the 1930s, pellet mill designers began 1995 74 82 79
installing conditioners—originally referred to as 2000 77 86 83
“ripeners”—which added steam to the mash prior to
pelleting (Pitsch, 1990). The early mash By the 1980s, pellet mill operators and designers
conditioners were barrel-shaped devices. A rotating were focusing their attention on steam quality. Their
shaft with various pitched paddles moved the mash aim was to maximize the amount of heat added to
forward towards the pellet mill die. Manifolds, the mash—to optimize starch gelatinization, but
connected to the feed mill’s boilers, injected steam minimize moisture addition. Excess moisture in
and water into the mash. The design of the conditioned mash must be removed post-pelleting
conditioner remained largely unchanged until the and tends to plug rolls and dies. The pelleting
1960s. experts at the time moved from using low-quality
wet steam, which contained a combination of water
One noticeable change in conditioner design over vapor and free water in the form of high-velocity
the years has been a steady increase in the suspended droplets or low-velocity drops of water,
conditioning temperatures (see Table 1-2). Between to high-quality superheated steam, which contained
1990 and 2000, the average mash conditioning water vapor at temperatures or pressures higher than
temperature increased more than it did in the saturated steam.
previous 10 years. This difference was likely due to
the introduction of high-temperature conditioners A steam harness, which consisted of a separator,
such as short-time/high-temperature (ST/HT) regulator and trap, was eventually developed to
systems and annular gap expanders, and the ability improve steam quality (Reimer and Beggs, 1993).
to add heat and moisture independently to the mash. During the late 1980s, pellet mill system designers
developed short-time/high-temperature
Modern mash conditioning systems focus on greater conditioners. The aim of the ST/HT conditioners
gelatinization of the starch in the grain. Higher was to maximize starch gelatinization, while at the
levels of starch gelatinization enhance pellet same time minimizing the retention time of the
durability (quality), improve carbohydrate and mash in the conditioner in order to maximize pellet
protein digestibility and utilization by the animal output. Also during the 1980s, pellet mill engineers
and increase pellet production. In addition, higher focused on steam delivery into the conditioner. One
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: History of Pelleting

innovation towards this end was the direct-fired 5). He discovered that 60% of the quality of pellets
steam generator, which replaced traditional tube is due to formulation and particle size—activities
boilers (McEllhiney, 1987; 1988). upstream from the mash conditioner. Conditioning
contributed approximately 20% to pellet durability.
Direct-fired steam generators use combustion Die selection and cooling had small but noticeable
fuel—propane or natural gas—and air to produce impacts on pellet quality. Later, Dozier (2001)
steam. These units require less start-up time than refined Turner’s work. Dozier reported that a 5.5°C
traditional boilers because the direct-fired steam increase in the conditioning temperature would
generators do not need to heat hundreds of liters of increase pellet durability by 10%, and replacing the
water before they begin producing steam. The short standard conditioner with an annual gap expander
start-up time and other efficiency factors reduce would increase durability by 15%. He also reported
energy consumption by 30-50%. They also generate that the addition of pellet binders, reducing particle
less carbon dioxide—a major “greenhouse” gas. size from 650 microns to 500 microns or increasing
Proponents of direct-fired steam generators tout the moisture content of the mash from 12% to
their safety because they do not generate high- 14.5% would increase durability by 12.6%, 14.5%
pressure steam. Anaerobic pasteurizing conditioners and 10%, respectively.
combined direct-fired steam generation with
counterflow heat exchange to improve mash The development of conditioners, which added
conditioning (Redus, 1988). In the APC moisture and heat to mash prior to pelleting, created
conditioner, the steam and combustion gases from the need for a system to remove the heat and
the direct-fired steam generator travel counter to the moisture from the pellets. The function of pellet
flow of mass. The mash exiting the conditioner dryers and coolers is to reduce the temperature and
absorbs the heat and moisture from the in-coming moisture content of the pellets so that the pellets can
steam. The mash temperature usually reached be stored without spoiling or facilitating mold
approximately 80°C with 17% moisture. The growth. However, commercial feed mills must
system also killed aerobic pathogens, reduced balance moisture loss in the cooler to prevent too
conditioner retention time to 2-4 minutes and much moisture removal or feed will be “given away
created a weak acid that further softened the mash as shrink” and pellet quality will deteriorate.
particles, enhancing pellet durability. Conversely, integrated feed mill operations want to
minimize the amount of water hauled to the farm on
In the late 1980s, feed manufacturers began each delivery.
experimenting with double pelleting (Pitsch, 1990).
Double pelleting is a two-step process aimed at The first pellet cooler/dryers consisted of a flat belt
increasing starch gelatinization and pellet durability. upon which the hot, wet pellets were spread directly
The first step involves standard conditioning and from the pellet mill. Cool, dry air was drawn
pelleting of mash. In the second step, the pellets are horizontally across the bed of pellets, extracting
ground and pelleted a second time. In some heat and moisture. As the capacity of the pellet mill
systems, the first stage requires extrusion rather increased, larger cooler/dryers were needed.
than pelleting of the mash. By the mid-1990s, pellet Double-pass systems, in which pellets were loaded
conditioner technology experienced a major leap from the pellet mill onto an upper belt and then
forward with the introduction of the annular gap dropped to a second belt running under, and in an
expander (Gill, 1992; Peisker, 1993; Castaldo, opposite direction to, the upper belt to complete the
1997). Expanders are similar to extruders in that cooling and drying process, were later installed in
they use heat, pressure, mechanical energy and feed mills.
shear forces to gelatinize starch.
In 1995, Ron Turner, an applications specialist at In the mid-1980s, vertical counterflow cooler/dryers
California Pellet Mill Company, reviewed were developed (Heinemans, 1986; 1991). In
numerous pelleting studies to determine the effects counterflow pellet cooler/dryers, pellets are
of various factors on pellet durability (see Figure 1- transferred from the pellet mill to a cooler with a
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: History of Pelleting

vented bottom. The system pulls cool, dry air Pellet mill researchers also observed that some
vertically through the pellet bed. The heat- and compounds increased pellet output by
moisture-laden air is exhausted through the top of “scrubbing”the die hole as feed passed through the
the cooler, while dry, cooled pellets exit the cooler hole opening, and enhanced pellet durability by
through oscillating slits or a rotating grid mounted making the mash particles adhere to each other
on the floor of the cooler. Generally, counterflow more strongly. Over the years, researchers have
coolers have smaller cooling/drying capacities discovered a multitude of ingredients—most that
compared to traditional horizontal belt coolers. are effective at relatively low inclusion rates—that
However, counterflow coolers feature smaller space enhance pellet durability and quality by increasing
requirements and lower maintenance requirements. particle adhesion (see Table 1-3).

Early in the history of pelleting technology, The first pellet binders were clay based, i.e.,
equipment engineers and feed mill operators bentonites (1956). However, clays contributed little
discovered strong relationships between the to the nutrient content of the diet. By the late 1970s,
physical properties of the mash—particularly pellet mill operators began searching for low-
particle size, heat, and moisture addition—and inclusion binders, such as lignosulfonates, to
pellet quality. However, they later observed that conserve space in feed formations for high-
feed formulations containing certain ingredients, performance animals. Lignosulfonates improved
such as wheat and corn, formed better pellets than pellet durability by 30 to 50%. In addition,
formulations with other ingredients, such as alfalfa lignosulfonates lubricate mash as it moves through
and food processing byproducts. Several pelleting the pellet die, decreasing die and roller wear by as
experts created elegant pelletability tables which much as 25% and increasing pellet mill output by
scored the ability or inability of long lists of 25 to 20%. Another pelleting aid is phosphate.
ingredients to form durable pellets (MacMahon and However, researchers have discovered that not all
Payne, 1981; Kniep, et al., 1982). phosphate sources are equal. Sutton (1979) and
Behnke (1981) found that defluorinated phosphate
Table 1-3. Commonly-used natural and synthetic increased pellet output by 30 to 60% compared to
pellet binders. dicalcium phosphate.
Agar
Anionic heteropolysaccharide In the early days of pelleting, feed manufacturers
Bentonites and livestock producers were concerned about the
Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) impact of the heat and pressure used in the pelleting
Carrageenin process on the nutritional value of nutrients. Many
Corn starch feed manufacturers and livestock producers were
GFS (mixture of xanthan gum, locust bean gum, concerned that the pelleting would destroy vitamins.
guar gum mixture) Methods such as encapsulation were devised to
Guar gum protect vitamins from the harsh conditions inside
Hemicelluloses the pelleting system (Coelho, 1994). However, as
High-gluten wheat flour new bioactive non-nutrient ingredients, such as
Hydrolyzed polyvinyl alcohol antibiotics, microbials, flavors and enzymes, were
Lignosulfonates included in more feed formations, the effect of
Locust bean gum pelleting on ingredient viability became a growing
Polymethlolcarbamide concern in the feed industry (Peppler and Stone,
Potato starch 1976; Sorensen, 1996; Waldroup, et al., 2002).
Seaweed binder Risley (1992) conducted extensive studies on the
Sodium alginate + sodium hexametaphosphate effects of pelleting on bacteria and yeast cultures.
Tapioca starch He determined that bacteria cultures of
Wheat gluten Streptococcus faecium and Lactobacillus
acidophilus could not survive pelleting temperatures
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: History of Pelleting

above 52°C. However, he observed that S. faecium Proponents of this modification argued that it more
had a higher survivability than L. acidophilus. Yeast closely emulated harsh handling conditions.
withstood the heat of pelleting better than bacteria.
Almost 20 years later, a new pellet durability testing
To avoid problems with ingredient destruction in system—the Holman pellet tester—was developed
the conditioner and pellet die, many feed mill in the United Kingdom (MacMahon and Payne,
operators opted to apply heat-sensitive ingredients 1981). The Holman pellet testing system is a
after pelleting. Post-pelleting application was also pneumatic, rather than mechanical, method of
an effective strategy for increasing the fat content of measuring pellet durability (Behnke, 2001). The
the feed without compromising pellet integrity Holmen tester used high-velocity air to move the
(Payne, 1986). The early post-pelleting ingredient pellets in a perforated chamber to model
application systems consisted of slowly turning commercial pellet handling and distribution. The
mixers with proportioning systems that dusted dry Holman pellet tester yielded consistent pellet
ingredients onto the surface of the hot pellets. Later durability results. However, these results were
systems added pumps that sprayed a mist of liquid lower than the values obtained from the Pfost
ingredients through nozzles onto a sheet of falling testing method (Winowiski, 1998). The use of
pellets. Challenges to the liquid application system indirect methods for predicting pellet quality has
included clogged nozzles and over-spraying, which been useful in adjusting pelleting equipment.
wasted ingredients. An alterative to spray nozzle However, livestock producers were concerned with
liquid application systems was developed in the the direct measurement of fines in their feeders,
early 1990s. This system consisted of a curved disk Behnke emphasized. In 1996, independent pelleting
that rotated around a vertical axis. Droplets of liquid system consultant Joe Gardecki surveyed 39 US
were applied to the spinning disk and were feed mill managers who operated a total of 67 pellet
atomized and dispersed onto a curtain of falling mills about problems they had experienced with
pellets. This system substantially reduced ingredient their pelleting systems (see Table 1-4).
wastage and the potential for clogged nozzles and
applied the ingredients to the pellets more evenly. Table 1-4. Common problems with pelleting
Later, vacuumized post-pelleting ingredient systems. Data were obtained from a survey
application systems were developed (Gill, 2000). of 39 feed mill managers operating 67 pellet
mills.
Problem %
Troubleshooting
Defective steam regulator 23.1
For many years, equipment designers and feed Blocked conditioner steam jets 19.2
manufacturers searched for a rapid and meaningful Worn conditioner paddles 18.2
method of testing the durability of pellets. In 1962, Faulty insulation 13.5
Dr. H.B. Pfost at Kansas State University designed Excessive boiler blow-down 5.8
one of the first pellet durability testers and testing Variations in piping size 4.8
procedures (Fairfield, 1994). This system involved Step-down/undersized steam 3.8
screening a sample of fresh pellets and placing the regulators
sample in a dust-tight square container mounted on Low total dissolved solids (boiler) 2.9
a steel shaft. The container was rotated for 10
Pellet cooler malfunction 2.9
minutes at 50 revolutions per minute. The sample
Low boiler pressure 2.9
was removed from the container, screened on a wire
Steam trap and line leaks 2.9
sieve to remove the fines and re-weighed. The pellet
durability index (PDI) was calculated as the weight
By far, the most problems occurred in the
of the pellets after sieving divided by the weight of
conditioner—steam regulator, blocked jets and
the pellets before tumbling, multiplied by 100. Later
worn paddles—and the fewest problems occurred in
modifications of Pfost’s system included the
the boiler/steam supply. An explanation for this
addition of steel nuts to the sample chamber.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: History of Pelleting

difference could have been due to the fact that laws Dom Castaldo is a nutritionist and biology
in most states require boiler operators to be licensed instructor at Sauk Valley College in Dixon, IL.
and require annual boiler inspections that could
detect potential problems. Gardecki also discovered This content was edited and reviewed by Dr.
the moisture content of conditioned mash was too Charles Stark, Jim and Carol Brown Associate
low. He said that while optimum mash moisture Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
should be 17.5-18%, he found the actual moisture University, Dr. Cassandra Jones, Assistant
content averaged 14.5%. During the 1990s, several Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
experts discussed problems frequently encountered University, and Dr. Adam Fahrenholz, Assistant
in modern pelleting systems. Boerner (1992) Professor of Feed Milling at North Carolina State
emphasized that the durability of high-energy University.
pellets depended on proper starch gelatinization. He
also recommended the use of pelleting aids for these
difficult-to-pellet formations.

Maier and Gardecki (1993) segregated typical feeds

into five categories. Each category has optimum
conditioning variables. Dr. Larry Vest at the
University of Georgia conducted an extensive
survey of pellet mill operators making broiler feeds
(Vest, 1993). He determined that factors such as
mash particle size, steam pressure and retention
time in the conditioner imparted minor—but
consistent—effects on pellet output. Fat addition in
the mixer had a greater impact on output.

Pelleting expert Bill Enterline of Sprout-Matador

presented recommendations for substantially
increasing a feed mill’s pelleting capacity
(Enterline, 1998). He promoted replacing smaller
pellet mills with larger (100 tonnes per hour)
systems. During the past 100 years, equipment
designers, feed manufacturers and livestock
producers have learned much about pelleting feed.
Pellet mills are larger and more efficient and have
higher outputs. The quality of the pellets—and
hence animal performance—had been greatly
improved due in large part to advancements in
technology. However, much work needs to be done
in this next century to make pelleting an even
greater value to modern animal production.
 Extrusion and other terminal
agglomeration technologies
BY GALEN J. ROKEY AND BRIAN PLATTNER

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, CHARLES STARK, AND CASSANDRA JONES

preconditioning step. The initial portion of this

Pellet mills and many other feed processing
chapter will not revisit the entire subject of
technologies result in an agglomerated or pelleted preconditioning; however, it examines the
feed. Recognized advantages of pelleted feed are as importance of preconditioners for an extrusion-
follows: based pelleting system. While the text may only
• Increased bulk density; mention one of these pelleting technologies, such as
• Less bridging in bins; extrusion, the reader should understand that the
• Less dust; principles apply to all systems. Preconditioning
• Reduced ingredient segregation; with steam and water has been associated with
• Less feed waste; extrusion cooking of feed products since the
• Increased nutrient density; inception of the extrusion cooking process.
• Improved palatability; Extrusion-cooked feed products whose production
• Increased nutrient availability; and processes successfully employ preconditioning
• Decreased microbiological activity. include petfoods, swine starter diets, full-fat soy,
aquatic feeds and other specialty animal feeds.
An alternative to conventional pelleting is the
extrusion process. Extrusion may be used either to The preconditioning step initiates the heating
improve upon an existing process, or to process by the addition of steam and water into the
manufacture feeds that a conventional pelleting dry mash. Uniform and complete moisture
system cannot. As formulated feeds become more penetration of the raw ingredients significantly
sophisticated to meet the specific physiological improves the stability of the extruder and enhances
needs of the animal and the expectations of the the final product quality. In addition, plasticizing
public, extrusion-based processing technologies will the raw material particles prior to extrusion reduces
continue to be a factor in this industry. Several the wear on equipment caused by the abrasive raw
items key to extrusion such as steam material particles. There are generally two
preconditioning, the extrusion process and situations where preconditioning should be
equipment, process parameters, and final products considered when producing extrusion-cooked and
are discussed in this chapter. Novel technologies, pelleted products. First, it should be used in
such as the Universal Pellet Cooker (UPC), and the conjunction with moist extrusion where material is
Sphere-izer Agglomeration System (SAS) are also extrusion cooked at in-barrel moisture contents
discussed. greater than 18%. Second, one should consider
using preconditioning in situations where the raw
material particles are difficult to hydrate, such as
Preconditioning large particles, or non-uniform particle size
Preconditioning is an integral part of any pelleting distributions. In general, any extrusion process that
or extrusion system. As one begins to examine would benefit from higher moisture and longer
alternatives to the conventional pelleting process, retention time will be enhanced by preconditioning.
they quickly realize the added importance of the
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

Because preconditioning is recognized as being preconditioners being used in the extrusion cooking
important to producing premium products and industry today are double (DC) preconditioners,
operating an efficient extrusion cooking process, it differential diameter/differential speed (DDC)
is important that the basic principles of the preconditioners, and high intensity (HIP)
preconditioning process are well understood. The preconditioners (see Figure 2-2). The single-shafted
three objectives accomplished during the preconditioner, as found in most traditional
preconditioning process are: hydration of raw pelleting systems was also utilized to a large extent
material particles; heating of raw material particles; in the past in extrustion, but the double-shafted
and mixing of materials added to the preconditioner conditioners represent today’s technology.
in separate streams. This is accomplished in a
preconditioner by holding the materials in a moist,
warm environment for sufficient time and with Figure 2-2. Types of atmospheric
sufficient mixing. This process results in the raw preconditioners.
material particles being plasticized by the steam and
water in the environment. In practice, the objective
is to completely plasticize the raw material particles
in order to eliminate any dry core as illustrated in
Figure 2-1.

Figure 2-1. The objective of preconditioning is to Double Conditioner

eliminate the unplasticized core in the raw
material particles.

Differential Diameter Conditioner

Preconditioning hardware and operation

The preconditioners utilized for the extrusion
industry are almost exclusively atmospheric
preconditioners (i.e., they operate at prevailing
atmospheric pressure). Their maximum operating
temperature is the boiling point of water at High Intensity Preconditioner
When compared to the single preconditioners,
input beyond this point will only result in the loss of double preconditioners have improved mixing and
moisture as steam. Atmospheric preconditioners are have a longer average retention time of up to 1.5
relatively simple to construct and have lower minutes for a similar throughput. As with single
manufacturing and maintenance costs associated preconditioners, they have beaters that are either
with them compared to other preconditioner types. permanently fixed to the shaft or that can be
The three basic types of atmospheric changed in terms of pitch and direction of
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

conveying. The two shafts of a double Table 2-2. Coefficient of Variation for Moisture
preconditioner usually counter-rotate such that Content in Different Preconditioner Designs
material is continuously interchanged between the Preconditioner Design CV (%)
two intermeshing chambers. HIP 2.65
DDC 4.96
The most recent technology in the industry are the DC (Double Cylinder) 6.66
DDC and HIP preconditioners, which have the best SC (Single Cylinder) 9.36
mixing characteristics combined with the longest
average retention times. Retention times of up to 2- The more uniform moisture distribution not only
4 minutes for throughputs comparable to those used improves extrusion stability for recipes that become
in double and single preconditioners can be sticky when hydrated, but contributes to more
expected. As with a double preconditioner, the two consistent destruction of biological contaminates
shafts of a differential diameter/differential speed (salmonella) using thermal critical control points.
preconditioner usually counter-rotate such that As in traditional pelleting, preconditioners are
material is continuously interchanged between the usually installed above the extruder barrel so that
two intermeshing chambers. The HIP gives an the preconditioned material falls directly into the
added layer of control as each shaft has an inlet of the extruder as depicted in Figure 2-3. In
independent drive. This allows the direction of shaft addition, there are other important installation
rotation and speed of the shaft to be varied allowing recommendations for proper functioning of the
direct operator control of the residence time and preconditioning hardware and process.
mixing intensity (see Table 2-1).
Figure 2-3. Preconditioner installed above an
Table 2-1. Effect of Speed on Residence Time extruder.
Side A Side B
Retention Time
Speed Speed (minutes)
(rpm) (rpm)
100 500 1.00
250 125 1.47
800 50 2.40

When analyzing the various preconditioner designs,

one of the most efficient ways is to compare their
coefficient of variation. The increased mixing
intensity of twin shafted and variable speed
preconditioners compared to other designs yields Water and water-based slurry addition
improved moisture distribution in the material Perhaps the single largest difference between a
discharging the preconditioner. Table 2-2 lists the conventional pellet mill and an extrusion-based
average coefficient of variation (CV) of moisture system is the internal addition at the preconditioner
content in four different preconditioner designs. To of water and water-based slurries including colors,
determine CV after stable conditions were achieved, fresh meats and molasses. Extrusion processes
samples were collected off the preconditioner at 15 operate at much higher moisture levels, and thus are
second intervals for a 2.5 minute time period and capable of handling these additional process streams
analyzed for moisture content. with ease. Water is added to the preconditioner
from the top of the preconditioning chamber close
to the raw material inlet. For best distribution of
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

water throughout the raw materials, spray nozzles Figure 2-4. Introducing materials to the
are used. Other water-based additives such as preconditioner.
molasses, digests and fresh meats can be added in
conjunction with the water or at any point in the
preconditioning process. It is recommended to add
these slurries as close to the inlet of the
preconditioner as possible to allow for optimal
hydration of the dry materials and uniform
incorporation of all the added streams. Adding these
streams near the discharge of the preconditioner
often causes clumping of the material and does not
allow enough time for the complete incorporation
into the dry mash.

When adding water-based slurries, it is especially

critical that the preconditioner be a dynamic mixing
Lipid addition
device, such as a twin-shafted preconditioner. Low
agitation devices, such as preconditioners which Fats are often used to assist with process control.
utilize tempering screws will not satisfactorily They are typically added in a liquid form as a
incorporate the slurry into the dry material. The separate stream. The point of addition is critical to
exiting material will often contain clumps of wet achieve cook, while maximizing the inclusion level
product, which causes instability in the extruder’s of fat. Fat is usually added near the discharge of the
operation. Other preconditioners, such as single- preconditioner to allow optimum preconditioning.
shaft preconditioners, do not have enough retention Fat tends to coat individual feed particles, hindering
time to allow the moisture from the slurry to moisture absorption and the transfer of thermal
completely incorporate into the dry mash. The energy to accomplish gelatinization. If substantial
relatively short mixing time results in clumps of amounts of fat are to be added (15-20%) during
high-moisture material mixed with relatively dry extrusion, a portion of the total fat may be injected
mash being delivered to the extruder. in the extruder barrel. Extending retention times in
the preconditioner is a useful tool to enhance
Steam addition gelatinization in high-fat formulas.
Steam should be added to the preconditioning
Processing variables
chamber from the bottom of the chamber to ensure
contact between the steam and the raw material Preconditioning processing variables include dry
particles as shown in Figure 2-4. Steam pressures recipe flow rate; water injection flow rate; steam
should not be higher than 200 kPa (30 psig) to injection flow rate; additive(s) injection flow rate;
prevent materials from being blown out of the preconditioner configuration; preconditioner speed;
preconditioner. Good engineering practice should average retention time; and degree of mixing. This
be followed in the design and installation of the list of variables may be limited by some
steam plumbing system to ensure that only steam preconditioner installations and enhanced by others
free of condensate is introduced into the due to the particular options included. Two of the
preconditioning chamber. Adequate water most important processing parameters are average
separation methods and steam traps should be retention time and degree of mixing. These
employed to remove condensate. variables are those which really determine how
effective the preconditioning process is at meeting
the objectives of hydration, heating and mixing.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

Retention time throughput for a given fill factor will cause a

Retention time is required for particles to decrease in average retention time and vice versa. In
completely hydrate and to become uniform in addition, increasing the fill factor by adjusting the
temperature and moisture. The average retention beater configuration at a given capacity will result
time is best measured by first operating the in increased average retention time. Longer
preconditioner at steady state with all mass flows retention times during conditioning can also be
being added. Second, determine the total throughput achieved by reducing agitator speed, increasing the
of the materials through the preconditioner by volume of the conditioning cylinder or decreasing
measurement or calculation. Third, stop all flows the production rate. These have their disadvantages
and the preconditioner simultaneously. Fourth, due to reduced mixing abilities and large, bulky
empty and weigh the material retained in the equipment.
preconditioner, and finally, calculate the average
retention time using the equation: Retention Time = Retention time controlled preconditioners
Mass in Conditioner/Throughput. The average
retention time is affected by the dry mash flow rate Another method for controlling the retention time is
and the actual paddle configuration. Their effect can the retention time controlled (RTC) preconditioner.
best be explained by looking at an example of a This system allows the operator to control and
preconditioner average retention time “map.” This adjust the preconditioner retention time on-line.
map shows the average retention times obtained This system gives the operator the following
from combinations of flow rate and fill factor as benefits:
shown in Figure 2-5. The fill factor is the • Continuous control of conditioning cylinder
percentage of the volume inside the preconditioning retention time.
chamber which is actually filled with product. • Simplified start-up sequence and reduced off-spec
product during start-up.
• Constant discharge rate of feed during shutdown
Figure 2-5. Example average retention time map or product changeover.
for preconditioners. • Increased retention time on current conditioning
cylinders.
• Time and temperature documentation for process
verification records.

This system requires two key components to be

added to a conventional preconditioner. First, a
metering device must be mounted at the discharge
of the conditioning cylinder. It acts as a “choke”
point enabling the conditioning cylinder to be filled
to a much higher level. This allows the operator to
make use of a greater percentage of the
conditioner’s free volume. Figure 2-6 shows an
illustration depicting the control schematic for this
system. The operator enters the retention time and
The fill factor will vary from 5% to 50% depending the desired production rate. Raw materials are
on the beater configuration, shaft speed and metered into the conditioning cylinder by a feeding
throughput. It is intuitive that configuring additional device. To maintain proper control, this feeding
beaters to convey in a reverse direction will cause device must operate in a gravimetric mode. The
additional fill in the preconditioner. Conversely, other critical component is that the preconditioner
configuring so that they convey in a forward must be mounted on load cells which measure the
direction will result in the opposite effect. From weight of feed held in the cylinder.
Figure 2-5, we can see that increasing the
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

Figure 2-6. RTC preconditioner. temperature and moisture content. During

shutdowns or product changeovers, the discharge
feeding device continues to deliver the conditioned
mash at the specified rate. Thus, the extruder
continues operating at its optimum capacity until
the conditioning cylinder is virtually empty. In
traditional systems, the extrusion rate slowly
decreases once the raw mash is no longer metered
into the conditioning cylinder. This feature reduces
the amount of waste material and the amount of off-
spec product produced.

Retrofitting a current conditioning cylinder with the

loss-in-weight controls can increase the retention
time, and possibly allow an increase in production
capacity. Since the discharge device acts as a
restriction and allows the cylinder to be filled to a
higher level, a current conditioning cylinder that
operates with a fill level of 40% may be able to
reach a fill level of 60% or even 70%. This would
greatly increase the amount of retention time. Also,
Based on the retention time and feed rate set points, by more fully utilizing the conditioning cylinder’s
the loss-in-weight (L-I-W) controller sets the volume, an increase in production capacity may be
discharge feeder speed to deliver the appropriate realized if there are not downstream process
rate to the extrusion system. This feature allows the restrictions. Finally, this system allows process
process retention time to be adjusted depending on documentation of the times and temperatures the
the product characteristics. Some formulations, such mash was subjected to during processing. This is
as high-fat diets, may require additional retention especially useful for those concerned with pathogen
time to allow for complete hydration of the mash. destruction and food safety. Since the retention time
The retention time is adjusted during the process is one of the user inputs for the control system, the
without the operator needing to shut down and operator can document with certainty that the mash
make any hardware adjustments to the beater or was held at a given temperature for a specified
paddle configuration. In addition, this feature period of time.
simplifies the start-up, shutdown and product
changeover sequence. It allows better utilization of Although a loss-in-weight conditioning cylinder
raw materials and reduces cross-contamination offers many benefits, it is not required for all
between recipes and products. During start-up, the situations. In situations where long production runs
raw material is metered into the conditioning on a single product occur, the additional cost for
cylinder and is mixed with steam and/or water to this system may not yield sufficient economic
begin the hydration and cooking process. The benefits to offset the additional capital costs.
discharge feeder remains off until the mash within However, for those systems in which frequent
the conditioning cylinder has been held for the product changeovers occur, or wide variation in raw
desired retention time. Then the discharge feeder materials exists, the additional capital investment
begins delivering the conditioned mash to the could quickly be recouped from the reduction in
extruder. This dramatically reduces the material product waste, increased product quality and
wasted during start-up procedures for standard increased product capacity.
conditioning cylinders by reducing the amount of
mash that must be discarded while waiting for the Mixing
conditioning cylinder to reach the desired operating Adequate mixing is essential to the preconditioning
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

process. This is especially true for those processes mixing efficiency of the preconditioner, as shown in
in which slurries such as fresh meat are added. If Figure 2-7. In certain instances, operators often
effective mixing is not present, individual particles reduce the preconditioner shaft speed in an effort to
may tend to agglomerate, and thus increase the increase the degree of fill, and therefore gain
effective particle size. This increases the resistance retention time for their process. However in doing
to energy and moisture transfer into the raw this, one should also be aware that decreasing the
material particles. The particles end up with a preconditioner shaft speed can significantly
wetted surface and a dry center which leading to an decrease the mixing efficiency.
inferior product and an increase in extruder wear. In
cases where slurries are added and poorly mixed in
the preconditioner, clumps of wet product will be Results of proper preconditioning
evident at the discharge and can plug the inlet of the When the three essential objectives (hydration,
extruder. heating and mixing) of preconditioning prior to
extrusion are adequately satisfied, several results
Figure 2-7. Mixing efficiency for a should be expected. First, in the area of machine
preconditioner. life, preconditioning will increase the life of wear
components in the extruder barrel by several times.
Second, in the area of extruder capacity,
preconditioning has proven to increase the
throughput of the extrusion system. Third, in the
area of product quality, preconditioning assists in
altering product textures and functionality. Finally,
adding preconditioning to the extrusion process
enhances product flavor.

Un-preconditioned raw materials are generally

crystalline or glassy, amorphous materials. These
materials are very abrasive until they are plasticized
by heat and moisture within the extruder barrel.
Preconditioning prior to extrusion will plasticize
these materials with heat and moisture by the
The mixing mechanism in the preconditioner is addition of water and steam prior to their entry into
complex and not well understood (Levine, 1995). It the extruder barrel. This reduces their abrasiveness
is also difficult to obtain a physical measurement of and results in a longer useful life for the extruder
mixing efficiency in a continuous mixing device barrel and screw components. Extruder capacity can
such as a preconditioner. However, a quantitative be limited by many things, including energy input
measure of mixing can be calculated to help capabilities, retention time and volumetric
understand the process, as well as to give a conveying capacity. While preconditioning cannot
comparison between preconditioners of differing overcome the extruder’s limitations in volumetric
design. The degree of mixing can be expressed as conveying capacity, it contributes to energy input
the number of times the beaters in the and retention time. Retention time in the extruder
preconditioner contact the material while it is in the barrel can vary from as little as 5 seconds to as
preconditioning chamber. The beater contact much as two minutes, depending on the extruder
frequency is essentially controlled by shaft speed configuration. Average retention time in the
and the number of mixing elements on those shafts. preconditioner can be as long as 5 minutes. For
This measure of beater contacts per residence time some processes, the energy added by steam in the
is affected then by both shaft speed and average preconditioner can be as much as 60% of the total
retention time. A map can be drawn that indicates energy required by the process.
the effect of degree fill and throughput have on the
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

The raw material particles should be thoroughly increased starch gelatinization, and that the first 120
hydrated and heated to eliminate the dry core seconds of retention time are the most important.
present in the center of raw material particles prior Increasing the amount of total steam injection also
to entering the extruder barrel. This leads to more increased starch gelatinization, but at sufficient
efficient cooking of starch and protein. This results retention time, additional steam injection above
in more complete starch gelatinization and protein 10% had little additional effect on starch
denaturation. Theoretical principles of heat and gelatinization.
mass transfer indicate that hydration usually takes
2-8 times longer than does heat penetration.
Pathogen and toxin destruction
A measure of the effectiveness of a preconditioning An additional area in which preconditioning is
process is to examine its effect on key constituents becoming important, is in producing pathogen-free
of the recipe being preconditioned. One key feed. Research has proven that proper conditioning
constituent is the level of starch gelatinization as of the feed prior to final processing can eliminate
measured by the susceptibility of the starch to pathogens such as E. coli, Salmonella and Listeria.
enzymatic conversion to glucose (Mason and If the discharge temperature of the mash exiting the
Rokey, 1992). It has been well documented that conditioning cylinder reaches 72ºC, Salmonella can
starch gelatinization requires three basic elements: be destroyed (Fung and Hoffman, 1993). This work
Elevated temperature, moisture content and time. is further supported by the data in Figure 2-9.
Because the amount of gelatinized starch has a These curves, if extrapolated, indicate that all three
proportional relationship with the amount of heat pathogens would be destroyed if a temperature of at
exposure, it can be used as an indicator of the final least 80ºC is reached.
pellet quality.
Figure 2-9. Thermal death curves for E. Coli,
Figure 2-8. Effect of steam addition and total Salmonella and Listeria.
retention time on cook.

Table 2-3 also illustrates the ability of the DDC

preconditioner to destroy the pathogenic organisms.
However, notice that the feed was not sterilized as
A well-designed and properly-operated the total plate count (TPC) was not completely
preconditioner is capable of routinely cooking from eliminated. While many processing technologies
30-40% of the starch present in a given formulation, result in an agglomerated feed, only a few have
and under certain situations the cook level can sufficient energy inputs to ensure food safety. Food
approach 70%. A study was conducted in which the safety is a major factor in choosing extrusion-based
retention time and steam addition level were varied methods over traditional pelleting methods.
and percent starch gelatinization was measured as a
response. The results of the study (Figure 2-8)
indicate that increased retention time results in
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

Table 2-3. Effect of preconditioning on Forming extrusion is usually a low temperature

microbial populations (Rokey, 2001). (often called cold-forming) process that increases
Microbe Raw Recipe After DDC product bulk density and cools the feed, resulting in
TPC, CFU/g 240,000 9,300 a feed bulk density that is equal to or greater than
Coliform 22,600 < 10 the bulk density of the starting raw materials.
Mold count 54,540 < 10
Clostridium 16,000 < 10 Ingredients
Listeria Positive Negative
Raw material preparation for extrusion and related
processes is very similar to that required for pellet
Extrusion is a hydrothermal process where the mill installations. Individual whole grains are pre-
critical process parameters of retention time, ground to reduce particle size and then mixed with
moisture and thermal and mechanical energy inputs the balance of the recipe. Different from many
can be varied over a wide range. Although extrusion pelleting systems, in extrusion processes the mix is
does not completely eliminate toxins and other anti- then passed through a final post-grind step to
nutritional or anti-growth factors, in many cases achieve the desired particle size and distribution.
these substances or their activity are reduced to The effect of a smaller, raw material particle size on
permit some level of incorporation into the recipe. product appearance is clearly evident in the
Research at the University of Nebraska indicates extruded samples in Figure 2-11.
that certain temperatures of extrusion are sufficient
to reduce fumonisin levels (see Figure 2-10; Katta, The correct particle size is important for many
et al., 1999). Studies have also indicated that reasons:
viruses, molds and other pathogenic organisms can • Improved product appearance;
be destroyed by the operating parameters employed • Reduced incidences of die orifices plugging;
during extrusion. However, very little published • Greater ease of cooking; and
data are available on this subject, and there is a need • Improved retention of liquid coatings due to
for carefully-designed studies to investigate the smaller cell size in the final product matrix.
effects of the extrusion process.
Figure 2-11. Photograph of extruded products.
Figure 2-10. Effect of extrusion temperature on Sample on the left was ground through a 0.8 mm
fumonisin levels. hammermill screen opening prior to extrusion. The
sample on the right was ground through a 1.2 mm
hammermill screen opening prior to extrusion.

Extrusion
The extrusion process can generally be divided into
two basic categories: Cooking extrusion and A guideline to follow in grinding recipes prior to
forming extrusion. Both processes affect the feed as extrusion is to select a hammermill screen with
the name indicates. Cooking extrusion elevates feed holes being one-third the size of the extruder’s final
temperature to a level that often results in an die orifice. Adhering to this guideline will ensure
expanded product (final feed bulk density less than that all recipe particles will easily pass through the
the bulk density of the starting raw materials). extruder die orifice without danger of plugging or
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

partially plugging the orifice. A sifting device is pellet mills is usually drastically reduced if the fat
often inserted into the process flow between the levels in the recipe exceed 5%, while extruded
grinder and the extruder to remove all foreign products have been processed with internal fat
material and particles that are larger than the die levels as high as 25%.
orifice. It is critical in the extrusion process to avoid
plugging of die orifices, as product is actively The pelleting process depends largely on starch and
flowing through all orifices simultaneously. In a other binding agents to give durability to the final
pellet mill, active product flow occurs only where product. Mild operating parameters in the pelleting
the rolls are forcing or “pressing” the recipe through process yield low levels of starch gelatinization.
the die ring. Several openings can plug in a pellet Gelatinization increases the binding properties of
mill die and little capacity is lost. The total die open the recipe starch. The extrusion process gelatinizes
area in an extrusion application is typically much more of the starch present and thus binding is
less than the pellet mill process and any reduction in increased. This often reduces the level of starch
die open area directly impacts throughput and required in an extruded feed compared to the levels
product quality. required in pelleted feeds for product binding and
structural strength. Extrusion provides flexibility in
The grinding step for an extruder follows the formulating for product characteristics such as
guidelines discussed above, and usually precedes a pellet quality. An increasing number of requests
sifting operation to remove foreign material and come from various industries to process material
large particles. A magnet is usually installed prior to currently classified as waste streams. The intent in
the grinding step in all feed mill process flows to many scenarios is to utilize these materials as a feed
remove tramp metal. It is recommended to also or feed ingredient.
include a magnet just prior to the extrusion or
pelleting process to prevent accidental metal from
the grinding operation from damaging the Hardware components
equipment components. An extrusion system includes a live bin/feeder,
preconditioner, extrusion cooker and die/knife
A major difference in process flows occurs after the assembly as shown in Figure 2-12.
extrusion or pelleting steps. Extruded products
usually contain more moisture than pelleted Figure 2-12. Extrusion system.
products. This moisture must be removed in a
drying step if moisture is greater than 12-15% by
weight of the extruded product. The higher moisture
levels required for most extrusion processes can
lend versatility to the process and expand the feed
manufacturers’ product possibilities. Ingredient
flexibility is an important tool for feed millers in
that it allows the opportunity to take advantage of a
wide variety of ingredient sources. The more
positive conveyance features of an extrusion system
permit the use of wet, sticky ingredients. The high-
temperature/short-time extrusion cooking process is
able to accommodate a wide range of raw materials Each component is designed to accomplish a
that might otherwise be discarded as unqualified specific function in the process of cooking and
material. Pellet mills are limited to 15-18% process forming feed products. The operating conditions
moisture to avoid plugging of the roll and die can be adjusted to vary the characteristics of the
components. Wet byproducts and other high- finished product.
moisture ingredients can be utilized in the extrusion
process at levels up to 60%. The functionality of
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

The live bin/feeder provides a means of uniformly cooking extruded feeds. This additional energy
metering the raw materials into the preconditioner input results in capacity increases, more tolerance
and subsequently into the extruder. This flow of raw for high-fat levels in the formulations and reduced
material must be uninterrupted and the rate requirements for large drive motors. Moisture
controlled. The live bin/feeder controls the product addition in the form of water or steam and a
rate or throughput of the entire system. Variable- properly-configured extruder barrel could result in a
speed augers or screw conveyors can be used to final pressure of the extrudate prior to the extruder
volumetrically meter ingredients into the system. die of 34-37 atmospheres, a temperature of 125-
These same devices can be designed and 150°C and a moisture content of 23-28%.The three
manufactured to act as loss-in-weight (gravimetric) types of extruders most common in the feed
feed systems by mounting the bin/feeder assembly industry are the single-screw, co-rotating twin-
on load cells and continuously monitoring its screw and conical co-rotating twin-screw extruders.
weight. Preconditioning hardware, an important and
necessary step in extrusion of feeds, is discussed in Figure 2-13. Effect of screw speed on specific
depth earlier in this chapter. mechanical energy.

As the material leaves the preconditioner, it enters

the extruder barrel. Here the major transformation
of the preconditioned material occurs which
ultimately determines the final product
characteristics. The initial section of the extruder
barrel is designed to act as a feeding or metering
zone to convey the preconditioned material away
from the inlet zone of the barrel and into the
extruder. The material then enters a processing zone
where the amorphous, free-flowing material is
worked into dough. The compression ratio of the
screw profile is increased in this stage to assist in
blending water or steam with the raw material. The
temperature of the moist dough is rapidly elevated
in the final few seconds of dwell time within the Single screw extruder
extruder barrel. Most of the temperature rise in the
The single-screw cooking extruder (see Figure 2-
extruder barrel is from mechanical energy
14) has been the “heartbeat” of dry-expanded
dissipated through the rotating screw. It may be
petfood and other feed industries for over 40 years.
assisted by the direct injection of steam or from
The screw and barrel configurations represent many
external thermal energy sources. The screw profile
years of analytical design, research and
may be altered by choosing screw elements of
comprehensive testing.
different pitch or with interrupted flights, or by
adding mixing lobes configured to convey either in
Figure 2-14. Single-screw extruder.
a reverse or forward direction. All of these factors
affect the conveying of plasticized material down
the screw channel and therefore the amount of
mechanical energy added via the screw.
As shown in Figure 2-13, the extruder screw speed
is also an influential variable for controlling
mechanical energy input. This influence of extruder
speed indicates the advantage of installing a
variable-speed drive on an extruder. Steam injection
into the extruder is also a contributing factor to
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

A better understanding of the interaction between products).

the machine and materials has led to the • Co-extruded products (complex petfood treats).
development of screw and barrel geometries for
single-screw extruders that are more efficient in As fat levels in a formulation are increased above
converting mechanical energy to heat through 15%, it becomes increasingly difficult in a single
friction. barrel extruder to transmit mechanical energy from
the screws into the product. Fat actually provides
These screws have increased volumetric capacity, lubricity and reduces friction within the extruder
permitting higher levels of steam injection into the barrel. However, through more positive transport
heads. For both single-screw and twin-screw provided by the two intermeshing screws, the co-
extruders, screw elements of single or multiple- rotating twin-screw permits internal fat levels
flight geometries may be used. Single-flight approaching 25% while maintaining a cooked
elements generally yield products of higher bulk product. While it is true that single-screw extruders
densities compared to double-flight screws when process formulations containing up to 20% fat,
operating with the same extrusion parameters. The product consistency is more easily maintained in the
barrel segments may also be ribbed to alter the twin-screw system. The positive conveyance factor
function of each specific extruder segment. maintains die pressure, product expansion and
textural development (Rokey, 2004).
Twin-screw extruder
Twin-screw cooking extruders (see Figure 2-15) C2TX extruder
have typically found limited utility in the
production of feeds. The major drawback of these The C2TX (conical co-rotating twin-screw extruder)
extruders is their high capital investment and their is the most recent extrusion system introduced to
higher relative costs of maintenance and operation. the feed industry (see Figure 2-16).
The capital equipment cost of a co-rotating twin-
screw extruder is 1.5 to 2 times the cost of a state- Figure 2-16. Conical co-rotating twin-screw
of-the-art single-screw extruder with comparable extruder.
hourly production capacity. Because of the
increased costs, only those feed products with
strong value-added potential are processed via the
twin-screw extruder.

Figure 2-15. Twin-screw extruder.

Specific product characteristics or processing The C2TX’s conical design allows for positive
requirements where twin-screw extrusion systems compression in the barrel and reduces possibility of
have found applications are as follows: back feeding. Positive compression yields an
• Ultra-high fat feeds (above 17% internal fat). efficient manner of imparting mechanical energy
• Products which have high levels of fresh meat or into the extrudate. The conical design of the C2TX
other high moisture slurries (above 35%). causes the material to be kneaded and sheared along
• Uniform shape/size product (portioned foods). the screw profile. In traditional twin-screw
• Ultra-small products (0.6 to 2.0 mm diameter extruders, the melt is kneaded and sheared by shear
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

locks, mixing lobes or cut-flight screw elements. Other design advancements in die configurations
The “profile kneading” present in the C2TX design have resulted in “rapid change multiple dies,” where
eliminates the need for such special screws and dies can be changed without stopping the extrusion
locks to provide the appropriate cooking. Therefore, system. This design reduces set-up time by up to
the extruder shafts and screws can be machined 50%, resulting in smaller lot sizes, easier
from a single piece of steel. The result is a lower scheduling, reduced inventory, increased plant
manufacturing cost of the screws and reduced efficiency and increased profitability (Rokey and
maintenance and downtime, since a screw profile Aberle, 2001). A face cutter is used in conjunction
change is not needed for each different product. The with the die, which involves cutting knives
C2TX design provides the possibility for a feed revolving in a plane parallel to the face of the die.
manufacturer to more economically process those The relative speed of the knives and the linear speed
feeds requiring twin-screw extrusion attributes. of the extrudate result in the desired product length.
The blades of the knife run in very close proximity
to the die face, and in the case of spring-loaded
Die/knife design blades, may actually ride on the surface of the die.
The extrusion chamber is capped with a final die Knife blade metallurgy, design, positioning relative
which serves two major functions. The die provides to die face, speed and extrudate abrasiveness
restriction to product flow, causing the extruder to determine their life.
develop the required pressure and shear. The final
die also shapes the extrudate as the product exits the Many feed extrusion applications require changing
extruder. Die design and its effect on expansion, or re-sharpening blades every six to eight hours.
uniformity and appearance of the final product are This is especially critical with intricate shapes. Dull
often overlooked. The amount of expansion desired blades distort the product shape and increase the
in the final product can be controlled by formula number of “tails” or appendages on the product
manipulation and open area in the die. Unexpanded, which later are broken off in drying and handling,
but fully-cooked feeds generally require 550 to 600 resulting in fines. Final product characteristics can
square millimeters of open area per metric tonne of be controlled by the extruder or die configuration
throughput. Highly-expanded feeds require 200 to selected for processing feeds. However, feed millers
250 square millimeters of open area per metric prefer not to lose production time by having to
tonne throughput. change the extruder configuration to modify
specific product characteristics such as final product
Final dies may be as simple as single plates with a bulk density. There are other hardware tools that
pre-determined number of sized round openings, or can be used to control product bulk density. Four
they may consist of two or more plate elements. The tools that are available to the industry include the
first plate element of a two-piece die serves to following:
increase the resistance to flow and to aid in • Vented extruder barrel with or without vacuum
imparting shear to the extrudate. The second die assist;
plate in a two-piece die is used to size and shape the • Separate cooking and forming extruders where the
extrudate by forcing it to flow through a number of product is vented between the two units;
orifices. Very high shear rates are experienced by • Restriction device at the discharge end of the
the extrudate as it flows in a radial direction extruder; and
between the two die plates. Typical products made • Pressure chamber at the extruder die.
on two-piece dies are light-density snacks or treats
for pets and are not applicable to most feed
products. Spacers may be added between the Vented extruder barrel
extruder barrel and the final die plate to even out the
flow from the extruder screw to the final die plate The extruder barrel is normally closed to the
and give additional retention time for cooking. atmosphere and the extrudate is subjected to an
environment of increasing pressures until it exits the
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

die orifice. The high process pressures (0 to 40 bar) Figure 2-18. Vented extruder barrel with
result in significant expansion ratios and product vacuum assist.
densities low enough to produce feeds such as
floating aquafeeds. Expansion can be further
enhanced by injection of steam into the extruder
barrel, which increases thermal energy inputs. Feeds
with high bulk densities are preferred for several
reasons such as:
• Reduced transportation costs;
• Aquatic feeds that are sinking in fresh and sea
water; and
• Increased product bin capacity within a feed mill.
Where higher product densities are required for
certain feeds, the extruder barrel can be configured
to include a vent which releases process pressure Separate cooking and forming extruders
and reduces product temperature through
evaporative cooling (see Figure 2-17). Another hardware tool utilized by the feed
manufacturers to control product bulk density is a
dual extrusion process (see Figure 2-19). In this
Figure 2-17. Extruder with vented barrel.
process, the first extruder is used in solo for the
production of expanded feeds, or it can be used as a
cooking extruder for the two-stage cooking/forming
process. The second, forming extruder (product
densification unit, or PDU) is used only when
processing very dense feeds, such as fast-sinking
aquafeeds.

Figure 2-19. Dual extrusion process for cooking

and densification.
A vacuum assist can be added to the vented barrel
(see Figure 2-18) to increase the product density
even further by more evaporative cooling and de-
aeration of the extrudate. Vacuum assist (up to 0.7
bar) will improve pellet durability, increase piece
density and reduce extrudate moisture.
Disadvantages of a vacuum-assisted, vented
extruder barrel include the following:
• Increased investment for hardware;
• Potential capacity of extruder reduced 25-50%;
• Disposal of product fines from vent and water
from vacuum pump (waste streams can recycle
back into the system as shown in Figure 2-18);
This processing system has the advantage of being
• Control of SME (specific mechanical energy)
able to operate both extruders at their maximum rate
inputs are reduced.
potential. When only one extruder is used to
produce a very dense pellet, the extruder may have
to be operated at lower throughputs to prevent
expansion. Adding the second forming extruder
(PDU) can allow a feed manufacturer to produce a
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

wide range of feed densities from highly-expanded Table 2-4. Controlling feed density with the
feeds with one extruder, or very dense feeds with BPV.
the cooking extruder and PDU. Final Product
Oil
Back pressure valve Back Uncoated After
Pressure Extruder Product Vacuum
Final product characteristics such as density can be
Valve, Speed Density, Infusion,
controlled by extruder die restriction. One device
% Closed Index g/L %
commonly used by feed manufacturers is termed a
45 1.0 654 16.2
“back pressure valve” (BPV) which is used to adjust
55 1.0 628 19.5
die restriction while the extrusion system is in
65 1.0 530 23.8
operation. By changing the restriction at the
65 1.3 504 28.4
discharge of the extruder during operation, the
70 1.2 420 37.8
product density can be varied by up to 25% without
70 1.3 392 40.5
changing the screw configuration or the final die.
The BPV mounts on the end of the extruder prior to
The extrusion process for feeds is reported to be
the final die assembly (see Figure 2-20).
more stable with a BPV, and
preconditioning/extrusion process temperature
Figure 2-20. Back Pressure Valve requirements are lower, resulting in improved
nutrient retention. The BPV eliminates the need for
altering extruder configurations between different
product families. An integral part of the BPV is a
bypass feature to divert product from the die/knife
assembly and product conveyor for service and
start-up/shutdown procedures, which improves
sanitation in this area.

Post-extrusion pressure chamber

Another device available in the industry is an
enclosed chamber which surrounds the die/knife
assembly and permits control of pressure external to
the extruder and die (often referred to as an external
density management system, or EDMS). Desired
Specific mechanical energy (SME) and extrusion pressures are maintained in the die and knife
pressure are process parameters controlled by the enclosure by a special airlock through which the
valve positioning. The BPV provides internal product discharges. Compressed air or steam can be
control of shear stress and SME for regulation of used to generate the required pressure in the
important product properties: chamber. As pressure increases, the water vapor
• Bulk density (see Table 2-4); point increases and reduces product “flash-off
• Size and uniformity of cell structure; expansion,” and thus increases density (see Table
• Starch gelatinization; 2-5).
• Shape definition; and
• Water and fat absorption (see Table 2-4). Expanded or partially-expanded products which
normally exit the extruder die at a bulk density that
is lower than desired, can be “densified” with this
post-extrusion pressure chamber (EDMS) around
the die/knife assembly. One particular challenge in
the aquatic feed industry is to produce a fully-
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

cooked feed of sufficient bulk density to sink The combined impact of a pressure chamber and a
rapidly and still absorb the required oil during the BPV is illustrated in Figure 2-22. The BPV can be
coating step. used as an independent tool to alter product density
and other critical properties, or can be used in
Table 2-5. Effect of increasing pressure in conjunction with a pressure chamber to further alter
die/knife chamber. product density over a wide range. The hardware
Over- Expected tool of choice to manage product bulk density
Pressure in Increase depends on the process application. Each tool has
Chamber, Boiling Point in Product advantages and disadvantages, and these must be
Bar of Water, °C Density, % evaluated in light of the process requirements. For
0 100 0 example, for very small diameter pellets (<3mm)
0.5 112 10.0 that contain high levels of starch, such as a high-
1.0 121 18.3 carbohydrate shrimp feed, the processing system of
1.5 128 25.0 choice may be the combination of a cooking
2.0 134 28.3 extruder followed by a forming extruder (PDU).

The level of product density increase expected from Figure 2-22. Effect of chamber pressure and
over-pressure in the EDMS depends on several BPV closure on bulk density of 8 mm feed
factors. For example, as the feed pellet size pellets.
(diameter and mass) decreases, a given pressure in
the chamber results in a lower density increase, as
illustrated in Figure 2-21.

Figure 2-21. Density increase for various pellet

sizes at constant chamber pressure.

Because the pellet diameter is small the EDMS

system may increase the density only 8-10%, and
because the starch level is high the vented head
approach and EDMS may have more difficulties
with the sticky nature of the recipe. Another
The pressure chamber can be coupled with a BPV advantage of the PDU system in this scenario is the
to provide additional process control such as the higher capacity potential. Disadvantages of the
ability to adjust SME on-line for control of critical PDU system are the total, initial capital costs for
product properties, divert off-spec product during this system, which are partially off-set by the
start-up from the pressure chamber, accurately greater capacity potential. A further disadvantage is
control of product density external to the extruder the reduced stability of the pellet in water, which
and die and no extruder configuration changes may or may not be a critical requirement for other
required to make expanded or dense feeds, or applications.
increase extruder capacity over vented
configurations by 25-50%.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

Process parameters 24% soybean meal and 16% wheat was extruded at
Extrusion and similar agglomeration techniques six internal fat levels. The internal fat level was
have been utilized to process various feedstuffs for adjusted by continuously injecting fish oil into the
many years. Extrusion cooking is universally preconditioning phase of a single-screw extrusion
recognized as a high-temperature/short-time system at 0%, 0.9%, 1.8%, 3.6%, 7.2% and 14.4%.
process. The higher temperatures employed during As the added internal fat level during extrusion
the extrusion process present an interesting increased, the bulk density of the final product
challenge in the assessment of nutrient retention. increased significantly (see Figure 2-23).
During extrusion, the recipe and its constituents are
subjected to a succession of almost instantaneous As internal fat levels increase, durability decreases.
treatments or unit operations. There is a remarkable decrease in durability when
the total fat level of the extrudate exceeds 12%. Fat
These variables include moisture and temperature added in the extruder has a lubricating effect and
profiles, extruder configuration, extruder speed and reduces mechanical heat dissipation and starch
preconditioning of the material prior to extrusion. gelatinization. Fat also weakens the product matrix
The critical process parameters could be and thus reduces the pellet strength. However,
summarized into four areas—specific mechanical extrusion processes have been used to produce
energy, specific thermal energy, retention time and feeds of up to 22% internal fat, while pelleting
product moisture. processes are limited to 4-5% fat. Energy
management is essential in controlling bulk density
The following process parameters are utilized to of feeds. As energy inputs increase during
control product characteristics such as bulk density: extrusion, the bulk density decreases. Figure 2-24
• Internal and/or external fat levels; indicates the correlation between specific
• Specific mechanical and thermal energy inputs; mechanical energy inputs and the final bulk density
and of the extruded product.
• Extrusion moisture.
Figure 2-24. Effect of specific mechanical energy
Figure 2-23. Effect of internal fat on product on extrudate bulk density.
density.

Extrusion moisture is also an important process

variable for controlling final product density. Low
Nutritional requirements dictate the levels of total
extrusion moistures yield products with high
fat required in most feeds. The total fat levels can
densities. As extrusion moisture increases, the
vary from 3% to greater than 40% in some aquatic
product density trends lower. The higher moisture
feed diets. As the fat level increases, there is an
levels facilitate starch gelatinization, resulting in
expected increase in the bulk density of the feed. In
product expansion. As the extrusion moisture
one study conducted at the Wenger Technical
continues to increase past a critical level, the
Center, an aquatic diet containing 60% fishmeal,
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

product will begin to increase in density. Ultra-high Large electrical motors are used to drive expanders,
moisture levels decrease the viscosity of the and up to12 kWh per metric tonne of product is
material in the extruder barrel and make it more required for the expander process alone. Reported
difficult to expand the product. The improvements to pellet quality by coupling an
moisture/density curve (see Figure 2-25) is specific expander to a pellet mill have been inconsistent.
for each product. This may be due to recipe characteristics such as
high internal fat levels, but much of this is due to
Figure 2-25. Effect of extrusion moisture on the low moisture levels employed during
product bulk density. processing. Extruders and expanders have general
similarities in design and function, but they are not
the same. Even within the extruder family, there are
many not-so-subtle differences that have a major
impact on the characteristics of the end product.
Extruders can be broadly classified as dry or moist
and as single- or twin-screw.

Dry extrusion usually implies process moistures of

18% or less, while moist extrusion generally
processes recipes at levels above this moisture level.
Dry extrusion does not employ preconditioners, and
is therefore limited in its ability to process a wide
range of raw materials. The similarities between dry
The adjustment of process parameters, as described extruders and expanders are very striking, and close
previously, can be used to control bulk density, but examination of the principles involved and effects
may unfavorably impact other process parameters on final products reveal only subtle differences.
such as system capacity. However, various Expanders are usually quoted at much higher
hardware tools described earlier are available to capacities than dry extruders. This is made possible
process feeds to the desired bulk density while by imparting less energy into the product per unit of
allowing optimum process parameters, such as throughput. This fact is reflected in the typical cook
extrusion moisture, to be employed. A summary of values of cereal grains processed through each
operating parameters of various pelleting, extruded system. Extrusion imparts more thorough
and agglomerating processes is necessary to processing of feeds compared to pellet mills or a
evaluate and compare the processes. The addition of pellet mill/expanders combination. The major
expanders to pellet mills was intended to further difference is due to the use of more steam and
improve pellet quality. Expanders represent higher levels of moisture (moist extrusion) in the
additional energy inputs to pelleting by increasing extrusion process. Moist heat is generally regarded
product temperature. Three to five percent steam is as more effective in gelatinization of starch,
usually injected into an expander, in addition to the denaturation of protein and pasteurization of
mechanical energy generated by the main drive products. Differentiation between dry and moist
motor, to achieve 90 to 130ºC product temperature extrusion is summarized in Table 2-6 (Hancock,
inside the expander. Product discharging the 1992).
expander is usually 70 to 80ºC and contains 16-18%
moisture (Heindreich and Eberhard, 1994). Retention time in the extruder barrel can be as low
as 12 seconds, and it is this principle of high-
To heat product sufficiently to gelatinize the starch temperature/short-time processing that has made
and to reach pasteurization temperatures requires a extrusion an effective processor of individual
given amount of energy, depending on the ingredients and complete diets in feed
efficiency of the processor and the ability of the manufacturing.
process to transfer energy inputs to the product.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

Table 2-6. Variations in complexity and conveying of products from the extruder to the
capacity of extruder types. dryer inlet reduces product moisture content 1-2%.
Extruder Type Output Versatility Pneumatic systems help separate sticky products
Single-screw that tend to clump with belt conveyors and improve
Low Low sanitation around the extruder die.
(dry extrusion)
Single-screw The two types of dryers used for most feed products
High Moderate are conveyor and vertical style dryers (Plattner,
(moist extrusion)
Twin-screw 2001).
High High
(moist extrusion)
Final product applications
Post-extrusion processing Many of the advantages claimed for agglomerated
or pelleted feeds are really due to the form in which
For most “dry” feeds, the final moisture content
the feed is presented to the animal, and the fact that
needs to be less than 12% to prevent mold and
the feed has been subjected to a heat treatment. The
bacterial growth. Final products with moistures
relatively dry treatment employed during pelleting
above 12% are sometimes referred to as semi-moist
followed by a pressing step yields a final pellet
products. This group of products may have moisture
matrix that may deteriorate during transportation
levels greater than 30% and represent a category of
and handling. The process flexibility and the
products that cannot be processed on pellet mills.
processors’ philosophy toward total quality
When considering a soft-moist product, one needs
management are the greatest factors in pellet
to determine the water activity of the product.
quality.
Water activity is the critical factor in determining
the lower limit of available water for microbial
Low-moisture or dry extrusion has been utilized in
growth. In general, if the water activity of a product
the feed industry for many years. Although
is less than 0.65, no microbial growth can occur.
applications have usually been limited to extrusion
of dietary ingredients such as full-fat soy, extrusions
of complete diets without a pellet mill have been
Drying and cooling employed. Extrusion has been used to process the
The primary purpose of drying is to reduce the level following feeds:
of moisture in an extrusion cooked product. Many • Full-fat soybeans and other high-oil ingredients;
extruded products exit the extruder die at moisture • Piglet feed and calf starters;
levels above 18%, which necessitates product • Hygienic feeds for poultry;
drying for shelf stability. In some cases, the drying • Protein bypass feeds for ruminants;
process can involve additional heat treatment of the • Aquatic feeds;
product. One example of this is the drying at • Petfoods; and
elevated temperatures to impart a “baked” or • Feeds containing high levels of wet byproducts.
“toasted” flavor and appearance to the product. As
mentioned earlier, many feeds are best processed at
Full-fat soy
extrusion moistures between 23-28%. Some of the
moisture is lost due to flash evaporation as the Full-fat soybeans are thermally processed to destroy
superheated product exits the die and expands. anti-nutritional factors and to increase oil
Further moisture will be lost through evaporative availability, while preserving the nutritional quality
cooling, as the product cools during conveying or of the protein. The major anti-nutritional factor of
when a cooling step is employed. Pellet coolers will concern in raw soybeans is a trypsin inhibitor.
generally result only in a reduction in moisture Trypsin inhibitor is a protease that is harmful to
levels of about 3% and further reductions in most animals and humans, and nutritionists have
moisture levels require a drying step. Pneumatic documented this effect conclusively. This protease
enzyme can be inactivated by heat treatment. A
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

reduction of at least 85% of the trypsin inhibitor been the subject of many studies. However, reports
units is considered necessary by feed technologists indicate moist extrusion of high-fat dairy feeds
to avoid nutritional problems (Schumacher). Pellet increased palatability and milk production by over
mills are unable to process full-fat soya due to the 2.0 kg per day when compared to the same diets
high levels of fat (18-20%) indigenous to soybeans. being pelleted (Castaldo, 1995). Extruded feed
Expanders are capable of destroying 70% of the processing costs were higher, but still netted a 2:1
trypsin inhibitor by processing at 120ºC. In return on the added feed cost. Several patents exist
comparison, moist extrusion destroys up to 95% of for extrusion processing of feedstuffs to increase the
the trypsin inhibitor through heat treatment. Higher protected or bypass protein contents. Soybean meal
moisture during heat processing results in more is extruded in combination with rapeseed meal or
efficient destruction of the trypsin inhibitor and cottonseed meal under specific process parameters
urease activity (McNaugton and Reece, 1980). to yield a protein supplement. The moist heat
Additionally, full-fat soybeans can be moist treatment denatures protein, which escapes large-
extruded to destroy over 95% of the trypsin scale degradation in the rumen and thus serves as a
inhibitor without damaging lysine (Mustakas, et al., protein source for digestion in the abomasum
1964). Evidence indicates that “dry” heat (ruminant stomach).
processing is not as successful as extrusion in
enhancing subsequent nutritional value of raw full- Complete diets
fat soybeans. It may be concluded that any
processing treatment involving moisture tends to Complete diets for livestock, such as piglet feeds,
have a beneficial effect. Thus steam (moist) calf starters and grower and finishing diets for
extrusion tends to result in higher subsequent poultry and swine have been successfully extruded.
nutritive value than dry extrusion and dry roasting Moist, extruded swine finishing diets were
(Wiseman, 1990). compared to mash diets in a Texas A&M University
study. The studies indicated a 13% improvement in
feed efficiency with the moist extruded diet
Pasteurization and Salmonella control (Herbster, 1991). The extruded diets did not
The feed industry is acutely aware of the increase the incidence of ulcers or hyperkeratotic
possibilities of food-borne illnesses related to activity in slaughtered animals. Moist extrusion and
microbial contamination—which can occur at any similar agglomeration technologies have been used
point along the food chain. This is an especially to produce aquatic feeds for many years. Feeds for
important consideration for animal foods/feeds shrimp and other aquatic species are among the
entering the home, such as petfoods. As early as most expensive feeds on the market today. These
1965, widespread testing indicated that moist diets usually contain high-quality ingredients that
extrusion was much more effective than pelleting in are highly digestible and of a high nutrient density.
Salmonella control (see Table 2-7). Moist extrusion using single- or twin-screw designs
are the most common method of processing aquatic
Table 2-7. Effect of extrusion and pelleting on feeds. Feeds are processed to various bulk densities
Salmonella destruction. depending on the species being cultured:
Extruded Pelleted • Floating (carp, tilapia, catfish);
Number of Samples 775 35 • Slow-sinking (trout, salmon yellowtail); and
Process Temperature, °C 95-120 60-85 • Sinking (shrimp, river crab, cod).
Process Moisture, % 25-35 11-19
Salmonella positive, % 0 60 Extrusion permits sinking and floating diets via
density control that is not possible with pellet mills.
Factors that affect product density include the
Ruminant feeds following:
Processing the concentrate portion of beef and dairy • Starch and soluble protein contents of the recipe;
rations through expanders and extruders has not • Thermal and mechanical energy inputs during
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

preconditioning and extrusion; and through a 1.2 mm or smaller hammermill screen

• Extrusion moisture and retention time. and fed into the extruder for final transformation
into a cooked chunk of whatever size or shape that
Aquafeeds are extruded in a wide range of pellet may be desired. Typical extrusion processes will
diameters ranging from 0.5 to 60 mm. Single-screw incorporate some means of conditioning the
extruders can produce pellets as small as 1.2 mm, material with both steam and water as it passes
while twin-screw designs can extrude pellets as through the extrusion system. In addition, the
small as 0.7 mm. Extrusion is now preferred over material will become gelatinized by means of
pelleting as the processing method of choice for friction, shear, temperature and pressure within the
aquatic feeds because extruded products retain their extruder barrel chamber.
shape longer in water, exhibit less leaching of Upon exiting the die orifices located on the
nutrients in water and have fewer fines resulting discharge end of the extruder barrel, the now visco-
from transportation and handling. There is a strong amorphic mass will expand upon being subjected to
connection between feed management and the atmospheric pressure, will be shaped and sized by
environment with intensively-raised species. Poor the orifice of each die opening and will be cut to a
quality feeds that are not stable in water can have desired length by means of a rotating external knife-
detrimental effects on water quality and this often cutter device. The injected steam and water
results in poor performance, disease and high (moisture) that have been added to the product must
mortality rates. be removed. Typical extrusion moistures of dry-
expanded petfood products will range from 22-28%,
The greatest majority of petfoods are processed via and that moisture level must be reduced to final
extrusion cooking. Petfood categories include dry- moisture of 8-10% prior to packaging or storage.
expanded, semi-moist, soft-expanded and pet treats. That process is usually accomplished by means of
Petfoods are extruded to: some type of continuous dryer with a separate
• Render the starch components digestible by cooler or a dryer/cooler combination. It should also
cooking; be noted that typical dry-expanded products will
• Satisfy the physical requirements of density, size possess a wet bulk density of 352-400 grams per
and shape; liter prior to drying and 320-352 grams per liter
• Pasteurize the recipe components; and after drying.
• Impart desirable textures, flavors and colors.
Semi Moist Products
Dry Expanded Products The second petfood category is semi-moist
The dominant position of dry-expanded petfood in products. Semi-moist products are typically
the market is evident in the fact that it comprises the extrusion cooked through an extrusion process
largest share (over 60%) of sales volume. These similar to those utilized with dry-expanded
petfoods usually contain 8-10% moisture and are products. There are distinct processing differences
processed from cereal grains, cereal byproducts or and variations in formulation that differentiate semi-
their derivatives, soybean products, animal moist from dry-expanded products. Semi-moist
products, milk products, fats and oils, minerals and products involve many of the same basic
vitamin supplements. Dry dog and cat foods usually ingredients as dry-expanded products. In addition to
contain 5-13% and 8-12% crude fat on a dry basis, the dry grain mixtures, some sort of meat or meat
respectively. Palatability is improved by the higher byproduct liquid slurry is often blended with the dry
fat levels and is usually achieved by spraying ingredients prior to extrusion. Ratios of dry-to-wet
liquefied fat and/or flavor enhancers on the surface ingredients will vary from one manufacturer to
of the final products. Crude protein contents (dry another, and exact proportions are generally
basis) of dry-expanded dog foods are usually 18- considered to be proprietary information.
30% and, for dry-expanded cat foods, 30-36%.
Unlike extrusion-cooked dry-expanded products, it
The ingredients are blended and ground to pass is not the intention to “expand” semi-moist products
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

at the extruder die but, rather, to “form” a strand or must take place prior to extrusion, and the end
a shape that is similar in size and shape to the die product is expanded at the die. However, the
orifice. The intention is to gain as much cooking as ingredient characteristics are similar to those of
possible during extrusion. Generally, it is not semi-moist products and the final product, although
possible to expand the product a great deal due to expanded, is soft and pliable, much like real meat.
the higher levels of fats and oils associated with the
meat portion of the mix, but when the extruder Semi-moist and soft, expanded dog and cat foods
barrel is properly configured, it is possible to fully contain moderate levels of moisture (25-32% on a
cook the mass within the extrusion chamber. wet basis). Due to the elevated moisture contents,
semi-moist and soft, expanded petfoods are
Another major difference between semi-moist and stabilized and protected from spoilage without
dry-expanded petfood products involves extrusion refrigeration. Preservation systems are built into the
moistures and final processing to handle those formulation to adjust the final product water activity
moisture levels. Typical semi-moist products are (Aw) to a level (0.60 to 0.8) where the growth of
extruded in the range of 20-30% moisture. microorganisms is prevented or greatly reduced.
Preservatives are included in the ingredients to The Aw is lowered by humectants (sugars, syrups,
provide shelf stability, and since it is most desirable salts and polyhydric alcohols such as propylene
for the final product to be soft (similar to meat), the glycol). These petfoods are further stabilized by
moisture in the product is not removed following adjusting the pH to levels (4.0 to 5.5) that are too
extrusion or prior to storage. Bulk densities of both low to support many microorganisms. The recipes
the wet stages of semi-moist products as well as the also prevent mold growth by the inclusion of an
packaged final stages differ greatly from typical antimycotic agent such as potassium sorbate.
dry-expanded products. Wet densities of semi-moist
products will range from 480-560 grams per liter, Common ingredients in this category of petfoods
with final densities very much in the same range, include animal products, milk products, fats and
since moisture removal is not required. oils, soybean products, cereal grains and their
byproducts, marine products, minerals and vitamin
Soft expanded products supplements. Semi-moist petfoods are heavier in
bulk density and usually contain fresh animal
The third petfood product category is soft-expanded products while soft, dry products usually contain
products. This category represents an innovative dehydrated animal products and possess bulk
product type that is similar to semi-moist products. densities similar to dry-expanded petfoods.
Both products often contain a relatively high Formulations usually reflect dogs’ preference for
percentage of meat or meat byproducts and are sweetness and cats’ preference for acidic flavors.
typically higher in fats and oils than dry-expanded
products. Meat-type ingredients may be introduced Snacks and Treats
into the extruder by either of the means previously The final market category involves those products
mentioned under the semi-moist category. They often referred to as snacks or treats for pets. These
differ from semi-moist products in that they take on products usually take the shape and appearance of
the expanded appearance associated with dry- real bones; however, there are other snack-type
expanded products after they are extruded. products for pets that come in a biscuit or variety of
Alterations to equipment required to convert a dry- other shapes. In recent years, more and more
expanded petfood system to semi-moist production producers of those types of pet snacks, as well as
are also required in order to produce soft, expanded- would-be producers of those types of petfood
type products. products, are investigating the potential of extrusion
cooking. The primary reason for the interest is the
With soft, expanded-type products, the basic potential cost savings that may be realized from the
extrusion process is similar to that of dry, expanded short-time/high-temperature of the extrusion
products in that conditioning with steam and water cooking process, the high thermal efficiency of
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

extruders, the floor space saved by the process and performance is enhanced by this high-
reduced labor costs may make production of such temperature/short-time process.
products more profitable. A typical extrusion snack
petfood system would utilize the same basic
principles and equipment arrangements of a typical Raw material specifications
semi-moist extrusion system. In some instances, a Every feed production facility manufactures a broad
dry-expanded system can be applied to the range of products. These can include several
production of pet treats or snacks. The primary different diets for a single species (integrators) or
differences would include the final die and cutting several different diets for many species (commercial
apparatus designed for producing a relatively large mills). Broad product assortments require a vast
piece, such as a bone, biscuit or wafer. number of available ingredients to meet the
nutritional requirements of each specific diet. Since
the number of possible ingredient combinations is
Universal Pellet Cooker (UPC) endless, and selection is normally based on least-
cost formulations, demographics or nutritional
A patented UPC cooking system and process (see value, the formulations may change frequently.
Figure 2-26) is an extrusion-based pelleting system Therefore, proper attention must be taken to ensure
(Wenger, 1997; Wenger, 1999). It was designed high-quality pellets are consistently produced.
specifically for the production of livestock feeds; Ingredient grind (mean particle size) and
but because of its design, can also be used to make formulation play a major role in producing high-
other extruded products such as aquatic feeds and quality pellets. These factors similarly affect the
some petfoods. It appears to be more effective, UPC as they do other pelletizers.
efficient and versatile than the traditional pelleting
systems, such as the expander plus pelleting press Many researchers have studied the importance and
that are currently used. The UPC also allows the effect of particle size reduction on animal
processor to utilize many raw materials that do not performance. They have tried to determine the
process well in a conventional pellet mill, such as “optimum” particle size to achieve maximum
those which contain high fiber or high levels of growth rates. The optimum size varies for each
sugar. species, age group and selection of ingredients.
Researchers have found that the common thread in
Figure 2-26. Wenger Universal Pellet Cooker®. particle size reduction is that a smaller mean
particle size will improve animal performance due
to an increased surface area available for enzymatic
attack. However, there are limitations to how fine
one can grind feed before health of the animals
becomes a concern.

Not only is particle size reduction important for

animal performance, but it is also very crucial for
However, the UPC needs to be considered as an pelleting. Coarse grinds create voids and fractures
alternative to rather than a replacement of the in pellets, making them sensitive to handling and
conventional pelleting process since, from an presumably to end up as fines at the feeder.
economic standpoint, it will probably never directly Evaluating particle size is commonplace in most
compete in the production of large-volume, low- feed mills. Particle size is usually determined by
margin pelleted feeds. Its unique design gives performing a sieve analysis. The feed particles are
special processing advantages to producers who use separated by size, weighed and the mean particle
raw materials that vary significantly, have high size is calculated based upon a log-normal
levels of internal oil or high lactose levels. The UPC distribution. Table 2-8 shows an example sieve
should also be considered in cases where the animal analysis.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

If the maximum particle size or foreign matter in dimensional structure when exposed to high
the feed is larger than the die opening, it is possible temperatures. This three-dimensional structure is
that the opening can be plugged or partially modified when the proteins are subjected to
blocked, resulting in a change of appearance of the mechanical and thermal energy. The re-association,
pellets. In cases of severe blockage, the pelleting die which aligns the protein molecules, occurs during
will need to be cleaned before normal operation can laminar flow and forms a rigid structure. However,
proceed. As a rule of thumb, when the desired pellet not all sources of protein are good binders. Those
diameter is 4 mm or less, the suggested maximum sources with low amounts of pre-processing, such
particle size should be one-third the diameter of the as some types of blood plasma meals, contain
opening. For larger diameter pellets, the grind size “functional” protein, which has a greater binding
should be less than one-half of the die opening size. ability than heavily processed sources such as meat
and bone meal. Functional proteins are those that
Table 2-8. Example particle size are not already denatured.
distribution. Three mm grind;
sorghum-based ration. Figure 2-27. Expander-pellet mill flow diagram.
US Sieve Weight, g Weight, %
12 0.03 0.02
16 1.64 1.20
20 27.21 19.88
25 43.29 31.64
30 40.33 29.47
40 17.09 12.49
Pan 7.25 5.30
Total 136.84 100.00

The UPC system, which utilizes the natural binding

qualities of the ingredient formulations to their
fullest extent, does not depend on the use of non-
nutritive binding agents to produce a durable, high-
quality pellet. These natural binding elements of the
raw material are starch, protein and fiber. Starch
portions of the mix hold the greatest binding
capability. In most formulations enough starch is
present to produce the desired pellet durability
without giving much consideration to the other two
elements.

Starch possesses a unique ability to lose its Most sources of fiber strengthen pellets by
crystalline structure and becomes a viscous gel “melting.” The re-association of the lignin present
during processing. This allows it to disperse through in fiber gives binding power to the pellet. It takes
and around structures of other origins. This loss of much higher processing temperatures to melt lignin
crystallinity is known as gelatinization. Upon than it does to gelatinize starch or denature protein.
exiting the UPC and cooling, the starch returns to a Therefore, its influence is often only low to
crystalline state, resulting in a durable structure. moderate in binding ability; yet high-fiber diets will
Between 50-80% of the starch fraction in most diets typically form very durable pellets.
can be gelatinized during processing. Protein, like
starch, can also function as a binder. Protein
denaturation is the modification of a protein’s three-
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

Hardware requirements temperature very quickly. Each segment of the rotor

Processing principles of the UPC are different from can be removed and replaced according to wear of
the expander and pelleting press. One machine is that particular part. Since the whole rotor does not
designed to do the job of the conventional two. A need replacement, the wear cost is lowered
rotor and stator cook the feed similarly to an considerably. The stator also consists of segmented
expander; however, the feed is formed into dense parts. Each stator segment has a wear sleeve that
pellets rather than expanded chunks. With fewer requires replacement as needed. It is uniquely
pieces of equipment required and less space needed, designed to aid in the forward conveying of raw
the process flow is simplified. Figure 2-27, as material. Shear bolts or stop bolts, which are
compared to Figure 2-28, shows how the UPC can common in expanders and need frequent
easily adapt to existing manufacturing facilities replacement and maintenance, are not required for
without costly modifications. the UPC. These components are designed quite
similar to the barrel and screws of an extruder.

Figure 2-28. UPC flow diagram.

Pelleting die
A pelleting die is required to restrict the flow of
material and provide the cylindrical shape of the
pellet. The number of orifices in the die is
determined based on the desired capacity, raw
material formulation and final product
specifications. Changeover time of various dies is
kept to a minimum due to their comparative light
weight. When a raw material formulation contains
significant amounts of lipids, modifying the
pelleting die can increase the pellet durability.
Figure 2-29 shows how a die spacer can be
installed between the stator and the die. This
additional length increases the retention time of the
Preconditioning raw material inside the stator; in turn increases the
amount of shear on the product; and thus creates a
The UPC system utilizes an initial cooking zone so more durable pellet.
that the system depends less on mechanical energy
and more on thermal energy. This initial cooking Figure 2-29. UPC pelleting head assembly.
zone, known as preconditioning, is a prerequisite
for the production of quality pellets. A previous
section of this chapter covers the importance of
preconditioning.

Rotor and stator

The rotor and stator are designed to convey feed
through a restricting plate, build pressure and
increase the product temperature. The increased
temperature is the result of mechanical energy input
or shear. This aids in the cooking of raw materials.
As the pellet leaves the die, a variable-speed rotary
The rotor consists of a segmented-flighted shaft
cutter controls the pellet length. For example, by
designed to increase the internal product
increasing the cutter speed, short pellets and
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

crumbles are produced; and by reducing cutter This combination of temperature and retention time
speed, longer pellet lengths are produced. This will destroy many microbial populations.
flexibility eliminates the need for crumbling rolls to
produce a crumbled feed. The second opportunity to destroy microbes is in
the rotor and stator. The technological concept
behind the UPC differs somewhat from the
Cooling/drying currently-used methods of heat treatment processes.
Other methods depend on high-temperature/short-
Because heat and moisture are added during
time (HT/ST™) processing, meaning the feed
processing, extra equipment is required to lower the
spends a relatively short amount of time (i.e., 20-30
temperature, remove moisture, prevent mold growth
seconds in an extruder and 15-25 seconds in an
and prolong storage life. This is one of the most
expander) at conditions of high temperature and
significant differences between the UPC process
high pressure. However, the UPC utilizes high-
and a traditional pelleting process. The UPC
temperature/micro-time (HT/MT™) processing.
generally operates within the same moisture
This means that the feed spends a much shorter
constraints as other pelletizers. Exit moistures reach
amount of time under these conditions, usually 3-4
a maximum of 18%. This requires a cooler capable
seconds and still reaches temperatures of 115-
of driving off at least 3-6% moisture to achieve
150°C. This ability to cook feed quickly ensures
final moistures of 12% or less. The pellets must also
that heat-sensitive nutrients such as vitamins and
be cooled within 10°C of ambient temperature. In
amino acids are handled more delicately to prevent
situations where a conventional cooler will not
degradation. However, harmful microorganisms,
provide adequate moisture removal, a dryer will be
such as Salmonella, can be completely destroyed.
required. A more complete discussion of the drying
and cooling requirements appear later in this book.
Table 2-9. Nutrient retention and
microorganism destruction. Source: Wenger
Technical Center Test Data. (1996).
Process Impacts Vitamin Lysine, Mold
To this point, both thermal and mechanical energy A, % count,
have been loosely defined, but it is important to Sample IU/kg CFU/g
understand how these process variables affect the Raw Material 1 8,580 0.70 300,000
UPC process. Production of quality livestock feed Processed 12,320 0.71 < 10
depends on many processing variables. Sample 1 Lot 1
Pasteurization and production of durable pellets Processed 13,046 0.72 < 10
require the addition of steam and/or water in the Sample 1 Lot 2
preconditioner to increase product moisture from Raw Material 2 9,042 0.70 300,000
14-18% and a temperature of 70-90ºC. The shear Processed 14,278 0.71 < 10
provided by the rotor, stator and the pelleting die Sample 2 Lot 1
can elevate the product temperature to 110-150ºC Processed 14,190 0.72 < 10
depending on the die configuration and ingredient Sample 2 Lot 2
formulation. Raw Material 3 n/a 1.36 500,000
Processed n/a 1.41 40
Sample 3 Lot 1
Pasteurization
The UPC system offers two opportunities to Table 2-9 shows retention of various heat-sensitive
pasteurize pelleted feed products. The first stage is nutrients and destruction of microorganisms in feed
the DDC preconditioner. As previously mentioned, produced on the UPC. In each case, none of the
the DDC is capable of holding the feed for up to nutrients were degraded, but the detrimental
two minutes and can reach temperatures of 90-95ºC. microorganisms were destroyed. Table 2-14
indicates the results of expanding plus pelleting on
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

vitamin retention. This data show that the expander feed mix has a different Tg and Tm, each feed
does partially destroy some vitamins. formulation will process somewhat differently.

Figure 2-30. State diagram of the UPC process To help understand the Tg phenomena, consider the
(Strahm and Plattner, 2001; Strahm and feed mix as a mass of wax. At room temperature it
Plattner, 2000). is in a crystalline state and breaks when one tries to
bend it. As the wax is heated it becomes pliable.
The temperature at which the wax begins to show a
considerable amount of flexibility could be
considered as its Tg. Continuing to heat the wax will
eventually convert it into a fluid, so the temperature
at which it fluidizes can be considered its Tm.
Figure 2-31 shows photos of a pelleted feed made
using a conventional expander plus pellet mill
process and one from the UPC system, magnified
with a scanning electron microscope. Notice the
laminar structure that develops with the UPC
process. This structure provides superior strength
over the expander plus pelleted product.
Pellet Durability Figure 2-31. Scanning electron micrographs of
The ability for the UPC to produce an extremely pelleted feeds.
durable and dense pellet is illustrated in Figure 2-
30. This graph shows how the raw material
viscosity changes inside the preconditioner and
stator as energy and moisture are added. When
energy inputs are sufficient and the product
temperature moves above the glass transition
temperature (Tg), major components of the raw
material, such as protein and starch, transform from
a highly viscous, glassy state into a rubbery dough.
This change begins to occur in the preconditioner.

As the temperature continues to rise inside the

stator, the product reaches its melt transition
temperature (Tm). When a product is heated above
its Tm, the rubbery mass’s viscosity declines quickly
and becomes a fluid (Strahm, Plattner, Huber and
Rokey, 2000). The reduction of viscosity allows the Final product characteristics
raw material to pass through the orifices of the die Every livestock producer has different ideas for
with relative ease at low moisture and pressure (i.e., what the appearance and quality characteristics of
200-900 psi). Upon exiting the pelleting die, the feed should be. These specifications include: Pellet
pellet’s temperature declines and some moisture size, bulk density, durability, fines content, moisture
flashes from the surface of the pellet. The pellet and other various considerations. These product
returns to a glassy structure. This re-association and specifications can be controlled by the independent
hardening of the melt can be witnessed when processing variables of the UPC, which include the
examining hot pellets exiting the pelleting die. At following:
this point, the pellets seem fragile but after cooling • Feed delivery rate;
they become very strong and durable. Since each • Knife speed;
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

• Steam; waste at the feeder and are not as palatable as whole

• Water; pellets. Several factors influence the ability of the
• Pellet die configuration; and UPC to prevent the production of fines. Mean
• Recipe formulation. particle size, diet formulation and starch
gelatinization all affect the production of fines.
Pellet size can be easily controlled. The possible
pellet diameters range from 2-18 mm and Table 2-10. Poultry feeding trial (40 days). Wenger
adjustments are made by a quick and easy Technical Center Test Data (2000). Feeding trials
replacement of the pelleting head. The pellet length by independent third party.
can be varied to any size or even into crumbles Feed
when desired by adjusting a variable-speed cutter Needed to
and/or varying the number of knife blades. Bulk Reach
density can also be controlled and varied during Body Target
operation. However, pellet diameter and length do weight, Feed Weight,
have a significant effect on the density range. As the kg Conversion kg
diameter and length increase, the bulk density Universal
decreases. Typically the bulk density of UPC Pellet 1.95 1.53 2.7
pelleted feeds is about 550-650 grams per liter. The Cooker
raw material affects the finished product density to Pellet Mill 1.91 1.65 3.0
the greatest extent. High-fiber diets tend to have the Expander +
lowest raw material densities; therefore, one cannot 1.84 1.75 3.2
Pellet Mill
expect to achieve the same finished product density
as a feed high in protein or starch. Durability is Large feed particles can disconnect from the pellets
probably the most important characteristic of as the cutter shears them to length at the pelleting
pelleted feed. Consumers expect the most durable head. Low levels of cook lead to poor pellet
pellets possible. Poor pellet durability results in the durability, and inevitably lead to the breakdown of
generation of fines. Durability can be predicted by pellets. Also, high-fiber diets tend to produce more
determining the pellet durability index (PDI), which fines than high-starch diets, since these ingredients
gives reference to how well pellets hold their have different binding abilities. Other than the
integrity during packaging and handling mainstream production of compound feed, the UPC
(McEllhiney, 1994). The UPC, however, typically can also produce types of feeds that are all but
produces pellets with a PDI of over 95%. impossible for pellet mills and expanders to
produce. Full-fat soy (FFS), soft-moist pellets and
feeds high in bypass protein and bypass fat are the
Benefits of the UPC most notable.
The UPC has shown advantages over pellet mills
and expanders in several feeding trials with poultry, FFS production has been limited to HT/ST
swine and dairy cattle. Table 2-10 shows the extrusion systems due to the high energy input
advantage of a UPC for poultry. Those animals fed requirements needed to destroy the anti-nutritional
pellets produced on the UPC reached grown weight factors that exist in raw soybeans. However, the
more quickly and needed less feed to reach the UPC has shown to be capable of producing
target body weight. equivalent quality FFS. Figure 2-32 shows the
results of four tests run at different specific
Studies with swine have shown that pelleted feeds mechanical energy levels (SME). At the higher
with 10-15% fines can negatively influence animal SME inputs acceptable, product can be produced.
performance. The findings show that as the fines Destruction levels between 80-90% are found to be
content increases, feed wastage, low palatability and sufficient for trypsin inhibitor in most livestock
lower feed conversion ratios are noted. Fines create feeds.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

Figure 2-32. Effect of SME on trypsin barrel will plug die orifices. Production runs are
destruction (Wenger Technical Center Test often less than one hour due to plugging of the die
Data, 1996). orifices.

Figure 2-33. Starter aquatic feeds.

Some producers have resorted to first making a

standard extruded pellet of substantial size,
Production of soft-moist pellets is an available normally greater than 4 mm in diameter. The pellets
option with the UPC, giving feed producers even are dried and cooled and then they are crumbled
more flexibility to satisfy consumers and open new using a roller mill. Then the particles are sifted and
markets. With the proper ingredients included in the classified into size ranges. With this method, typical
formula, final moisture and mold growth will not be on-size products are usually in the range of 50% or
a concern. The final moisture can vary from 15- less, with the balance being smaller and larger
20% when humectants and mold inhibitors are particles. These particles often have very ragged
included in the ingredient mix to control water and sharp edges, which some believe can cause an
activity. increased mortality rate in the fry. An alternate
Feed manufacturers have been bombarded recently process for producing these starter feeds is the SAS
with technological advances in the compound feed process. This system is much different than the
processing industry. As with any technology, typical extrusion cooking process. The SAS process
however, continuous development brings about is designed to produce more uniform and
major improvements. The UPC is a direct result of nutritionally homogeneous particles than a
the rapid increase in demand for processing traditional crumbling system. A uniformly mixed
equipment required to heat treat and pelletize and pulverized formulation is passed through a low-
livestock feeds. The UPC is another option to shear, low-temperature extrusion process where it is
provide high-quality feed with the ease and conditioned with water as well as other possible
simplicity of using one machine. The flexibility liquid additives and then compressed through a
provided allows producers to gain greater customer special die to form extruded strands. These strands
satisfaction by developing new characteristics into are then transported to the Sphere-izer™. This
existing feed lines at lower cost. machine, by cyclonic motion, sizes and shapes the
strands into pellets with lengths about the size of the
strand in diameter. The SAS™ will produce
Sphere-Izer Agglomeration System (SAS) finished feeds in a size range of 0.3-1.2 mm
Producing starter feeds (see Figure 2-33) for diameter with >85% “on-size” product. The low
aquaculture has long been a challenge. Traditional processing temperatures required are suitable for
single-screw extruders are often limited to pellet minimizing nutrient damage, production of
sizes of 1.2 mm, while a twin-screw extruder can medicated feeds and utilization of other
consistently produce feeds as small as 0.7 mm in temperature-sensitive ingredients.
diameter. These systems are often difficult to run
since any contamination in the feed or hardened,
overcooked material that builds up in the extruder
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

Ingredient preparation a die plate that forms and separates the dough into
The raw ingredients used in the process can be individual, continuous strands which have a
much different than the requirements for diameter of the desired product. The agglomerated
conventional extrusion. In typical extrusion, starch strands are then fed into the Sphere-izer for sizing
is required to bind the ingredients together in order and forming to the desired size. The Sphere-izer is a
to form a durable pellet, and contents of 15-20% spinning disc with a series of radially-symmetrical
must be present in the formulation. With the SAS grooves or corrugations. As the ropes drop onto the
process, low-starch formulations can be disc they are broken into small pieces, which
successfully used since the starch required for eventually turn into spheres as the pieces roll over
traditional extruded products does little to bind the the corrugations. Continuous drying of the small
product together because the temperature of the diameter starter feeds presents problems when
process is low, usually in the 40-50°C range. The considering the traditional horizontal continuous
particles are bound by using natural binders from bed dryers and vertical dryers. The small diameter
fishmeal, fish soluble, gluten and other organic products cannot be handled in a static bed or
ingredients. moving bed perforated tray dryer because of several
factors. The SAS products pack together so tightly
Preparation of the formulation mixture includes that they create a bed of product that does not allow
micro-pulverizing to a specified particle size range air to pass through. Therefore, the product will not
to prevent die plugging during processing. After dry completely. To eliminate this problem, a
grinding, the formulation is passed through a rotary vibrating bed/fluid bed dryer is utilized for drying
sieve to remove any particle larger than specified and cooling these products. The fluid bed dryer
for the finished product size. The same particle size forces air through perforations in the vibrating bed
rules apply for the SAS system as in a conventional with enough velocity to suspend the particles in the
extrusion system. The raw materials should have a airflow and keep the product moving and exposed
maximum particle size less than 1/3 of the die to the heated air stream. The cooling portion of this
opening. If this criterion is not met, it becomes very unit does the same only using ambient temperature
difficult to successfully produce a product for any air. A complete flow diagram for the SAS is shown
length of time. in Figure 2-34.

Process equipment and parameters Figure 2-34. SAS process flow.

The product agglomeration is accomplished by
using a forming extrusion system. The material is
metered into a preconditioner where it is moistened
with water. Other liquids such as oil or medications
can be added to the preconditioner as well. It is
essential that all of the liquids be strained before
injection and that a proper sized spray nozzle is
used to give uniform distribution of the liquid. Even
water lines need to contain fine strainers or screens
to prevent any particle, such as a hard water deposit
which could plug the die, from entering the system.
After leaving the preconditioner, the wetted Advantages and disadvantages of the SAS
material enters the extruder barrel. The extruder is
Since the SAS is a low-temperature process, it
designed and operated to prevent substantial
allows the feeds to be medicated. This allows the
cooking of the raw material; but instead kneads and
producers to more easily control disease in their
forms it into a semi-elastic dough. The extruders
aquatic species. It also produces pellets with a
typically turn slowly and the length-to-diameter
smooth surface; as compared to a crumbing process,
ratio is relatively short. The extruder is capped with
which produces pellets with ragged edges and sharp
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extrusion and Other Technologies

corners. One of the main disadvantages of the SAS

process is that the processed feed is not pasteurized.
The processors must be careful in cleaning the
system and choosing ingredients that are not
contaminated. The final products produced by the
SAS also tend to have poor water durability. Since
relatively low heat is applied, the starches are not
cooked, and thus the pellets do not have anything to
hold them together. The other option is to use pre-
gelled starches, which would give the products
much better durability; however, they greatly
increase the cost of the operation. The other major
disadvantage with this system is that it is only
capable of producing sinking feeds. Conventional
extruders allow the processor to produce partially-
floating feeds down to 600 microns.

The SAS process is designed to produce more

uniform and nutritionally-homogeneous particles
than a traditional crumbling system. A uniformly
mixed and pulverized formulation passes through a
low-shear, low-temperature extrusion process where
it is conditioned and compressed to form
agglomerated strands.

Mr. Galen J. Rokey is the Manager of the Pet Food

Process Group at Wenger Manufacturing Inc. He
has more than 30 years of laboratory, extrusion
process and research experience with Wenger.
Email:[email protected]. Mr. Brian Plattner is
Processing Engineering Manager at Wenger. He
joined the company in 1998 after receiving his
Bachelor’s degree in Agricultural Engineering from
Kansas State University. Email:
[email protected]

This content was edited and reviewed by Dr. Adam

Fahrenholz, Assistant Professor of Feed Milling at
North Carolina State University, Dr. Charles Stark,
Jim and Carol Brown Associate Professor of Feed
Technology at Kansas State University, and Dr.
Cassandra Jones, Assistant Professor of Feed
Technology at Kansas State University.
 Pellet mill design
BY MR. RON TURNER, FEED PELLETING CONSULTANT

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, CASSANDRA JONES, AND CHARLES STARK

pellet quality and production capacity (graphic

When considering at pellet mill design, there are representation only; not to scale).
some important aspects to study to achieve Power
maximum efficiency of the machine. Maximum The ratio of power (kilowatts) to die working
efficiency is defined as the ideal combination of
producing the best pellet quality possible, at the
maximum production capacity, for the least amount
of energy being used. In order to achieve this ideal
efficiency, both the pellet die speed and the ratio of
the die working face area to the amount of power
being used must be correct for each individual
application.

Die speed is typically measured at the outside

diameter of the die, which is either referred to as the
“peripheral speed” or the “tip speed” of the die. For
the majority of applications, the die speed that is
generally used for maximum performance should be
9 meters per second for all easy-running materials
being pelleted where small-diameter pellets are
being produced. For hard-running materials, 6
meters per second is a typical die speed used to surface area is important to both ensure the machine
reduce the amount of vibration in the machine. The has enough power to handle each application and
lower die speed is also used when pellet quality is prevent the main motor from being oversized. It is
of extreme importance, so as to reduce the amount imperative that the machine has the correct size
of pellet breakage caused by the centrifugal force of motor so motor power does not exceed the design
the pellets leaving the die and hitting the inside of limits of the machine being used. Each pellet mill is
the pellet chamber door. Peripheral speeds designed to utilize and accept a certain amount of
exceeding 9 meters per second may result in maximum power, and the gears or belts and
deterioration of pellet quality, but an increase in bearings are designed and selected to maximize
production capacity. Conversely, peripheral speeds lifetime use. A pellet mill is considered to be the
below 6 meters per second will typically result in an type of machine that can be subjected to “shock
improvement in pellet quality, but a decrease in loads”, so there is typically at least a 2:1 safety
production capacity. If the peripheral speed of the factor built into the design of the main driving
die is too low, the die may be fed incorrectly and members and at least a 10-year life expectancy on
cause uneven wear on the die face and roller shell. the design of the bearings used to prevent premature
Figure 3-1 demonstrates the effects of peripheral part failure.
speed on pellet quality and production capacity.
Table 3-1 shows the ratio of power to die working
surface area. These values can be used as a general
Figure 3-1. The effects of peripheral speed on guideline for the applications listed, but may
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 3: Pellet Mill Design
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 3: Pellet Mill Design
fluctuate due to the variation in feed ingredients and multiple number of v-belts, which must be perfectly
formulations, as well as to the pellet quality desired. matched set in order to transmit the power to the
The pellet mill manufacturer should be consulted as die. When belts are not perfectly matched, there
necessary for the ideal set-up regarding other may be a rollover of some of the belts when under
applications or applications with non-typical load, causing the belts to break and resulting in a
ingredients. loss in overall efficiency.

Table 3-1. Die surface area to horsepower ratio. Generally, both a single-reduction gear arrangement
Die area:horsepower, and timing belts will have a mechanical efficiency
Application cm2/kilowatt between 96-98%. Conventional v-belt drives will
Broiler 25.95-27.68 typically have an efficiency of 90-96% depending
Turkey 24.22-25.95 on the level of maintenance. If the recommended
Swine 22.49-24.22 die speed requires a two-stage reduction belt drive,
Fish/Shrimp 20.76-22.49 the efficiency of this type of drive will drop as low
Dairy (high grain) 19.03-20.76 as 81-92%. When comparing the two types of
Dairy(high fiber) 17.30-19.03 drives, we see that a gear-driven pellet mill can be
Beef (high mineral) 12.98-14.71 as much as 10% more efficient than a single-stage
Single ingredient 12.11-14.71 belt drive machine, and as much as 20% more
(alfalfa, beet pulp, efficient than a two-stage belt drive machine. This
gluten) difference in efficiency will result in more or less
The above recommended values may vary due to energy being used, depending on which drive
feed ingredient variation or desired pellet quality. arrangement is being used. Generally speaking, a
gear-driven pellet mill will be more efficient to
operate than a belt-driven machine, thus resulting in
Drive arrangements lower energy costs for the gear-driven machine.
Historically, there have been two types of drive
arrangements for a pellet mill: gears or belts.
Drive loading
Depending on a variety of factors, one type of
drive arrangement may be preferred over another A pellet mill can be applied to a wide variety of
in specific instances. For example, a single- many different applications, and the drive loading
reduction gear set with standard 1,800 or 1,200 can vary from an easy, uniform load to severe shock
RPM motors may be used to achieve the loading. The power transmission should be
recommended die speeds for all different die sizes designed for more severe conditions, safety,
on a gear-driven pellet mill. Meanwhile, a belt- reliability and overall longevity. Generally, the
driven machine may require a double-reduction belt gearing used in a typical gear-driven pellet mill is
drive with the larger dies in order to maintain the life and durability limited, not shock load limited.
peripheral speed of the die within acceptable limits. Therefore, the tooth design is more than adequate to
This is in part due to the size of the sheaves needed handle any shock loading. In the case of belt drives,
for these types of drives and requires the use of low- the shock resistance of the belts is limited by a
speed (900 RPM or 1,200 RPM) motors, which are combination of heat dissipation capacity, the tensile
more expensive than the normal high-speed (1,800 strength of the reinforced strands and the durability
RPM) motors more commonly used with the of the friction surfaces in contact with the sheaves.
gearbox design. With belts, shock loading increases the heat being
generated in the belts because of the shock energy
A typical gearbox is line bored on a machine so the absorption. Shock increases the wear of the friction
gears are absolutely parallel to one another and have surfaces because of the added movement against the
the correct center distance. This ensures correct sheave face, and loads can exceed the tensile limit
meshing and contact of the gear teeth, thus allowing of the reinforcing strands because shock loading can
for nearly 100% of the motor load to be transmitted initiate a whipping action of the belts. Shock and
to the die. A large-power belt-driven machine uses a overload conditions are better handled by a gear
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 3: Pellet Mill Design
drive, thus providing longer overall service life than
a belt drive. The oil system is normally fitted with a low-
temperature switch which turns on the air cooler fan
The highly-variable loads which can occur in a motor when the oil temperature is above 60°C. This
pellet mill can generate overload conditions. Stalled allows the oil to continue to operate at the desired
conditions are usually caused by the die plugging temperature. This system is also fitted with a high-
and/or trying to start the mill under load. Gear temperature switch, which turns the pellet mill off if
drives can withstand overload conditions because the oil temperature gets above 77°C, so as to protect
the gear teeth are proportioned for durability or life the oil seals from deteriorating due to exposure to
conditions, and are designed to withstand these continuous high temperatures. The oil system is also
conditions. A properly-maintained belt drive can usually fitted with a flow switch which turns the
withstand overload or stalled conditions, but if the pellet mill off if there is no flow to the bearings.
belt tension is below the design level, belt slippage There is also a pressure-relief device in the system
can occur and the belts can be destroyed and need to that is normally set to operate at approximately 4
be replaced completely. Bar.

Figure 3-2. Circuit lube system in a gear-driven

Environmental considerations pellet mill.
Airborne dust occurs, to some extent, in all pellet
mill installations. The composition of the dust will
depend upon the materials being processed. Under
the worst conditions, the dust can be corrosive or
abrasive. A gear-driven pellet mill has a gearbox
that is sealed to prevent any dust from entering, and
is also usually fitted with a lubrication system that
includes a filter and oil cooler to maximize the life
of the components. A belt-driven pellet mill usually
includes belt guards that have openings to provide
adequate air ventilation. These openings will allow
dust to enter the drive area and, under severe
conditions, can result in accelerated belt and sheave
wear.

Lubrication
Noise considerations
Gear-driven pellet mills are now fitted with
A pellet mill can contribute to the overall noise of a integrated circuit lube systems (see Figure 3-2),
feed mill, and belt-driven pellet mills are usually which not only cool and filter the oil, but also
quieter than a gear-driven machine; however, a incorporate devices to control the temperature, flow
correctly-designed gear drive is usually well within rate and pressure. They also come equipped with
the required decibel sound limitations. simple spin-on disposable oil filters which are easy
to replace. There is no low-temperature limitation to
Heat a belt drive, but high ambient temperatures can
shorten the belt life because of the reduced ability
Pellet mills are usually exposed to heat in a typical of the drive to dissipate the heat generated by the
feed mill environment when under operating power transmission. There is no practical way to
conditions. An oil cooler is normally installed as cool a belt drive.
part of the oil system on a gear-driven pellet mill
and can use either water or air as the heat transfer Static
medium, with the air cooler being the preferred Pellet mills can be installed in an explosion-proof
method. environment where there is the possibility of static
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 3: Pellet Mill Design
electricity being present and the possible generation pieces. In earlier designs, the quillshaft was all one
of sparks occurring. Gear-driven pellet mills do not piece. It should be noticed that the quill flange, or
generate static electricity, but belt drives do have die driving rim, is now bolted to an inner quillshaft
the potential of generating static electricity. This which directly supports the main gear. This newer
potential problem can be reduced by using static- design allows for mounting different size dies onto
free belts. the same gearbox, thus allowing the same gearbox
components to be used with a number of different
size dies. This modular concept not only allows the
Covers manufacturer to keep the parts inventory to a
The gearbox on a gear-driven pellet mill is totally minimum, but it also means that the user can
enclosed, protecting the operator from any moving replace just the quill flange when it is worn and not
components, thus any failure of the transmission have to completely disassemble the gearbox and
will be contained within the gearbox enclosure. The replace the whole quillshaft assembly.
rotating members of a belt drive are normally
enclosed in sheet metal covers, offering protection Figure 3-3. Typical single-reduction gear-driven
to the operator in case of a failure. However, these pellet mill.
covers do have openings to allow for air circulation,
and these openings can provide opportunities for
foreign objects to enter the moving belt drive. When
these covers are removed for maintenance purposes,
they must be reinstalled properly in order to prevent
risk of injury to the operator.

Maintenance
The main gear used within a gear-driven pellet mill
is reversible, allowing it to be turned over when one
side of the gear teeth is worn, thus doubling the
operating life. When belts become worn on a belt-
drive machine, an entirely new set of belts must be
fitted. Though belts typically must be changed more
often, it is a less intensive process than working
within the gearbox of a gear-driven machine. Gear-
driven pellet mills require using the correct It should also be noticed that the quill flange is
lubrication recommended by the manufacturer, and fitted with a die wear insert ring located directly
the oil should be replaced at regular intervals, between the quill flange and the die itself. This wear
approximately every 2,000 operating hours. An oil insert can easily be replaced, and it prevents wear
filter is used within the lubrication system and from occurring directly to the surface of the quill
should be replaced each time the oil is changed. A flange. This new modular design minimizes
belt-driven pellet mill does not require changing oil, replacement part costs and reduces the downtime
but requires regular lubrication at regular intervals necessary to rebuild the pellet mill. It also allows
with the recommended grease specified by the the user to convert an existing pellet mill to a larger
manufacturer. Figure 3-3 shows a cross-section die machine at a later date if and when production
view of a typical single-reduction, gear-driven capacity increases while keeping the existing
pellet mill showing the major components and gearbox, base, motor, electrical wiring, etc., the
lubrication system. same as before. Gear-driven pellet mills are fitted
Quillshaft assembly with a symmetrical main gear to allow use of both
sides of the gear teeth. As mentioned above, this
As seen in Figure 3-3, the quillshaft supporting the
means that the main gear can be reversed when one
main gear and the die is made in two separate
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 3: Pellet Mill Design
side of the gear teeth is worn, doubling the overall Figure 3-4. The die and roller assembly.
life of the main gear and keeping replacement part
costs to a minimum. The pinion shaft is heat-treated
and ground, and is much harder and wear-resistant
than the softer main gear, so its life is also
prolonged. Both gears usually have helical cut teeth
in order to reduce the noise and increase the overall
face width and load bearing capacity.

Gearbox
A typical gearbox is fitted with a shear pin
arrangement located within easy reach at the rear of
the pellet mill, as shown in Figure 3-3. If a piece of
foreign material enters the die cavity, these pins are
designed to shear immediately, thus protecting the
die, rolls and gears from premature failure. These
pins also sometimes shear as a result of the die
plugging with feed material; however, they can
usually be replaced within minutes, keeping
downtime to a minimum and preventing a major Inside the die cavity
overhaul from becoming necessary. While large Various factors affecting pelleting occur inside the
electric motors are more efficient than smaller ones die cavity. This area is the heart of the pellet mill,
in converting electrical energy into useful shaft where the actual pelleting process occurs. This is
work, some belt-driven pellet mills are equipped where the pellets are being produced, at the nip
with two small main drive motors instead of one point between the die and the rolls. Figure 3-4
large one due to the power limits of the belt drives. shows a close-up of one roller assembly and its
Unfortunately, load sharing is difficult to balance relationship to the die. The die is driven by the gear
with dual motor systems, potentially resulting in drive, and the roller assembly depends on the
higher power consumption and cost. Non- frictional force from contact with the pad of feed
identically matched electric motors results in the material between the die and the roll to generate the
“push-pull” effect, with one motor always working driving force that causes the roll to rotate.
harder than the other. The harder-working motor is
then more liable to break down sooner. Start-up Figure 3-5. Forces acting on feed at the nip point.
energy is essentially the same for one or more
motors of the same total power and pellet mills of
the same rotary inertia. The dual motor system is
inherently more complex than the single motor
system, with dual motors requiring additional
electrical wiring, two motor mounts, and two drive
connections. All of these factors point towards
higher maintenance and operating costs when using
dual motors instead of a single motor.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 3: Pellet Mill Design
The work area is comprised of the compression area simple force diagrams, it can be seen that the slip
where the feed is initially compressed; the extrusion force caused by pad thickness “T” is much less than
area is where the feed is forced into and through the the slip force caused by pad thickness “2T.” So, the
holes in the die. To fully understand how a pellet larger slip force generated by pad thickness (2T)
mill works, one must also become conscious of the now overcomes the slip-resisting force. The
forces and how they are applied within the die material then ceases to pass under the roll, causing
cavity. In particular, this involves the forces acting the pelleting process to cease, which results in the
on the wedge of feed at the nip point between the die cavity being filled with material until the die
die and the roll (see Figure 3-5). plugs.

The “roll force” is the force from the roll acting on Figure 3-7. Determining nip angle.
the material, in relationship to the contact point with
the die. It is this force that compresses the material
to be pelleted on the die face, then extrudes it
through the die to form pellets. The “radial force” is
the force from the die that resists the flow of
material through the holes of the die. The
“tangential force” is the force along the face of the
die that keeps the material from slipping along the
face of the die in front of the roll. This force is
related to the pressure exerted by the roll and the
frictional characteristics of the feed material.

Figure 3-6. Feed rate versus roll force.

Figure 3-7 shows how the nip angle is determined

between the die and roll. This is the angle formed
by a line tangent to the die radius and a line tangent
to the roll radius, measured at a point where the pad
of feed material on the die face meets the roll.

Figure 3-8 shows the relationship between the nip

angle and the pad thickness for different sized dies
and rolls. As can be seen from the graph, the
smaller die and rolls can only tolerate a much
Figure 3-6 demonstrates what occurs when the feed thinner pad thickness than the larger die and rolls
rate is doubled and the pad of feed material in front for the same nip angle. Because a pellet mill with a
of the roll is twice as thick. With the thicker pad, the larger die and rolls can operate with a thicker pad, it
roll tends to push the material forward instead of is much more energy efficient than a mill with
down into the holes. The slip force is what tends to smaller ones—leading to greater production
cause the pad of feed material to skid along the die capacity and reduced energy usage.
face, thus causing the die to plug or choke. From the
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 3: Pellet Mill Design
Figure 3-8. Die pad thickness versus nip angle. Figure 3-9. Die and roller nip points three-roll
application.

Roll Configurations
Figure 3-9 shows the comparison between a pellet
mill having three rolls to one having two rolls using
the same size die. The rolls used on the two-roll
machine are much larger than the rolls used on the
three-roll machine, indicating that the two-roll
machine has a much smaller nip angle between the
die and roll than exists on the three-roll machine.
This allows the two-roll machine to run with a
much thicker pad of material on the die face than
that which is possible on the three-roll machine.
There is also more open area to allow the feed
material to enter the die cavity on the two-roll Mounting dies
machine than there is on the three-roll. Generally, a
two-roll machine uses a simple feed chute that There are basically two methods for mounting a die
utilizes gravity to feed material into the die cavity onto a pellet mill. One is to bolt the die on using a
and evenly distribute it between the two rolls. number of high tensile steel bolts which are directly
Successfully getting the feed material into the die screwed into the rear of the die. The other method is
cavity of a three-roll machine, and distributing it to clamp the die on by using a die clamp with
evenly, however, may require the use of a tapered contact areas (see Figure 3-10). Die clamps
motorized force feeder instead of a simple feed come with different numbers of segments
chute. Comparative tests have shown that a pellet depending on the size of the die being used. The
mill with two large rolls will produce up to 15% larger dies usually have more die clamp segments
more capacity than a mill with three small rolls than the smaller dies. This is in order to keep the
(when using the same size die and running the same weight of each segment down, allowing easier
material)—making the two-roll machine much more installation and providing the best clamping action
efficient than the three-roll machine. The use of possible to hold the larger dies securely in place.
three rolls is meant to decrease the load on the die One example is a design in which each die clamp
and reduce the amount of die deflection when in segment is held in place with one spring-loaded
production; however, correct die design enables the fastener located in the center and two regular
die to withstand the loads experienced during full fasteners located at the outside.
production when using two rolls and keeps die
deflection to a minimum. When changing or mounting a die, the two regular
fasteners are removed and the spring-loaded
fastener is loosened to the point where the die
clamp backs away from the quill flange, allowing
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 3: Pellet Mill Design
clearance. The two regular fasteners can also be from the die surface. This manual system requires
used as jacking screws to pry the die clamp loose if the machine to be shut down and locked out during
necessary. With this design it is not necessary to the adjustment procedure, as the adjustment must be
remove the die clamp segments completely, as they done with the pellet chamber door in the open
remain in place while the die is being removed or position. The remote roll adjust system is either
mounted. Dies that are bolted on usually take longer hydraulically operated or mechanically operated,
to change than those that are clamped on, as the with the mechanical design being preferred over the
bolt-on dies usually require a stiffening ring to be hydraulic system. The mechanical system results in
bolted to the front of the die. Dies that are clamped a positive positioning of the rolls, whereas the
on have a stiffening ring incorporated into the front hydraulic system can experience leakage, causing
of the die, which is integral with the die design, thus the rolls to back away from the die and cause roll
eliminating the need to be replaced or refitted each slippage.
time.
Figure 3-11. Remote roll adjust system.
Figure 3-10. Die clamps.

Roll Adjustment

All pellet mills have roller assemblies that need to

be repositioned and adjusted to allow for the correct
running clearance between the rollers and the die
face. This is one of the most critical adjustments
made on a pellet mill to guarantee maximum
performance and allow for the longest die and roll
life possible. The correct adjustment allows for a
minimum clearance between the die face and the
roll—often referred to as a “skip-touch”—and
reduces metal-to-metal contact, which would cause
damage to the die face and the rolls. There are The mechanical roll adjust system incorporates a
basically two methods for adjusting the rollers on a lineator gearbox mounted to the front roller support,
pellet mill. One is to adjust them manually, the which is driven by a small shaft that runs through
other is to use a remote roll adjust system, as shown the center of the mainshaft. This small shaft is
in Figure 3-11. driven by an air motor mounted on the rear end of
the mainshaft, which is operated by remote control.
The manual system requires untightening and re- By pressing the positive or negative push buttons on
tightening of the roller adjustment screws in order the control cabinet, it is possible to adjust the rolls
to reposition the roller adjusting gear. This rotates while the pellet mill is in operation. With this
the roller shaft, which has a built-in eccentric, and system, it is not necessary to stop the pellet mill in
causes the roll to move closer to or further away order to adjust the rolls except when a new die and
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 3: Pellet Mill Design
rolls are fitted. Then it is necessary to adjust the nip point. A wiper is positioned at the rear of the die
rolls manually in order to establish the initial set- cavity to clean feed material off the quill flange face
point. Not having to shut the machine down during and direct it back into the path of the rolls.
production is an obvious advantage, as the roller
position should be readjusted as necessary to Figure 3-12. Typical die feeding system.
maintain the correct running clearance. Because the
remote roll adjust system allows the operator to
adjust the rolls while the pellet mill is in operation,
it is possible to adjust the feed material pad
thickness on the die face, thus applying more work
to the feed material, and resulting in higher pellet
quality in some cases.

Die plugging
In the case of a die plugging during operation,
remotely adjusted rolls can be backed away from
the die face, allowing the plug to clear and the rolls
to be brought back into their original position, all
while the pellet mill is running without having to
shut down. Should it be necessary to shut the pellet
mill down in order to clean out the die cavity, the
rolls can be quickly backed away from the die face,
so the die can be re-started easily and the rolls
returned to their original operating position. This is
extremely useful when operating a machine having
a large die and motor fitted, as these large motors
are usually set up with a reduced-voltage starter,
and the machine will not start at the low-voltage
setting if any feed material is present between the
die and rolls. This system allows a person to adjust
the rolls from a remote location without having to
open the pellet chamber door and adjusting the rolls If the machine has three rolls and/or the feed
by hand—making it much safer for the operator. material is not free-flowing, and it has a light bulk
density, a force feeder is normally used. This feeder
throws the feed material out centrifugally into the
Feeding the Die feed cone, carrying the material around to the three
rolls, where each roll has a deflector to direct the
Feed material is brought into the die cavity using a material into the die cavity and into the path of the
typical die feeding system, as shown in Figure 3- rolls. Figure 3-13 shows a typical quick-dump feed
12. If the machine has two rolls, the feed material is chute and a force feeder.
free-flowing and has a heavy bulk density, a feed
chute is normally used. In a feed chute, gravity As mentioned previously, a feed chute uses gravity
carries the material into the die area. Gravity forces to cause the material to flow into the die feeding
half of the material into the first roll, while the other area. The chute is a simple mechanical device with
half is carried around to the second roll using an inspection door to view the die cavity if
centrifugal force to hold the material to the inside necessary. The quick-dump feed chute has a flap
face of the feed cone. A deflector is positioned close built into the lower portion of the chute. This can be
to the second roll, deflecting the material off the opened and closed manually with a lever mounted
feed cone face into the path of the roll and into the on the side of the chute, or remotely by using an air
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 3: Pellet Mill Design
Figure 3-13. Quick-dump feed chute and force pneumatic die and roll hoist are sometimes used
feeder. together with the quick-release die clamp along
with a pneumatic-powered wrench and the remote
roll adjust to provide a quick die change. A die
lifting plate and roller attachment match the size of
die and rolls being used on a particular machine.

Figure 3-14. Typical pellet mill die and roller

hoist arrangement.

cylinder which is built into the feed chute assembly.

The chute with the air cylinder can be connected to
an automatic device which controls the pellet mill.
Here, the flap can open if the die begins to plug and
close when the potential plug clears itself. The
quick-dump feed chute can be designed so that
when the flap opens, the feed material either
discharges onto the floor in front of the pellet mill,
or it can be diverted directly into the cooler situated
below the pellet mill, thus bypassing the die until
the flap is closed again for normal operational use.
A typical pellet mill base and drive coupling is used
A force feeder is a motorized device with a rotating with a gear-driven pellet mill. The fabricated base
shaft that has paddles mounted to it. The feed has pads welded to it for mounting the pellet mill
material falls into the force feeder inlet and is and the main motor. These pads are precision
conveyed along towards the die area. When the machined to allow for correct alignment of the
material reaches the force feeder discharge, pellet mill input shaft and the motor shaft, which are
centrifugal force throws it out into the feed cone normally connected through a flexible coupling
where it is held onto the feed cone face until it is arrangement. Alignment of these shafts is critical in
directed into the die cavity by the deflectors. It is order to eliminate any possible vibration that can
necessary to use one deflector for each roll with this occur through any misalignment.
type of device, and all deflectors must be identical
and of the same length. Mr. Ron Turner is a Feed Pelleting Consultant.

Figure 3-14 shows a typical pellet mill die and This content was edited and reviewed by Dr. Adam
roller hoist arrangement used on machines that have Fahrenholz, Assistant Professor of Feed Milling at
dies and rolls too heavy to handle by hand. These North Carolina State University, Dr. Cassandra
are available with either a manual or a pneumatic Jones, Assistant Professor of Feed Technology at
hoist or winch. The manual hoist is generally used Kansas State University, and Dr. Charles Stark, Jim
for the smaller, light dies, whereas the pneumatic and Carol Brown Associate Professor of Feed
hoist is used for the larger, heavy dies. The Technology at Kansas State University.
 Pellet mill die and roll design
BY MR. RON TURNER, FEED PELLETING CONSULTANT

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY CHARLES STARK, CASSANDRA JONES, AND ADAM FAHRENHOLZ

This chapter will discuss design details specific to Die metallurgy

the pellet mill die and the rolls. In Figure 4-1, we The basic physical properties of pellet mill die
see a typical pellet mill die. The particular die materials are controlled by the composition of the
shown is a clamp-on type and shows a keyway cut steel used and the heat-treating process. The two
into the backside of the die. This type of die is key elements in dies are carbon and chromium,
driven by a die-driving key mounted into the front where the carbon content in the steel determines the
face of the quill flange, or die-driving rim, and is hardness of the material, and the chromium content
held in place with a die clamp. This type of die has of the steel affects the corrosion resistance and the
a reinforcing flange built into the front face of the wear resistance of the die.
die in order to give it strength, reduce deflection and
prevent breakage. Usually, a free chromium content above 12%
classifies a steel as stainless. Chromium carbides
Figure 4-1. Typical pellet mill die. are formed during the heat-treating process through
a combination of chromium and carbon atoms,
increasing wear resistance. There is no such thing
as a rust-free “stainless steel,” as all dies oxidize
when exposed to heat, moisture and acidity.

Dies are typically heat treated in two different

ways—carburizing the die or neutral hardening the
die. Case carburizing of dies can be done in a pit
furnace or in a vacuum furnace by the addition of a
carbon-rich gas such as propane. Alloy steel dies
are processed in a pit furnace, whereas some types
of stainless steel dies are vacuum carburized. When
carbon is added into the atmosphere of either of
these furnaces, it soaks into the steel to form a hard
case.

Case carburized dies tend to create more friction in

Photo courtesy of engormix.com the pelleting chamber, usually resulting in better
pellet quality due to the increased resistance of the
Another type of pellet mill die available is the die hole surface. Alloy dies are a medium-grade
bolt-on die, which uses bolts to hold it in carbon steel which is case carburized for a hard
position and drive it instead of using a clamp outer case of 57 HRC and a soft core. Stainless
and a die-driving key. The bolt-on die is usually steel dies are carburized in a vacuum for a hard
symmetrical in design and, unlike the clamp-on outer case of 61 HRC and a soft core.
style, uses a removable stiffener ring mounted to
the front of the die with bolts to hold it in place Neutral hardening is a process that gives the same
and give the die strength. relative hardness throughout the thickness of the
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 4: Pellet Mill Die and Roll Design
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 4: Pellet Mill Die and Roll Design

die. The dies used in this process are stainless steel Figure 4-3. Selection criteria for material chart.
or those dies having a high chromium content. Due
to the homogeneous hardness throughout these
types of dies, they usually offer excellent die life.
These types of dies also have a smoother hole
surface, resulting in easier start-up. Neutral
hardened stainless steel dies have a hardness of 52
HRC throughout the thickness of the die. Figure 4-
2 shows a comparison between the case carburized
and the neutral hardened dies.

Figure 4-2. Comparison between case

carburized and neutral hardened dies.

Case carburized alloy dies are usually the most

breakage resistant and best suited for heavy tramp
metal situations. They are used in heavily-abrasive
situations, such as high mineral feeds, where die life
with other materials is much shorter, keeping cost-
per-tonne ratios to a minimum. They are the
lowest-priced dies available when compared to the
stainless steel dies. Alloy is most commonly used
for the large-hole or “cube” dies. They should not
be used in corrosive applications.

Case carburized stainless dies can be used in

mildly-corrosive applications. They are generally
used where pellet quality is of prime concern; as
hole and face wear occur at a much slower rate than
with neutral hardened stainless dies. They work
well with moderate to highly-abrasive materials,
and have an extremely hard case with a soft core in
order to give maximum wear life and good breakage
resistance. The best wear and throughput occur
with close-hole patterns and small holes. Even
though it is a type of stainless steel, it is still
Die material application susceptible to some corrosion. This type of die
usually provides the best pellet quality over a longer
The different die materials have characteristics that period of time than the other dies mentioned.
make one more desirable than another for different
reasons. Figure 4-3 compares the performance of Neutral hardened stainless dies provide high
each different die material. throughput and die life, but usually at the expense
of pellet quality over the life of the die. They
should always be used in high corrosive
applications. They need to have increased effective
thickness than the carburized dies in order to
achieve similar pellet quality, as the hole surface in
these dies does not have the frictional resistance that
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 4: Pellet Mill Die and Roll Design

the carburized dies do. performance by specifying the correct blank or

Usually the effective thickness is 6.35-12.7 mm overall thickness, hole size, type and depth of relief.
more on these types of dies than with the carburized This determines the effective thickness, hole pattern
dies. They will perform well in some abrasive and, of course, the material used. Figure 4-4 shows
applications where pellet quality is not an issue. a cross-section view through a typical clamp-on die.
They are easy to start up and reach full production
quickly. Because this type of die is through Figure 4-4. Die cross-section view.
hardened and not case hardened, the die holes are
more susceptible to wear and enlargement than the
other dies mentioned; therefore, they should not be
used where pellet quality is a priority and need to be
maintained as long as possible.

Abrasion resistance is the ability of a material to

resist frictional wear that occurs on a die face and
within the holes. It usually increases in direct
proportion to the hardness of the steel from which
the die is made; however, as dies are hardened,
reductions in structural strength and toughness may
occur. The blank thickness determines the overall strength
of the die. The thicker the die, the more it resists
Corrosion resistance is the characteristic of the die deflection caused by the pelleting process at the nip
material to resist chemical or atmospheric point between the die and the rolls. The effective
oxidation. Corrosion may appear as rust on the thickness is the length of the pellet chamber where
surface of a die or as pitting inside the holes. The the pellets are being formed. It is determined by the
hot, moist environment during pelleting creates an blank thickness minus the depth of the relief. The
extremely active setting for corrosion to occur, effective thickness determines the amount of work
especially with the intense pressure caused by the the die will perform on a material, thereby affecting
extrusion process. Stainless steel dies with a high pellet quality. It also affects the amount of stress on
chromium content should be used for these a die caused by the extrusion process taking place in
applications. the die.
The effective thickness should be changed if
Breakage resistance is necessary in order to resist the die material is changed for some reason, in order
the tremendous stresses caused by the pelleting to maintain good pellet quality and production
process. Start-up ease is important in order to help capacity. The effective thickness (the length of the
the pellet mill reach full capacity as soon as hole; “L”) is often compared to the hole diameter
possible. Each of the different die materials (“d”) to determine the correct L/d ratio for each
requires special processing to allow it to achieve its different application.
pelleting goal. As a result, each die material has a
varying rate at which it will start pelleting, with the Die hole reliefs
neutral hardened stainless dies being the easiest to
start up. The carburized dies take longer due to Reliefs are added to the die holes to allow stronger,
their harder, rougher surfaces taking longer to wear thicker die blanks to be used. Some of the different
or polish to the point where they can achieve full types of reliefs are shown in Figure 4-5. As shown,
capacity. there are different types of reliefs that can be used,
depending on the application.

Die design features No relief (NR) dies are used in applications where
The physical characteristics of a die determine its the blank thickness and the effective thickness are
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 4: Pellet Mill Die and Roll Design

the same in order to achieve the pellet quality leave the compression chamber—i.e., materials that
required. They are also used for applications such have a lot of heat and moisture applied to them,
as shrimp feeds, where the length of the pellet is such as high grain rations. They are also sometimes
important and must be maintained. used in dies having very deep reliefs.

Figure 4-5. Types of die relief. Taper relief (TR) dies are a variation of the step
relief die, which allows the pelleted material to
expand in the relief without dragging on the side of
the relief. The TR is used with materials that are
high in fiber and want to expand and resume some
of their original identity after leaving the
compression chamber. They are used for hard-
running or difficult-to-pellet materials where a thick
die is needed for strength, but only a short effective
length is needed to create the pellet.

Die hole inlets

In addition to reliefs being added to the hole outlets,
Non-variable relief (NVR) dies are used where the or at the outside diameter of the die, the inlet of the
same effective thickness must be maintained across hole can also be tapered or have an enlarged
the full width of the die working surface, so the diameter hole prior to entry into the die hole itself
relief is the same depth in all the holes. Variable (see Figure 4-6). These tapered inlets, or well
relief (VR) dies are the normal or standard type of inlets, are used to act as a pre-compression
relief used in most dies today. The outer rows of chamber. They are used in order to control the
holes are relieved deeper than the middle rows of overall thickness of the die blank, allowing for
the die, reducing the resistance in the outer rows of practical machining methods to be used and also to
holes, allowing the die to pellet continuously across keep the die cost down.
the full working face and prevent the outer rows of
holes from plugging and reducing capacity. This
type of relief also encourages the die to wear evenly Figure 4-6. Recessed face variable relief die.
across the full working face and prevent the
entrance of the holes in the outer rows from being
rolled over, leading to reduced capacity.

Staggered variable relief (Stag VR) dies are a

variation of the standard variable relief die
mentioned above. Instead of the variable relief
being all the same depth in the outer rows, some of
the rows of holes are drilled deeper than others to
reduce the resistance even more than in the variable
relief die. This type of relief is used where the outer
rows of holes in a standard variable relief die stop
working and cause rollover and reduced capacity.
Step relief (Step VR) dies have different size holes
in the relief, allowing the pelleted material to
expand in the relief without dragging on the side of
the relief. This type of relief is used with materials
that will expand during the pelleting process as they
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 4: Pellet Mill Die and Roll Design

Die blanks are normally limited to a maximum of only average cost per tonne of feed produced.
12 cm overall thickness, so if the user is producing
19.05 mm or 25.4 mm diameter pellets, sometimes Heavy-duty hole pattern dies have fewer than
referred to as “cubes,” it is not possible to achieve normal number of holes in the die in order to
the correct L/d ratio to produce a good quality pellet increase the ligament thickness between the holes,
or cube. This is why a pre-compression chamber is making the die stronger. They are obviously used
necessary for these particular applications. These in all heavy-duty applications where hard-to-pellet
types of dies are used to produce good-quality cattle materials are being processed, in order to prevent
or sow cubes, and for use with high-fiber, light bulk and eliminate early die failure. Due to the reduced
density materials. hole count, production capacity is greatly reduced
when using these types of dies, and die life is lower
Recessed face dies (as shown in Figure 4-6) are than normal and the cost per tonne of feed produced
used in easy-running applications with high grain is well above average.
rations such as broiler and pig feeds—which are
usually conditioned extremely well and contain a lot Close-hole pattern dies have an increased hole
of heat and moisture. This type of feed material count over that of the standard hole pattern die—
wants to take the path of least resistance and will, sometimes by as much as 25% or more. This means
therefore, squeeze out from between the die and that the total “open area” in close-hole pattern dies
rolls at the outside edges. The recessed face helps is increased by the same amount. The “total open
capture and hold the material onto the die face due area” of a die is the total number of holes in a die
to the wall at the outside edges, preventing the multiplied by the cross-section area of one hole
material from escaping, thus making sure that the diameter. The benefits of using close-hole pattern
whole die face working width is being used dies are: Increased production capacity; increased
effectively. pellet quality; better die face wear; easier start-up;
increased die life; more efficient use of energy; and
The die specifications remain identical to the a much lower-than-average cost per tonne.
standard die, so pellet quality is the same in both
cases. By recessing the die face; however, the Due to the increased hole count, the ligament
inside diameter of the die is increased along with thickness between the holes is obviously less than
the total working face area of the die. Sometimes with the standard hole pattern die, so it may be
the hole count is increased also, helping to improve necessary to increase the overall blank thickness in
the overall performance of the die in most cases order to make the die strong enough to prevent early
where it is used. die failure. This will necessitate the relief in each
hole being machined deeper in order to maintain the
correct effective thickness of the die and the correct
Die hole patterns L/d ratio for the material being processed.
There are three basic types of hole patterns used in a
die: standard hole pattern, heavy-duty hole pattern Close-hole pattern dies should be used wherever
and close-hole pattern. possible due to the obvious benefits of using this
type of die. Figure 4-7 shows a comparison
Standard hole pattern dies have a nominal hole between a close-hole pattern die and a standard hole
count that is suitable for general line feed pattern die.
applications where many different formulas are
pelleted on the same machine through the same die.
This allows for the best average performance to be
maintained where possible, but the production
capacity and pellet quality are compromised with
some of the formulas. Overall die life, measured in
total tonnes, is also adversely affected, resulting in
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 4: Pellet Mill Die and Roll Design

Figure 4-7. A comparison of the close-hole Figure 4-8. Pellet mill roller assembly.
pattern die versus the standard hole pattern die.

In Figure 4-9 you can see the correct method of

installing and adjusting the rolls. The eccentric
shafts “A” are rotated to move the rolls toward or
away from the die surface in order to maintain the
correct running clearance between the die face and
the rolls. As shown, the rolls should always be
adjusted in the opposite direction to the die
rotation in order to prevent any possible damage to
the die face, such as roll-over of the holes.

Figure 4-9. Correct method of installing and

adjusting rolls.

Pellet mill rolls

Figure 4-8 shows a sectional view of a typical
pellet mill roller assembly. The shell is mounted on
two opposed heavy-duty tapered roller bearings and
held in place on the shaft with an arrangement of
collars and locknuts. The seals are the metal
labyrinth type, which retain the grease inside the
roller assembly, but there is enough clearance
between the seals and the shaft to allow some
grease to escape if over-greasing occurs. This is
because the roller assemblies are greased from the
rear of the pellet mill while it is in operation. The
roller shaft has an eccentric built into its design,
which allows the rolls to be adjusted and maintain The rolls should be adjusted to allow a minimum
the correct clearance between the die and the rolls. clearance of approximately 0.051 cm between the
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 4: Pellet Mill Die and Roll Design

rolls and the die face at all times. There should However, they are probably the most commonly-
never be any metal-to-metal contact between the die used shell today, and are used in a multiple of
and rolls, other than a skip-touch when a new die is different applications due to their excellent all-
installed. A skip-touch is due to the eccentricity of around performance.
the die face caused by the heat-treatment process.
This is probably the most critical adjustment made Helical closed-end corrugated shells feature two
to the pellet mill to allow for correct operation and helices which can be used either as a pair in tandem
maximum performance and avoid damaging the die by using one of either helix to create a natural
and rolls. opposition. The helix design tends to push the feed
material across the die face towards the outer edges,
so they are especially useful in assisting dies that
Roller shells are experiencing feed distribution problems or
Roller shells are typically manufactured from a uneven wear across the die face. Due to being cut
Timken-grade bearing steel that is heat-treated and at a helical angle, the corrugations partially pass
through hardened to a Rockwell hardness of 60 to around the contour of the roller shell face in the
62 Rc. Roller shells come in many different form of a curve, which ensures that a multiple of
configurations (see Figure 4-10), and the correct corrugations are in close contact with the die face at
design must be chosen to suit a particular the same time, resulting in a smoother operation
application if maximum performance is to be than with the straight corrugated shells. These
expected. Each geometric design is engineered to shells can be used in similar applications to the
provide maximum production of feed through a die, straight closed-end corrugated shells.
while ensuring reliable traction on the die face.
Several geometric variations are available to suit the Figure 4-10. Roller shells in various
requirements of each different application. configurations.

Open-end corrugated shells feature narrow

corrugations which run horizontally across the roller
shell face. They have more corrugations than any
other shell, making it ideal for some applications
that suffer from chronic roll slip, but they are
generally used with high-fiber materials such as
dairy and cattle feeds. Closed-end corrugated shells
have a gently sloping corrugation shape that is
closed off at the shell edges to promote effective
use of the outside rows of holes in the die. The
closed ends keep the feed material trapped on the
die face to prevent well-conditioned materials that
contain a lot of moisture from escaping at the
outside edges. By retarding the natural tendency of
some feed formulations to work towards the
grooves on each side of the die working face, the
closed-end roller shell assists in promoting more
even die face wear. Dimpled shells have a series of specially-designed
holes machined into the roller face surface. These
These shells are available in different corrugated shells are available with a shallow or a deep dimple,
widths and depths to suit different applications. depending on the application. They have excellent
This type of roller shell is generally used for well- wear characteristics due to the increased surface
conditioned, high grain rations such as poultry and area of metal as compared to the corrugated shell.
pig formulas as they provide excellent traction.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 4: Pellet Mill Die and Roll Design

They do not provide as much traction as the

corrugated shell. However, they are susceptible to
roll slip with certain feed materials. They are
generally used for applications such as high mineral
cattle feed concentrates or supplements, and are also
used for some high-fiber, abrasive-type materials
applications.

Tungsten carbide shells are created by using the

same steel as the other shells, except that tungsten
carbide particles are deposited into a molten bed of
welding material that is being simultaneously
deposited onto the roller shell surface. The molten
material then solidifies and captures the tungsten
carbide particles and holds them in place. These
shells are used in extremely abrasive applications,
where the other types of shells discussed here would
wear out too quickly. These shells normally have
long life and superior wear-resistance qualities.
They are used to pellet materials that contain low-
ground crops, which contain sand and dirt, or with
high mineral cattle feeds. Extreme care should be
taken when adjusting rolls that have this type of
shell fitted. If the roll is adjusted too tight against
the die face, the tungsten carbide surface of the
roller shells will grind the die face and cause
damage and rapid wear to occur.

Mr. Ron Turner is a Feed Pelleting Consultant.

This content was edited and reviewed by Dr.

Charles Stark, Jim and Carol Brown Associate
Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
University, Dr. Cassandra Jones, Assistant
Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
University, and Dr. Adam Fahrenholz, Assistant
Professor of Feed Milling at North Carolina State
University.
 Pellet line layout and design:
A systems approach
BY RICHARD KOBETZ, P.E.

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY CASSANDRA JONES, CHARLES STARK, AND ADAM FAHRENHOLZ

plant, will impact the rated efficiency of the

In new plant construction there may be little
equipment and the overall throughput of the facility.
concern or focus on developing a detailed layout for As part of the optimization analysis, the initial
the pellet line because space in the new structure calculations for equipment sizing are based on
seems unlimited. In renovations, the pellet mill is meeting the target production requirements during a
often selected on the basis of meeting increasing single shift. This approach ensures that the system
production demand—with “equipment layout” is in balance and can easily accommodate additional
reduced to shoehorning the new unit into wherever hours (up to three full shifts) without bottlenecks or
it will fit in the existing plant. the unplanned replacement of undersized
equipment.
A new or upgraded pelleting system is more than
the pellet mill. It needs to be a well-balanced, fully- An efficiency analysis for a pelleting system will
integrated pelleted feed manufacturing system, include the type and characteristics of the feed; how
incorporating the upstream and downstream easily the formula is pelleted; desired level of pellet
component equipment, and encompassing all of the durability; number of formulas; tonnage per run;
storage, processing and transfer equipment from the and the actual number of tonnes delivered to the
feed cleaner to the finished product bins. finished feed bins versus the number of tonnes
through the pellet mill. The analysis must also
Whether a pellet line is to be configured for a new account for where and how liquids are added;
facility, integrated into an existing plant or when an whether product is screened; how fines are
existing pellet mill is being replaced with a larger generated; the volume of fines; and how fines will
unit, thorough analysis and detailed planning— be recycled or disposed of.
undertaken before purchasing the pellet mill—can
save money up front on the equipment and In addition, consideration must be given to the
structures; reduce labor and operating costs; number of die changes and time required for die
eliminate potential bottlenecks; and make future changeovers; the time needed to clear the system
upgrades and expansions easier and more cost- and reset routing for the next formula; the impact on
effective. efficiency of the size and number of pellet mill
surge bins; and the level of plant automation. All of
these factors affect equipment efficiency and,
Optimum sizing of pelleting system equipment subsequently, the optimum size of the equipment.
Generally, most managers and operators know what
size pellet mill they need based on the number of For example, compare the efficiency of two 40
tonnes of product to be manufactured during a fixed tonne-per-hour (TPH) pellet mills—one installed in
number of hours. Optimum sizing of equipment a single-species plant and one in a multi-species
requires further analysis, determining how a variety feed mill. The single-species plant runs six broiler
of factors, specific and unique to each individual feed formulas with an average production run of
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 5: Pellet Line Layout and Design
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 5: Pellet Line Layout and Design

200 tonnes; there are two surge bins over the pellet After establishing the optimum size of the
mill and minimal die changes. The multi-species equipment, the designer can commence the layout
plant manufactures an array of products, including process. Unless there is an unusually long delivery
textured horse and swine feed for commercial and lead time, it should not be necessary to select a
retail customers. There are 90 formulas and the specific pellet mill until the design is complete. The
longest run is 10 tonnes. The plant has two surge designer should use a general dimensional footprint
bins over the pellet mill, multiple die changes per in the preliminary design that will accommodate
day and stringent flushing requirements between any manufacturer’s comparably-sized machine
production runs. The calculated efficiency of the 40 (including belt-driven units), enabling management
TPH pellet mill is about 85-95% in the single- to solicit competitive bids for the equipment.
species plant, while the efficiency for the multi-
species facility could be as low as 35% and may
never be more than 70%. This illustrates how just a Steel vs. concrete—does it matter?
few factors can substantially reduce the rated In new construction, the choice of steel versus
capacity of the equipment. concrete for the mill tower structure does not impact
the layout of equipment, but in an existing facility
Why perform an optimization analysis? The the type of structure can make a lot of difference. It
optimization calculations result in an analysis that may be easier to retrofit additional equipment or
more accurately depicts the actual plant operations larger equipment into a steel mill structure. In
and allows the designer to more closely define the general, the interior of this type of tower is more
required processing rate for the equipment. In open because it utilizes discrete columns versus
many situations, an optimization analysis indicates load-bearing interior walls. A steel frame metal-
that a smaller capacity unit will perform clad tower offers flexibility and several options for
satisfactorily. And selecting smaller, optimally- expansion. Siding can be removed and wall
sized equipment saves money on major process sections can be extended to create needed clearance
equipment, the corresponding up and downstream for higher-capacity equipment, bigger motors and
equipment and the structure. drives or new conveying systems.

Optimization analysis also ensures that equipment In major plant expansions, a new parallel tower can
isn’t undersized for a particular application and that be framed and portions of the siding of the existing
production capacity can be met within the targeted tower removed to create larger open areas that
hours of operation—avoiding overtime and eliminate walls between the old and new towers.
additional shifts. Determining the optimum size for When modifying a steel structure to accommodate
system equipment also includes evaluating how the the equipment layout, or for any other reason, it is
system will grow with the business. In some essential to maintain the integrity of the major
situations it may be prudent, and more cost- columns. Beams and the lateral bracing should be
effective, to specify a larger piece of equipment designed to resist wind and seismic loads. Random
than needed at start-up if the initial cost is less than cutting, removal or alteration of any structural
the cost of upgrading at a later date. components, without consulting a structural
engineer, should be avoided.
Layout of pelleting equipment One of the major unsung benefits of an existing
In the equipment layout stage, the primary focus is concrete structure is its inherent structural integrity.
on the configuration of the core pelleting equipment Utilizing the excess structural capacity of the
and any specialty processes directly related to slipformed tower may allow the full or partial
pelleting, followed by the layout of the upstream support of new surge bins, prefabricated structures,
and downstream equipment that service the process and transfer equipment and service
pelleting system. platforms. This approach eliminates or minimizes
the cost and space requirements for structural steel-
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 5: Pellet Line Layout and Design

support framing for the new equipment and to accommodate the excavation.
structures.
The second layout option is the mill tower
A concrete structure does not offer the same foundation at grade and the pellet mill at 6-9 meters
flexibility as a steel structure, and removing above grade. When site restrictions, such as a high
reinforced concrete is difficult and costly. Annex water table or owner preference, dictate building the
towers cannot be constructed as close to existing mill tower foundation at grade, the pellet mill will
towers because of the amount of space needed be located about 6-9 meters above grade.
around the new tower to accommodate the Generally, the control room, micro system, hand-
slipforming process. In general, it is not structurally add station and the working micro-storage area will
efficient or cost-effective to remove large sections also be located on this level to enhance operational
of slipformed wall to create open areas between the efficiency. Since this level is not accessible by
two structures. forklift, it is necessary to add a freight elevator for
transferring bags and totes of micro-ingredients,
equipment parts and maintenance gear to the work
Location of pellet mill: New facilities floor. This configuration allows the designer to
In new facilities, the location of the pellet mill is a create an efficient equipment layout, with minimum
major factor in the overall design of the structure ductwork, and easy access to the pellet mill and
and equipment layout. There are three basic layouts pellet leg for operation and maintenance. The at-
and elevations for locating the pellet mill, but owner grade structure is more flexible and it is easier and
preference and site conditions dictate the final less expensive to expand since it requires no
configuration. excavation. Separating the control room and work
floor from the receiving and load-out areas, which
The first layout option is the mill tower with full requires several flights of stairs, may be considered
basement/pellet mill at grade or warehouse floor a drawback. The freight elevator also adds capital
level. This layout is common in older plants and is cost and additional costs in yearly maintenance.
based on placing the pellet mill, control room,
micro-ingredient system and hand-add station at The third new layout option is to have the mill
grade. Less manpower is required because the tower with partial basement and pellet mill at 3-4.5
major work areas are clustered together on one level meters above warehouse level. This hybrid, split-
and more tasks can be handled by fewer people. level approach ties the mill tower and warehouse
Forklifts can drive up to the micro system to deliver area together with a mezzanine and a shallow
ingredients, and can also drive up to the pellet mill basement. The basement, where the cooler and
for die changes or maintenance. When the pellet crumbler are located, can be open on two sides.
mill is placed at grade, the cooler and crumbler are This layout looks like a recessed, but open, work
placed in the basement. The cooler cyclones and area in the warehouse floor. The depth of the
fan may also be located in the basement. Placing recessed work area is between 2-3.7 meters and the
these units in the basement minimizes the length of depth is dependent on the topography and the
the dirty-side ductwork and better insulates the desired warehouse dock height. The pellet mill is
cyclones with respect to temperate changes. While located on a mezzanine that is open to the
the cost for concrete and steel for a deep basement warehouse. The control room and microsystem are
may be about the same as the foundation for an at- also located on this level. Micro-ingredients are
grade mill tower, more excavation is needed for the stored in the warehouse and these ingredients, as
deep basement, which increases the cost. Deep well as the dies, rolls and parts, are placed on the
basement structures lack flexibility for expansion. mezzanine by forklift. This layout increases the
There may be little or no space in the basement to plant efficiency by opening up the areas housing the
add larger equipment or a second line, and no easy, pellet mill, cooler and ingredient storage for easy
direct access to the basement. In older plants, there access and monitoring.
may be no available space to expand the structure or
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 5: Pellet Line Layout and Design

Renovations: Addition of new pellet lines and

equipment upgrades Space for upgrading or adding new pelleting
Over the years, some plants have been designed to equipment can also be created by relocating other
accommodate the future addition of one or more processes. For example the grinding, steaming and
pellet lines. From a structural standpoint, the flaking equipment may be relocated to other areas
installation has been simplified; however, it is still of the plant or housed in new, lower-cost structures
essential to validate the sizing of the upstream and located close to the grain storage area.
downstream equipment established in the original
plan since plants are sold, the types and volumes of When the new equipment is too large to reinstall in
feed may be different and the hours of operation place of the existing system, every option should be
and management philosophy may have changed. explored for locating the equipment within the
confines or footprint of the existing plant structures.
There are plants where the original pellet line is This approach can be cost-effective since it takes
removed or where the second or third line is never advantage of the foundations, as well as the
installed. Although it is prudent to plan for sheltering capabilities and excess structural capacity
expansion, it is also important to evaluate the cost of the existing buildings.
of this under-utilized space. While flexibility is
highly desirable, and every effort should be made in Warehouses adjoining the mill tower offer several
the design phase to create a plant that can be options in an expansion scenario. Space taken from
expanded, consideration should also be given to the warehouse area to accommodate plant
alternate approaches for adding a pellet line if and expansion is generally easier and less expensive to
when it is needed. replace by expanding the warehouse (and often
raising the warehouse roof) than by adding onto the
As noted earlier, there is often little available space plant or constructing a free-standing tower.
within an existing plant in which to place new Mezzanines can be erected within the warehouse to
equipment. When capacity is an issue and a smaller accommodate a new or additional pellet mill line.
pellet line can be replaced with higher-capacity This approach takes advantage of both the existing
equipment—for example upgrading to 40 from 20 warehouse foundation and the supporting capacity
tonnes per hour—the conditioner, feeder and pellet of the mill tower structure. In some situations, it is
mill can, in many cases, be retrofitted in place of the feasible to raze several roof sections on the
old equipment. warehouse and found a new processing tower to
house the equipment stack for all of the pelleting
The challenge in many pellet system renovations is equipment. The warehouse may also be a feasible
to provide optimal surge capacity for the upgraded area for locating or relocating coolers, dryers and
equipment, and in some cases older plants do not micro-ingredient systems—provided that the
have pellet mill surge bins. In either case, the warehouse can be expanded to accommodate any
existing mill tower usually isn’t configured lost storage space.
structurally to add or upgrade the surge bins. In
these situations, the first option is to look at the Designing a new pellet line to be housed in a new
ingredient storage bins to determine whether one or structure and tied back into the existing plant is
two bins can be utilized for surge capacity. more expensive than an equipment retrofit or an
Subsequent options include hanging one or more expansion performed within the confines of the old
bins on the side of the existing structure; erecting facility; however, in many cases, it may be the only
new bins outside the main tower and conveying the option. A self-contained pelleting tower offers
feed back into the pellet mill; or adapting an more layout flexibility, but it also incurs major costs
existing load-out bin (or adding a bin to the load-out for a new foundation and tower structure, as well as
group) and transferring the feed back to the pellet added costs for such items as electrical, piping and
mill. process control. A remote pelleting system located
outside the main tower may require additional
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 5: Pellet Line Layout and Design

manpower to monitor the operation or investment in or in combination ahead of the pelleting system.
a pellet mill controller. In any of these applications, These units include ripening kettles, compactors,
it is essential to keep the cooler immediately in line expanders, single- and twin-shaft conditioning
with the pellet mill and minimize product cylinders and multiple conditioning cylinders—as
degradation by eliminating any unnecessary well as insulated or jacketed conditioning cylinders.
handling or transfer of hot pellets. While the footprint of these devices is usually not
larger than the pellet mill, their height makes a
significant impact on the design of the structure and
Structural considerations the layout of equipment.
The pellet mill is a heavy, dynamic piece of process
equipment. While it is possible to mount a pellet Compactors, expanders and other equipment that
mill on a steel frame with a steel deck, the optimum function by placing mash feed under extremely high
design will place the pellet mill on a concrete floor pressures are ruggedly built and quite heavy.
slab at least 15 centimeters thick. When a steel Ripening kettles and cylinder conditions are lighter,
frame is used, it should be designed with a concrete but hold a larger volume of feed. In addition to the
floor slab. In either situation, the concrete—in weight of the equipment, it is also important to
addition to a vibration dampening pad supplied by consider the weight of the feed in the unit.
the equipment manufacturer—will absorb and Structural design of the supports for this type of
dampen vibrations from the pellet mill. This equipment should be based on a plugged condition.
approach keeps potentially harmful vibrations from Many existing structures do not have enough height
being transferred to the structure and improves between floors to incorporate a conditioning device
working conditions by reducing noise in the plant above the pellet mill. While it is more economical
and vibrations in the work floor. to build, maintain and operate the integrated system
if the various components are stacked vertically and
are closely coupled, it is still feasible to design a
Equipment access and ergonomic issues
functional horizontal layout. For example, a
Good layout design focuses on making the compactor or other conditioning device could be
equipment accessible for ease of operation, located adjacent, and as close as possible, to the
observation, cleaning and maintenance. Equipment pellet mill. Mash feed would be routed from the
doors should open to the appropriate side and have surge bin to the conditioning unit via a feeder
adequate space to swing out of the way. The area screw, and conditioned mash feed could be
around the pellet mill also needs to be generous transferred to the pellet mill feeder from the
enough to store multiple dies and accommodate die- conditioner outlet via a screw conveyor. The
changing equipment. Work areas and service horizontal approach also enables the use of multiple
platforms should be sized to accommodate one to in-line conditioning techniques, and may be more
two workers and their tools, and should provide flexible for the future addition or reconfiguration of
enough space in which to accomplish the tasks. equipment as processing theories and technologies
Cleaning, maintenance and observation of the are advanced.
process equipment are performed more easily, and
therefore more frequently, when the platforms are Incorporating vertically-stacked conditioning
accessible by stairs or standard service ladders and equipment over a pellet mill in a new structure adds
when hoists and service beams are incorporated into to the capital cost of the project. This is considering
the layout. the labor, construction materials and the additional
cost to increase contingent items—like the height of
the elevator legs and manlift, wiring, piping and
Preconditioning and conditioning equipment
ducting. Except for steam or water (and
layout
molasses in certain types of dairy and horse pellets)
There is a variety of mash conditioning and liquids are generally not introduced into the
preconditioning devices that may be installed singly conditioning chamber. And adding fat at the
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 5: Pellet Line Layout and Design

conditioner, even in small amounts, can affect pellet where a horizontal cooler would not fit; and ease of
durability. Currently, fat and enzymes are the most maintenance. In new construction there are few
common post-pelleting liquid additions; molasses layout issues. In renovations, the counterflow
addition is normally part of a separate texturing cooler is fairly flexible, although it is often
process. necessary to place the unit in basements or other
areas with limited access. One of the benefits of
Gravimetric and volumetric blending systems are this type of cooler is that it is easy to disassemble
the primary method used for downstream and reassemble when needed for difficult
application of liquid fat and liquid enzymes. installations.
Enzymes are added at much lower inclusion rates
than fat and need to be added as accurately as Incorporating a crumbler into a new or existing
possible. In most situations, enzymes are sprayed system generally does not pose much of a problem
into the blending system immediately ahead of the in layout. Ideally, the crumbler should be closely
liquid fat. These systems should be located after the coupled to the cooler outlet. However, in a retrofit,
last elevation of the pelleted feed, and as close as the unit could be placed almost anywhere without
possible to the inlet of the finished feed storage bins affecting the process flow or product quality.
to minimize the build-up of fat in the process and
transfer equipment. While the height and length of
the equipment are important in the development of Upstream and downstream equipment
the layout, there is some flexibility in locating a An upgrade in pelleting capacity can affect the
blender and the dimensions are not as critical as functioning of both the upstream and downstream
finding the right type of equipment. equipment. Upstream equipment must be capable
In most climates, the fat application system should of processing and delivering ingredients to the
not be located prior to any elevation because of the pelleting system and the downstream equipment
potential for fat to migrate through the plant. Even needs to be sized to process, distribute and transfer
at moderate levels of fat addition, fat applied before pelleted feed. Although the focus of this chapter is
the bucket elevator will build-up in the cups, casing on equipment layout relative to the pellet mill, it is
and belting, creating a regular housekeeping important to note that a change of any magnitude to
problem and increasing the potential for one of the processing systems should trigger a
contamination and biosecurity issues. Similarly, validation review of the overall plant equipment
migration issues occur with fat-at-the-die capacities from receiving and ingredient storage
application systems, and even at levels of 4%, fat through finished feed storage and load-out.
build-up becomes a problem in the pellet cooler and
the pellet cooler air system. All transfer equipment should be checked for
capacity. Existing equipment may need to be
altered or adjusted, fitted with new motors and/or
Pellet cooling and crumbling drives or replaced. The type of conveyances, gates
and distribution devices should be evaluated with
Vertical coolers are generally not used in new respect to capacity, product handling characteristics
construction and renovation. Years ago, horizontal and contamination issues and then adjusted,
coolers were placed in deep basements and upgraded or replaced to create a balanced transfer
additional sections were added to increase capacity system commensurate with the new products and
until the unit was literally up against the wall. The production rates.
layout problem posed by the length of the horizontal
cooler was often solved by relocating the horizontal A rotary screener (or similar device) sized to the
unit to the warehouse. capacity of the mixing system should be located
before the pellet mill surge bins to remove whole
Counterflow coolers became popular because of kernels of corn, or bolts or other items that could
lower cost; the ability to retrofit them into spaces affect pellet quality or damage the die. Many pellet
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 5: Pellet Line Layout and Design

mills come with a magnet positioned between the The analysis and layout of pelleting systems,
final feeder and the pellet mill conditioner. This whether in new or existing facilities, focus as much
provides good protection, but only as long as the on controlling cost and maximizing the capital
magnet is cleaned on a regular basis. To be certain investment in structures and equipment as they do
that there is adequate protection, a magnet should on finding the appropriate space for installing the
also be located immediately before or after the last equipment. Taking the time to do the math, layout
elevation to the pellet mill surge bin. This the process and balance the upstream and
placement is often dependent on owner/manager downstream components can save money up-front
preference. As additional insurance, there should on the equipment and structures, reduce labor and
be no bypass around either the magnet or the feed operating costs, eliminate potential bottlenecks and
cleaner. If the feed cleaner malfunctions, standard make future upgrades and expansions easier and
operating procedure should require that the process more cost-effective.
be stopped and repairs made to the cleaner. No feed
should be allowed to go to the pellet mill surge bin Mr. Richard Kobetz received his MSCE and BSCE
without passing through the magnet and feed degrees from Michigan Technological University.
cleaner. He is a licensed professional engineer in 28 states
Good equipment layout makes an effort to and three Canadian provinces, with certification by
minimize the amount of dirty-side duct between the the National Council of Examiners for Engineering
cooler outlet and cyclone inlet to minimize any & Surveying for reciprocation in additional states.
build-up in the ducting. While ducting requires a In 1982, Kobetz founded Sunfield Engineering Inc.,
substantial amount of space in both new an independent consulting firm located in
construction and renovation, physical restrictions Michigan. www.sunfield.com
can be overcome by adapting the aerodynamics of
an air ducting system with options like rectangular This content was edited and reviewed by Dr.
ducts with interior vanes and increasing horsepower Cassandra Jones, Assistant Professor of Feed
to compensate for loss in static pressure. Technology at Kansas State University, Dr. Charles
While it’s good to have the boiler close to the tower Stark, Jim and Carol Brown Associate Professor of
and the pellet mill, it is not always practical for a Feed Technology at Kansas State University, and
variety of reasons—even in new construction. The Dr. Adam Fahrenholz, Assistant Professor of Feed
boiler location is not a major layout issue, and any Milling at North Carolina State University.
additional cost for longer runs of steam piping and
insulation are not enough to dictate the location.
What is important in the design is sizing the boiler,
steam line and accessories to ensure that water is
removed from the steam line prior to injecting it
into conditioner, and that saturated, low-pressure
steam is readily available at the conditioner to
provide the most efficient transfer of heat from the
steam to the mash feed.

In general, the electrical, piping and process control

installation are flexible and have little effect on
equipment layout. In some older plants, and in
Canada, the use of cable trays instead of conduit can
conflict with equipment placement, making it
important for the electrical engineer, the installer
and the plant designer to work closely on the layout.
 Principles of mash conditioning
BY KEITH C. BEHNKE, PH.D. AND ANGIE GILPIN

REVISED AND EDITED BY ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, CHARLES STARK, AND CASSANDRA JONES

influence pellet quality and the relative importance

As the term “conditioning” implies, it is common of each factor. Reimer (1992) proposed that the
to modify the physical properties of mash before it primary factors controlling pellet quality are:
is delivered to the pellet die chamber. Most Formulation (40%), fineness of grind (20%), steam
commonly, conditioning involves the addition of conditioning (20%), die selection (15%) and
steam to the mash; however, conditioning may also cooling/drying (5%). The percentage figures
involve the addition of liquids such as water, following each item represent the relative
molasses, pellet binders or, in some cases, indirect contribution of that factor to overall pellet quality.
heat (jacket heat). All of these things are done for It is important to note that by combining the
the primary purpose of improving pellet quality influences of formulation and grind, 60% of the
and/or pellet mill throughput. potential pellet quality is determined before the
mash even reaches the pellet mill. If true, it is
For purposes of this chapter, the conditioning obvious that quality problems can’t always be
process will include any addition to the mash after it solved by modifying the conditioning process or
leaves the mixer, but before it reaches the pellet die using a thicker die.
chamber. Traditionally, processes like expanding
and compacting have been treated separately from When dealing only with the pelleting system, it is
conditioning; however, the purpose of these apparent that conditioning is the most important
processes is, like conditioning, to improve pellet factor that influences pellet quality. If done
quality and pellet mill throughput. correctly, proper conditioning allows the use of the
thinnest possible die and, therefore, the greatest
potential throughput. Though conditioning is far
Pellet quality and conditioning more important than die or roll selection, it is a
process that is often overlooked, and certainly not
Pellet quality is an abstract term that means
well understood by many feed manufacturers.
different things to the various segments of our
industry. In general terms, pellet quality refers to
the ability of feed pellets to withstand mechanical
handling without excessive breakage and fines Conditioning defined
generation. The confusion comes in determining The conditioning process, at least for our purposes,
what level of fines or breakages is acceptable. For includes any processing or additions made to the
example, the commercial feed industry often mash after it leaves the mixer, but before it reaches
assigns a much higher value to pellet quality (low the pellet die chamber. Therefore, “conditioning”
fines) than do integrators who manufacture feeds may include steam and/or water addition,
for their own use. expanding, compacting, pre-pelleting, “ripening”
and so on. While only steam conditioning will be
If we operate on the assumption that pellet quality is addressed in some detail, it should be understood
important, the next issue is to develop an that anything done during the conditioning process
understanding of the factors in the process that is done to prepare the mash for final processing

Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning

Chapter 6: Principles of Mash Conditioning
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 6: Principles of Mash Conditioning
(pelleting). Whatever the type of conditioning Steam formation
employed, it should be optimized to give the best To understand steam formation, we can use an
pellet quality at a reasonable rate, without imaginary experiment in which we place 0.5 kg of
significant destruction of available nutrients or feed ice water (0°C) into a perfectly insulated container.
additives. On top of the water, we place a weightless,
frictionless piston. The ice water, for our purposes,
is assumed to have zero heat content or “enthalpy.”
Steam: Introduction
Steam is a commonly-used input in many feed As heat is applied to the water, its temperature
manufacturing operations, yet is poorly understood begins to rise. We can continue to heat the water
and often mismanaged. In large facilities, steam until its temperature is 100°C with no change in the
generation and its use represent a very significant state of the water (i.e., it is still a liquid). If any
cost, but is often a cost to which little attention is additional heat is added to the water, it can no
paid until a problem arises. Even in small facilities, longer exist only as a liquid and some of the water
steam generation can represent a significant part of will be converted to vapor (steam).
manufacturing costs and, if left uncontrolled, can
have serious implications for the bottom line. Much The total heat (enthalpy) held by the liquid water at
of the following discussion will be a review for the boiling temperature is known as “sensible” heat
many people; however, it is necessary to have a and is denoted by the symbol hf. The additional
solid understanding of the basics before one can heat added that results in evaporation into steam is
really deal with the practical issues involved in called “latent” heat and is denoted by the symbol
steam conditioning. hfg. The total heat (hg) in each 0.5 kg of steam is the
sum of latent heat plus the sensible heat and is
shown by the equation:
Steam defined
hg = hfg + hf
Like many other substances, water can exist in the
form of a solid (ice), liquid (water) or vapor If enough heat is added, the 0.5 kg of water will be
(steam). For purposes of this discussion, we will converted to 0.5 kg of steam at atmospheric
focus on only the liquid and vapor phases and the pressure. The volume that the steam will occupy is
transition of one phase to the other. As heat energy tremendous compared to that of water; in fact, the
is added to water, its temperature rises until the steam volume will be 1,650 times that of the water.
water can no longer exist as a liquid. From this It is obvious that water molecules are held together
“saturation” point, any additional heat added to the more closely in the liquid phase than in the vapor
water will cause some water to boil off as steam. phase. If the pressure on the piston in our
imaginary cylinder was to increase, the water
This evaporation requires a huge amount of energy molecules in the liquid would find it more difficult
per unit weight of water vaporized. It is on this to move to the vapor phase. Therefore, more
principle that so-called “swamp coolers” are based energy (heat) input would be required to force the
(i.e., heat in the air is used to evaporate water in the evaporation, and the temperature of the water would
pad, thus cooling the air). By the same token, if we have to increase beyond 100°C. This is exactly
surround a relatively cool object (e.g., a particle of what happens in a boiler operated at an elevated
corn) with steam, steam will release energy to the pressure.
object and condense onto the surface of the object.

If the reader fully understands the concepts of

Steam pressure
moving heat energy into and out of water vapor and
of using steam to transport huge quantities of heat As heat is applied to the water in a closed system
to a needed location, the remaining concepts are (i.e., a boiler) the water temperature rises. As the
easily mastered. temperature rises above 100°C, the “vapor
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 6: Principles of Mash Conditioning
pressure” of the water is increased beyond high-pressure steam. This is in contrast to results
atmospheric pressure. This pressure is uniformly published by Leaver (1988), who stated that high-
distributed over all of the surfaces of our closed pressure steam was more advantageous with these
vessel. If the water level is maintained at say 80% diets than was low-pressure steam.
of the vessel capacity, the “head” space will be
filled with steam at the same temperature as the Yet others, such as Thomson (1968), believe that
water. By referring to Table 6-1, the relationship of the total energy in either high- or low-pressure
pressure and temperature can be determined. steam is similar enough that it should make little
difference as to which is used. To verify this point,
Table 6-1. Properties of saturated steam. Stevens (1987) completed a study comparing the
Pressure, psi 0 20 80 use of steam at 138 kPa (20 psi) and 552 kPa (80
Pressure, kPa 0 138 552 psi) to condition mash to 65°C. A swine diet
Temperature, consisting of primarily 72.4% corn or wheat was
100 126 162 used in the study. Results indicated no significant
°C
Specific differences in production rate, mill efficiency, pellet
1.67 0.75 0.29
volume, m3/kg quality, percent fines or moisture addition at the
Sensible heat, hf 418.9 529.3 684.3 conditioner for the two diets at these pressures.
Latent heat, hfg 2,257.5 2,185.4 2,076.0 Research by Briggs, et al. (1999) agreed with these
Total heat, hg 2,676.5 2,714.7 2,760.3 results in a study also comparing the effects of 138
The above properties were sourced from ASME, kPa (20 psi) and 552 kPa (80 psi) steam on poultry
1967. diets. If the control valve, piping size and system
design are sufficient to give good control, actual
In processing, pressure is typically measured in steam pressure is of little consequence.
gauge rather than absolute pressure. Gauge
pressure is zero at standard atmospheric conditions
(sea level), and is typically the value seen on Steam quality
process gauges (hence the name.) It is important Steam quality is simply defined as the percentage of
when using steam tables to use those denoting the steam-water mixture in a steam system that is in
gauge pressure, or to do the necessary conversions the vapor phase. In other words, if in 0.5 kg of
to get accurate results. For the purposes of steam-water mixture, 0.45 kg is vapor and 0.05 kg
discussions here, gauge pressures are used is liquid, steam quality is described as 90%. The
throughout. importance of steam quality is that it is an
indication that enough heat has been lost from the
It is obvious that as heat is added to the system, the system to condense 10% of the steam vapor back to
pressure rises directly with the temperature It is a liquid phase. This heat loss represents not only a
also interesting to look at the relationship between significant loss in energy costs, but can result in
pressure and specific volume. At 0 kPa (0 psi) pelleting problems if the balance between mash
gauge pressure, 0.5 kg of steam occupies 0.84 m3, moisture and the conditioning temperature is wrong.
but at 552 kPag (80 psi), that same 0.5 kg of steam
occupies only 0.15 m3. It is this relationship that is Energy conservation is the topic of another chapter,
useful in determining pipe and valve sizes, as well so the impact of energy loss will not be discussed
as insulation costs for a given installation. Though further. However, because steam quality can have a
the thermodynamic properties of saturated steam at significant impact on pelleting, particularly if it
a given temperature and pressure are well varies, it is worth considering in any discussion of
documented, the debate still continues as to what conditioning. As an example, 0.5 kg of steam at
pressure results in the best pellet quality and mill 100°C has 1.2 X 106 J of total heat, while 0.5 kg of
performance for a given feed type. MacBain (1966) water at 100°C has only 1.9 X 105 J of total heat—
presented data to show that low-pressure steam or 84% less heat than the steam. If one attempts to
produced a higher quality pellet with greater condition to a particular temperature, say 82°C, the
throughput on high-starch formulas compared with
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 6: Principles of Mash Conditioning
mash can become far too wet to pellet if poor- interact is critical to the understanding and
quality steam is used. management of a pelleting system. See Chapter 9
for more information on atmospheric conditioning.
A review of the literature indicates a general
agreement that high-quality steam is recommended Water addition during conditioning
for efficiently producing a durable pellet (MacBain, It is well recognized that water is a critical
1966; Skoch, et al., 1981; Stark, 1990; Maier and component in the bonding that takes place during
Gardecki, 1993). Despite this, there is little pellet formation. In typical pelleting, the only water
published data examining the effects of steam added is in the form of steam. It is the authors’
quality on pellet durability or pellet production. opinion that the pelleting process is done with less
Wet steam, or that which has a quality less than than optimum moisture at least six to eight months
100%, is known to contain less energy than of each year in most regions of the US. In areas
saturated steam; therefore, using wet steam requires where local corn is the predominant grain, excess
that a larger quantity be added to reach a target moisture may be experienced as new crop grain
conditioning temperature. Taking this a step begins to arrive. However, as the crop year
further, it can be reasoned that moisture addition to proceeds, drier grain is received as stored grain
the mash should increase as steam quality enters the market.
decreases. Steam quality directly affects the
maximum obtainable feed temperature because of Depending upon formulation, optimum conditioned
moisture limits (Reimer and Beggs, 1993). If the mash moisture is in the range of 16.0 to 17.5%, with
pellet mill reaches a choke point before the 4 to 5% coming from conditioning. As a rule, we
conditioning temperature is obtained, adjustments can expect to add 1% moisture to the pellet mash
must be made. This is an area where additional for each 12.5°C increase in mash temperature from
research is needed. steam. If the mash is cool, say 10°C, and we target
85°C as our mash temperature, we will be adding
It should be the objective of every pelleting operator about 6% moisture. If the mash is already at 11-
to use the driest steam possible. If additional 12%, the final mash moisture will be at or above the
moisture is needed, as is often the case, it can be upper level of the range of optimum moisture.
added much more economically as water either in Conversely, if the mash temperature is at 35°C and
the mixer or in the conditioner. Table 6-1 is we target 85°C, we’ll only be adding about 4%
included to help the reader understand the moisture. If the initial mash moisture is 11-12%,
thermodynamic relationship of heat, pressure and the final mash moisture will be at or below the
volume. To appreciate the value and usefulness of lower level of the optimum for pellet quality and
steam in the conditioning process, a reasonable throughput. Both of these situations (or even more
understanding of these relationships is necessary. extreme) can arise depending on the season of the
year and ingredient moisture content.

Conditioning options There are times when we simply can’t reach target
Atmospheric conditioners temperatures before the upper moisture level is met.
The typical conditioner commonly associated with a Other times, when the grain is dry and warm, we
pelleting system is referred to as an “atmospheric simply can’t get enough steam into the mash
conditioner.” As the name implies, these without exceeding target temperatures. Late in the
conditioners operate under atmospheric pressure crop year it is often advantageous to add 1 to 2%
and are typically exposed to ambient conditions. As water during conditioning to improve pellet quality
a rule, the atmospheric conditioner is basically a and production rate. Studies at Kansas State
single cylinder with an agitator shaft. The function University have shown that moisture addition at the
of the conditioner is to provide for the intimate mixer can be highly accurate and can result in
contact and mixing of steam with the pellet mash. substantial improvement in pellet quality (Greer and
An understanding of how steam and pellet mash Fairchild, 1999). The equipment for precise
moisture addition was perfected in applications to
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 6: Principles of Mash Conditioning
the steam flaking operation and can be easily quickly and thoroughly than is possible at
adapted to feed milling operations. The best option atmospheric pressure.
will have to be determined locally through
experimentation. The challenge of getting the mash into and out of a
pressurized vessel is obvious. The exit problem is
Double- or triple-pass conditioner solved by making the die chamber and rollers part
In an effort to extend and control dwell time, of the pressurized area. The inlet uses a spring-
double- or triple-pass conditioners are sometimes loaded pressure plate, forced open by the feed, to
used. Basically, this can be accomplished by contain the pressure.
stacking two or three “standard” conditioners above
the pellet mill. Variable speed drives, multiple Success is conditional
steam injecting points and steam jacketing are The conditioning process is, without doubt, the
options in various designs. most important component of any feed pelleting
system, at least as far as pellet quality is concerned.
A distinct advantage of a double- or triple-pass It is also, perhaps, the least understood component
conditioner over a single, large-volume conditioner by pellet mill operators, many plant managers and
is that some semblance of “first-in-first-out” order even equipment suppliers. It was the purpose of
can be maintained. It is also a relatively economical this chapter to provide insight into some of the less-
choice compared with more exotic conditioning; understood aspects of conditioning and to point out
however, a good deal of head room above the pellet some of the strong points and weak points of each
mill is required, making installation something of a option available.
problem. As an alternative to “stacked”
conditioners, either “twin-shell” or horizontal There is no single conditioning option that is best
double-pass designs can be used. In either case, for all applications and situations. In most cases,
retention time is extended. However, the head room replacement is not an option; therefore, steps taken
needed above the pellet mill is no greater than that to optimize a given installation will result in the
needed for a single-pass conditioner. best pellet quality at the best production rate
possible. It must be remembered, however, that all
Jacketed conditioners factors involved in pellet quality are inter-related
Many attempts have been made to use jacketed and must ultimately be addressed if the process is to
conditioners, conveyors or holding vessels be successful.
(ripeners) with varying success. The basis for this
concept is that, with jacket steam, heat can be
introduced without adding excessive moisture. This References
is certainly a good idea, but is difficult to implement ASME, 1967. Steam tables: Properties of saturated
practically. The typical reason for failure is that the and superheated steam. American Society of
heat is transferred to the mash only at the surface of Mechanical Engineers, New York, New
the barrel. Most often, the surface-to-volume ratio York, USA.
is so low that little heat is actually transferred into
Briggs, J.L., Maier, D.E., Watkins, B.A. and
the mash—particularly in large-volume
Behnke, K.C., 1999. Effects of ingredients
conditioners.
and processing parameters on pellet quality.
Poultry Sci 78:1464-1471.
Pressure conditioning
This concept involves the use of conditioning Greer, D. and Fairchild, F., 1999. Cold mash
chambers operating at elevated pressures. By moisture control boosts pellet quality. Feed
increasing the pressure in the vessel, conditioning Management 50(6):20-21.
temperatures well in excess of 100°C can be Leaver, R.H., 1988. The pelleting process. Sprout-
attained. The reasoning behind the concept follows Bauer, Muncy, Pennsylvania, USA.
the law of thermodynamics and, simply put, forces MacBain, R., 1966. Pelleting animal feed. Regional
the moisture and heat into mash particles more Feed School presentation. American Feed
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 6: Principles of Mash Conditioning
Manufacturers Association, Arlington,
Virginia, USA, 1-28.
Maier, D.E. and Gardecki, J., 1993. Evaluation of
pellet conditioning: Understanding steam.
Feed Management 44(7):15.
Reimer, L., 1992. Conditioning. Northern Crops
Institute Feed Mill Management and Feed
Manufacturing Technology Short Course.
Northern Crops Institute, Fargo, North
Dakota, USA, 7.
Reimer, L.L. and Beggs, W.A., 1993. Making better
pellets: Harnessing steam quality. Feed
Management 44(1):22.
Skoch, E.R., Behnke, K.C., Deyoe, C.W. and
Binder, S.F., 1981. The effect of steam-
conditioning rate on the pelleting process.
Anim Feed Sci Tech 6:83.
Stark, C.R., 1990. Evaluation of pelleted soybean
meal for domestic and international markets.
Master’s thesis. Kansas State University,
Manhattan, Kansas, USA.
Stevens, C.A., 1987. Starch gelatinization and the
influence of particle size, steam pressure and
die speed on the pelleting process. PhD
dissertation. Kansas State University,
Manhattan, Kansas, USA.
Thomson, E.C., 1968. Steam for the pellet mill.
Feed and Farm Supply Dealer. October.

Dr. Keith Behnke is a Professor Emeritus in Feed

Science at Kansas State University. Ms. Angie
Gilpin is the Emporia Plant Engineering Manager
for Hill’s Pet Nutrition.

This content was edited and reviewed by Dr. Adam

Fahrenholz, Assistant Professor of Feed Milling at
North Carolina State University, Dr. Charles Stark,
Jim and Carol Brown Associate Professor of Feed
Technology at Kansas State University, and Dr.
Cassandra Jones, Assistant Professor of Feed
Technology at Kansas State University.
 Critical Steps in Mash Conditioning
BY EUGENIO BORTONE, PH.D, PAS, DPL. ACAS

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, CHARLES STARK, AND CASSANDRA JONES

Even today, with new advances in processing Starch damage

technology such as extrusion, the pelleting process Starch can be broken by mechanical forces during
continues to be the most popular and economical grinding and pelleting. The broken or sheared
method of compounding animal feeds. The most starch granules can be read by the starch
critical step in this process is preconditioning. The gelatinization method as cooked starch. In reality,
quality of the preconditioning process will depend this is not true starch gelatinization but starch
on particle size of the mix; the steam quality; initial damage. During pelleting, damage is mainly caused
moisture content of the mix; meal initial by friction as the mash is compressed and extruded
temperature as it enters the preconditioner; and the through the working area of the die, as has been
residence time in the preconditioner. Longer well documented by several authors (Skoch, 1979;
residence time in the conditioner permits more Stevens, 1987).
penetration of the moisture and better distribution of
heat, which results in better binding of the feed If one wants to measure the actual degree of cook
particles—hence, increasing the pellet hardness that caused by steam conditioning, one must first
can result in a reduction of fines produced. consider the starch damage caused by grinding and
the damage caused during pelleting. The latter can
be done first by establishing a baseline with the
Starch gelatinization mash meal before it is preconditioned and the same
meal after it is preconditioned. The difference
The term gelatinization has been widely used in between the two will be the degree of cook caused
connection with the pelleting process, and more so by exposing the meal to the steam in the
in relation to the production of high-quality pellets. preconditioner. One advantage of the starch
Starch gelatinization is defined as the loss of bi- damage caused during the grinding process is the
refringence, or as the irreversible rupture of the exposure of greater surface area, which in turn can
native secondary bonds in the crystalline region of increase the water absorption of the mix.
the starch granule. According to Hoseney (1986),
the loss of bi-refringence occurs under continuous
heating and excess moisture, which can lead to
increased viscosity and increased swelling (water Steam conditioning
uptake) of the starch granules. The process of adding steam to the mixed meal is
known as preconditioning, or steam conditioning.
It is clear that moisture and temperature are required During this process, the mixed meal is exposed to
to cause the starch granule to gelatinize. Therefore, saturated steam to increase its moisture and
the preconditioner works as a continuous mixer or temperature, which will eventually result in some
chamber in which the meal is moistened and heated starch gelatinization and the activation of other
via saturated steam. This process is time-dependent, binding agents found in the mix. The conditioning
thus the residence time, or the time the meal spends is achieved in a continuous mixer or chamber
passing through the preconditioner, is a major factor known as the preconditioner, or conditioning
for attaining the target moisture and temperature. chamber (see Figure 7-1).
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 7: Critical Steps in Mash Conditioning
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 7: Critical Steps in Mash Conditioning
Figure 7-1. Preconditioner.
Figure 7-3. Shaft speed influences residence
time.

Figure 7-4. Increased shaft speed at same feed

rate.

Preconditioning equipment
The preconditioner (see Figure 7-2) is made up of a
screw feeder that takes the meal from the holding
bin to the conditioner; the paddles, which convey
and expose the meal to the steam being injected; Figure 7-5. Paddle template.
and the exit port, which drops the meal into the
chute or feeding port of the pellet mill.

Figure 7-2. Pelleting overview.

Figure 7-6. Determining configuration of

paddles.

The residence time and the degree of fill in the

preconditioner can be increased by reducing the Figure 7-7. Arranging paddle layout.
speed of the shaft (see Figures 7-3 & 7-4) for the
same feed rate, or changing the pitch angle of the
paddles. To change the angle of the paddles it is
recommended to use a template (see Figure 7-5)
that shows the number of paddles and the location
with respect to the shaft. Once the layout has been
established, the operator then can proceed to change
the paddle configuration (see Figures 7-6 and 7-7).
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 7: Critical Steps in Mash Conditioning
The paddles can be arranged: in a forward Steam
orientation (0 to 90 degrees), which moves the feed An essential part of the preconditioning process is
towards the discharge; in a neutral orientation (0 the addition of steam to moisten and heat the meal.
degrees); in a reverse orientation (0 to -90 degrees), Steam can be classified as saturated, superheated or
which moves feed away from the discharge and “wet” steam. Saturated steam is 100% vapor held at
increases the degree of fill and residence time; or the temperature and pressure representing its
may be set perpendicular to the rotation (90 vaporization point. Superheated steam is also 100%
degrees) to maximize the mixing effect (see Figure vapor, but has a temperature greater than that of its
7-8). vaporization temperature at current pressure. “Wet”
steam contains both vapor and free water. In the
Figure 7-8. Paddle angle maximizes mixing pelleting process, saturated steam is used to increase
effect. the temperature and moisture of the mash via the
process of condensation. The condensation occurs
as a result of the drop in pressure and temperature
as steam enters the conditioning chamber, which is
at atmospheric conditions. As wet steam enters the
conditioning chamber it contacts the colder meal
particles and condenses. During the condensation
process, heat is transferred to the meal, elevating its
temperature.
The best configuration should be one that allows the
mash to fill the center section of the preconditioner.
This can be accomplished by putting some of the Steam quality
paddles in the reverse, some in the neutral and some
in the forward pitch orientation (see Figure 7-9). Steam used in the process of conditioning must be
Immediately after the reverse, and closer to the exit as dry (saturated) as possible. The dryness of steam
port, the paddles should again have a forward pitch describes its quality and is defined as the proportion
to allow the mash to flow out of the conditioner. of water droplets in suspension present in the steam.
Beware that too many paddles in the reverse Reimer and Beggs (1993) reported that when steam
position can cause the preconditioner to overfill and of 80% quality (dryness fraction) was used, mash
overload the drive motor. The configuration of the feed entering the conditioning chamber at 12%
paddles should be one that permits the maximum moisture and 18°C, exited the conditioner chamber
degree of fill, maximum residence time, and a high at 16% moisture and 84°C. However, at 100%
degree of mixing. This encourages constant contact steam quality, the conditioned mash was 91°C.
between the feed particles and the steam being
injected into the chamber. The latter can be explained by looking at steam
tables, which show that wet (unsaturated) steam has
Figure 7-9. Pitch angles. substantially lower energy content than dry,
saturated steam at the same pressure. Therefore, it
is very important to ensure the quality of steam
being delivered to the pelleting system. This can be
accomplished by proper insulation of the steam
lines and having adequate steam traps and
separators.

Steam condensation and molecule binding

When steam condenses, it adds moisture to mash
feed, and at the same time it transfers its energy.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 7: Critical Steps in Mash Conditioning
During this time-dependent process, the starch apply the physical laws to estimate the necessary
granules swell up until they gelatinize. Similarly, amount of time (residence time) to heat and
proteins will start changing their molecular humidify the particles homogeneously. In general,
structure, in some cases becoming more fluid. It is the higher the heat and water diffusivity, the faster
during this process that the binding of molecules the heat and moisture will flow into the particles.
starts, which is responsible for producing high
quality pellets. Because it is a time-dependent Most feeds have high amounts of ingredients such
process, steam conditioners should have enough as corn, sorghum, wheat and their byproducts. One
residence time to allow the particles to hydrate and of the major components of these ingredients is
heat. starch. At ambient temperature, starch has a
thermal diffusivity coefficient 100 times greater
In the pelleting process, the maximum moisture that than the water diffusivity. In simple words, heat
can be attained without causing the pellet mill to transfer is faster than moisture uptake by the starch
plug is about 17%. In contrast, during the extrusion granules. In most preconditioning situations it is
process moistures can be 20% or higher. The possible to heat up the mash to the target
extrusion process is more flexible in the amount of temperature, but it is more difficult to hydrate it to
water it can handle, and this makes it easier to raise the target moisture level because it requires more
the meal moisture and degree of cook to the desired time. The latter is one of the reasons why it is
levels. Therefore, preconditioners are designed important to have the adequate residence time in the
differently depending on the process. preconditioner: to allow moisture to penetrate the
particles. Keep in mind that moisture and
temperature are key elements, working together,
Steam conditioning: Residence time, mixing and responsible for attaining good pellet durability.
particle size
Film resistance around the particle can be measured
To understand preconditioning it is important to
using the dimensionless Biot number (Bi). When
understand the heat and mass transfer between the
the resistance is in the film around the particle, as is
components. The medium in the preconditioner is a
the case with preconditioners with poor mixing, the
three-phase system of gas (steam), liquid (water)
Biot number is very small (< 0.1). In conditioners
and solids (meal mixture). Steam transfers energy
with good mixing action, the main resistance is the
to the particles via condensation. The particles of
diffusion of water to the particle, and the Biot
meal are relatively cool and steam condenses onto
number is large (> 10). Based on this number, we
them, forming a thin film of water on the particle
can classify most of the preconditioners available
surface. This water is absorbed into the particle,
today for pelleting and they would fall into an
increasing the moisture content. How fast the heat
intermediate category in mixing efficiency where
transfer and moisture uptake occurs will depend on
the Biot number is approximately 1. The film and
the film resistance on the surface of the particle and
internal resistance have a direct impact on the rate
the speed by which the heat and moisture travel to
of hydration into the particle.
the core of the particles. The more solid-to-fluid
contact, the lower the film resistance.
Particle size also has a direct effect on how well the
mash is preconditioned. This can be explained by
Having good mixing in the preconditioner
understanding the relationship between particle size
encourages more contact between the feed particles
and the rates of hydration and heat transfer. It has
and the steam, thus reducing the film resistance and
been demonstrated (Bouvier, 1996) that larger
speeding up the process. The speed at which heat
particles (> 400 microns) require twice as much
and moisture travel to the interior of the particle is
hydration time than smaller particles (< 200
governed by Fourier’s and Fick’s second laws. The
microns). This is logical since the moisture added
meal is composed of particles that have different
via the steam in the preconditioner will require
internal resistance for heat and moisture. Therefore,
more time to be internalized in a larger particle than
by knowing the coefficients of diffusivity, one can
a small one. In addition, smaller the particle size
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 7: Critical Steps in Mash Conditioning
results in greater the surface area. The hydration hydration time can be improved in the
rate can be explained in mathematical terms by preconditioner. In the preconditioner there can be
applying the laws of thermodynamics. two types of mixing. One is axial mixing, which
contributes to increasing the particle-to-steam/fluid
The following formula allows one to calculate the contact in the preconditioning chamber. The second
required time necessary to adequately hydrate is radial mixing, which also affects the contact of
particles based on the particle radius: particles with the steam and liquid, but depends
more on the shaft RPM and paddle
Fo = Dt / [(R/3)2] configuration/geometry. Depending on the design,
preconditioners can exhibit a plug flow (very little
Where Fo is Fourier number, D is the water mixing) and mixed flow (highly axial mixing).
diffusivity, t the diffusion time and R the radius of These flows depend, again, on the paddle geometry,
the particle. shaft speed and degree of fill.

Solving for t shows that as the particle radius A common problem in the pelleting process of
increases a longer time is required to hydrate it. animal feeds is the appearance of uneven-colored
This clearly demonstrates that particle size not only pellets. In most cases, this is caused by inadequate
needs to be small enough to improve feed moisture distribution in the preconditioner. This
digestibility, but also to improve hydration rate that can be more easily explained by understanding the
can lead to better pellet quality. If particles are of RTD. In this particular case, the RTD is broad,
more uniform dimensions, hydration rate will be meaning that some particles spend a short time in
similar for most particles, and there will therefore the preconditioner, thus receiving insufficient
be a more uniform distribution of moisture among moisture, while others spend a longer time and are
particles in the meal. This is a good reason for adequately hydrated. This problem is not only
considering post-batch grinding systems to achieve associated with inadequate paddle configuration,
a more uniform particle size. Keeping the particle shaft speed or degree of fill, but also with uneven
size distribution within a narrow range can improve particle size. Even if the preconditioner is properly
the overall pellet quality both in terms of degree of optimized, but the particle distribution is too broad,
cook and pellet durability. the moisture distribution among particles can be
uneven. The large ones will have less moisture,
while the small ones will have a higher moisture
Residence time distribution content. Therefore, particle size of the meal needs
to be as uniform as possible and the RTD needs to
Residence time distribution (RTD) should not be
be as narrow as possible.
confused with residence time (RT). Using a
marker, one can determine the RT, which is the
Fill ratio represents the volume occupied by the
time it takes the marker to exit the preconditioner.
meal in relation to the total volume of the
This assumes a first-in, first-out flow principle.
preconditioner. The meal volume is measured when
Consider this vs. the RTD, which is the average
the preconditioner is stopped. Many
residence time a single particle may stay in the
preconditioners used in the pelleting industry today
preconditioner, and is more representative of the
can have a relatively low fill ratio (~ 30%). Having
typical material flow. The RTD has a characteristic
a small fill ratio means that the preconditioner has
bell-shaped curve. The shorter the distribution, the
more empty spaces. Knowing that steam is a gas,
more uniform, more efficient the preconditioner is
one can clearly visualize that it will tend to fill the
in hydrating and heating particles uniformly.
voids in the preconditioner. When this happens it
can be expected that less steam will be in contact
There are many kinds of preconditioners with
with the material, and heating and hydration will
different configurations for paddle design, shaft
suffer. Therefore, increasing the fill ratio improves
speed, paddle angle and volumetric capacity.
not only the residence time but also the temperature
Understanding RTD can help understand how
and hydration uniformity of the mix.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 7: Critical Steps in Mash Conditioning
As mentioned previously, the degree of fill can be communication) has shown that residence time can
improved by properly adjusting the paddle be as high as six minutes. It is clear that such an
configuration (orientations). Angled paddles can extended residence time can improve the meal
increase axial mixing. In contrast, paddles placed at moisture absorption and degree of cook, since both
0 or 90 degrees can increase the filling ratio. Most are time- and temperature-dependent processes.
preconditioners are fitted with paddles that can be
adjusted by the operator. Again, a good paddle Figure 7-12. Concept of new preconditioner.
configuration will include paddles in the reverse,
some forward and some flat (mixing action). Some
preconditioners (see Figure 7-10) also incorporate
retention plates that have the purpose of providing
an obstacle at the end of the unit and thus increase
the degree of fill and the residence time.

Figure 7-10. Retention plates.

Figure 7-13. Inclined preconditioner.

In recent years, new preconditioners have been

introduced to the market, and old versions have Other preconditioners have been designed to work
been improved. Some of the new preconditioners as pressure vessels, taking advantage of the fact that
have been developed based on the principles of at higher pressures the amount of energy transfer is
axial and radial mixing in combination with greater and requires less time. These conditioners
extended residence times. A good example of this have been on the market for some time, specifically
type of preconditioner is shown in Figure 7-11. the Sprout-Waldron pressurized conditioner, which
has been used in the past in extrusion processing.
Figure 7-11. New type preconditioner. The pressurized conditioner by Pelleting Concepts
International, Inc (see Figure 7-14), has been used
in pellet mills with some degree of success.

Figure 7-14. Pressurized preconditioner.

This incorporates a high-speed mixing zone in a

small chamber and then has a larger section where
the meal is allowed to hydrate and heat (see Figure
7-12). Others, as is the case of Stolz in France,
have developed a preconditioner that is inclined
(see Figure 7-13) to increase the residence time and
degree of fill. Work done by Stolz (personal
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 7: Critical Steps in Mash Conditioning
It is clear that one advantage of pressurized Skoch, R.E., 1979. Influence of steam pelleting
conditioners, based on steam thermodynamics, is conditions on the pelleting process and the
that at higher pressures steam has more energy to nutritive value of swine diets. PhD
transfer to the mash. dissertation, Kansas State University,
Manhattan, Kansas, USA.
Steam tables (Spirax Sarco) show that at sea level, Stevens, C.A., 1987. Starch gelatinization and the
or 1.01 bar of absolute pressure, the energy content influence of particle size, steam pressure and
of steam is 638.3 kcal/kg. On the other hand, at die speed on the pelleting process. PhD
1.15 bar the energy content is 640.7 kcal/kg. This dissertation, Kansas State University,
difference of 2.4 kcal/kg represents an increase in Manhattan, Kansas, USA.
temperature of approximately 3.6°C, which can be
an advantage when trying to achieve a high degree Dr. Eugenio Bortone is a Sr. Principal Scientist for
of cook in order to improve pellet quality. Also, at PepsiCo-Frito Lay. He previously served as the
higher pressures the moisture and heat can penetrate R&D Manager for Ralston Purina and earned his
more rapidly into the core of the starch granule to B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. from Kansas State University.
gelatinize it, which may reduce the residence time
in the conditioner. This content was edited and reviewed by Dr. Adam
Fahrenholz, Assistant Professor of Feed Milling at
Other preconditioners have been designed to North Carolina State University, Dr. Charles Stark,
become feeders by including at the exit port a Jim and Carol Brown Associate Professor of Feed
metering screw that feeds the pellet mill and Technology at Kansas State University, and Dr.
regulates the discharge rate of the preconditioner Cassandra Jones, Assistant Professor of Feed
(see Figure 7-15). Technology at Kansas State University.
Figure 7-15. Metering screw at exit port.

This type of preconditioner can also achieve high

degree of fill and increased residence time.
Preconditioner manufacturers continue to strive for
solutions to improve the residence time that can
lead to better degree of cook and better pellet
quality.

References
Bouvier, JM., 1996. Engineering analysis of
preconditioning in the extrusion cooking
process. Cereal Foods World 41(9):738-740.
Hoseney, R.C., 1986. Principles of cereal science
and technology. American Association of
Cereal Chemists.
Reimer, L. and Beggs, W.A., 1993. Harnessing
steam quality. Feed Management 44(1).
 Steam generation, control, and
quality for feed manufacturing
BY CARLOS A. CAMPABADAL, PH.D. AND DIRK E. MAIER, PH.D., P.E.

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, CHARLES STARK, AND CASSANDRA JONES

fines results showed that steam improved pellet

Feed processing refers to the treatment of a feed quality. Dry pelleting caused more starch damage in
prior to its consumption by animals. Processing may the feed than steam-conditioned pelleting. Although
consist of a few steps such as grinding and mixing, steam conditioning increased the total energy
or a series of steps including grinding, mixing, required for pelleting, it allowed for increased
conditioning, extruding, pelleting, dehydration, and production rates and improved pellet quality of the
cooling. The central process in most feed mills is finished feed.
the pelleting operation. A mash feed is prepared
from a mixture of ingredients, such as grains, Much of the existing literature on steam
protein source, minerals, vitamins and drugs, conditioning of a feed mash has been published in
according to a specified formulation. In most U.S. trade journals of the feed processing industry, such
feed mills the mash feed is pelleted in a roller-and- as Winowiski (1985), Bode (1986), Winowiski
die press (McEllhiney, 1994). Before entering the (1988), and in a number of handbooks and manuals,
press the feed is conditioned with steam, and such as MacBain (1968), Leaver (1982), Anon.
sometimes molasses and/or fat are added to increase (1984), Wetzel (1991), and McEllhiney (1994). The
its energy content, lubricity, and pelletability. amount of steam that can be added to a mash
Temperature increase is furthered in the die due to depends largely on the feed ingredients and on its
frictional heating as the pellet is extruded. The initial moisture content (Winowiski, 1985). Five
pellets are cooled (and dried) with ambient air categories of feed formulations are generally
immediately following the pelleting operation. distinguished (MacBain, 1968; Anon. 1984): (1)
high starch feeds for poultry and hogs containing
Problems with the pelleting operation in many 50-80% starch from cereal grains or tapioca; (2)
commercial feed mills are often caused by an heat-sensitive high starch feeds containing 5-25%
ineffective conditioning process. Effective dry milk powder, sugar and/or whey; (3) high
conditioning depends on a properly designed, natural protein supplements and concentrates
maintained and operated steam supply system. The containing 25-45% protein; (4) high fiber feeds for
purpose of this chapter is to discuss steam complete dairy rations containing 12-16% protein;
generation, control and quality, and to illustrate the and (5) high urea (i.e., 6-30% of formulation) and
effect of steam system performance (or lack high molasses (i.e., 5-20% of formulation) feeds.
thereof) on mash conditioning and pelleting.

Little peer-reviewed literature appears to exist on Conditioning and Pelleting Requirements

the subject of steam conditioning of a feed mash.
Pellet quality is primarily established in the
Skoch et al. (1981) investigated the effect of steam
conditioner rather than in the pellet die. A
conditioning on the pelleting process. Dry pelleting
summary of the conditioning and pelleting
of a mash was compared to steam conditioning a
requirements for the five feed categories is given
mash to 149°F (65°C) and 176°F (80°C),
in Figure 8-1. In four of the five categories the
respectively, before pelleting. Pellet durability and
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 8: Steam generation, control, and quality for feed manufacturing
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 8: Steam generation, control, and quality for feed manufacturing

addition of moisture is needed, while in three of be used to raise the mash temperature up to 140°F
the five categories heat and moisture (i.e., from (60°C) and to allow sufficient compression to
steam) are both needed to produce a quality feed produce a good pellet. Feeds with high urea and
pellet. molasses contents (Category V) can be
conditioned with no or little steam, since the urea
The high starch feeds (Category I) can be may dissolve in the condensed moisture. Pelleting
conditioned above 180°F (80°C) with steam to is difficult and may require additional binding
increase the mash moisture content by up to 6 agents.
percentage points. Due to steam conditioning, the
starch pregelatinizes and becomes a natural
binding agent as the pellet is extruded from the Steam System
die. Heat sensitive feed rations (Category Il) need Steam is an important feed manufacturing input but
to be maintained below 110°F (45°C) to prevent is often poorly understood and often mismanaged.
carmelization of the sugars in the conditioner and Steam generation and use is a major cost for most
pellet die. Since no or little heat can be added, feed manufacturing facilities. Given current energy
thinner dies must be used to prevent excessive costs, attention should be paid to optimizing the
frictional heating. Since the starch cannot be pre- operation of the steam system and the feed mash
gelatinized, fat or other binding agents may be conditioning process.
added to improve pelletability. High protein
rations (Category III) require a mash temperature
up to 170°F (75°C). However, no or little steam Steam Properties
can be condensed, since the protein absorbs only In order to optimize the steam conditioning of a
up to 3 percentage points of moisture. feed mash, the basic thermodynamic properties and
behavior of steam in the feed processing system
must be understood.
Figure 8-1. Conditioning temperature and moisture
content requirements of the five pelleted feed When water begins to boil, it has reached the
categories (I = high starch; II = heat sensitive high boiling point of saturated water, at which it can
starch; III = high natural protein; IV = high fiber; V take no more energy without changing into vapor
= high urea/molasses). Adapted from MacBain, (steam). At sea level and under atmospheric
1968. conditions the boiling point of water is 100°C
(212°F). However, the actual boiling point of
saturated water depends not only on elevation but
also on whether water is boiled in an open system
(i.e., under atmospheric conditions) or in a closed
system (i.e., in a boiler). In closed systems, the
boiling point is referred to in terms of saturation
temperature, which increases as the pressure
increases. Transfer of more energy into saturated
water at the saturation temperature results in a
change of water into saturated steam. If the pressure
remains constant, the steam temperature remains at
The temperature rise in the mash has to be the saturation temperature. Saturation temperature
accomplished mostly by frictional heating in the of steam at any operating pressure is available from
die, and pellet durability by adding a binding so-called steam tables. Saturated steam
agent. High-fiber dairy feeds (Category IV) can temperatures for a range of operating pressures
only be pelleted with little steam addition, since typically found in steam systems of feed mills are
the fiber and protein absorb only up to 2 summarized in Table 8-1.
percentage points of moisture. Thick dies have to
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 8: Steam generation, control, and quality for feed manufacturing

Table 8-1. Saturated steam temperatures for a range volumetric space (m3; ft3) occupied by one pound
of operating pressures typically found in steam of steam. Given that steam vapor occupies a much
systems in feed mills greater volume for a given mass than liquid water,
Gauge Absolute Steam specific volume has to be taken into consideration
Pressure, Pg Pressure, Pa Temperature when designing steam supply piping and the
psig kPa psia kPa °F °C associated condensate return system.
0 0 14.7 101.4 212.0 100.0
20.3 140.0 35.0 241.3 259.3 126.3 Figure 8-2. Heat content of steam vs. temperature
30.3 208.9 45.0 310.3 274.4 134.7
40.3 277.9 55.0 379.2 287.1 141.7
50.3 346.8 65.0 448.2 298.0 147.8
60.3 415.8 75.0 517.1 307.6 153.1
70.3 484.7 85.0 586.1 316.3 157.9
80.3 553.7 95.0 655.0 324.1 162.3
90.3 662.6 105.0 724.0 331.4 166.3
100.3 691.6 115.0 792.9 337.9 169.9
110.3 760.5 125.0 861.9 344.3 173.5
120.3 829.5 135.0 930.8 350.2 176.8

Gauge Pressure (Pg; psig) is the steam pressure as

indicated on a pressure gauge installed on a steam
supply pipe. It excludes atmospheric pressure (Patm),
which is 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi).
Absolute Pressure (Pa; psia) quantifies the true force Figure 8-3 is a schematic of a simplified steam
per unit area exerted by steam on the pipes and system, which consists of steam supply, steam
walls of the steam system. It includes atmospheric regulation, and conditioner. Steam is generated in
pressure. Therefore, the boiler at a given pressure. As heat is added to
the water, its temperature increases until the water
Pa = Pg + Patm reaches the saturation point at which it can no
longer exist as a liquid.
As water and steam are heated, they absorb energy.
The total absorbed heat energy consists of sensible Figure 8-3. Schematic of a simplified steam system
heat, latent heat, and super heat. Sensible heat, or supplying steam to a feed mash conditioner.
heat of the liquid, is the heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of liquid water to the
saturation temperature (boiling point). Latent heat,
or heat of the vapor, is the heat required to convert a
unit mass of liquid water at the saturation
temperature to dry steam of the same temperature.
Super heat is the heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of dry steam at the
saturation temperature to any higher temperature.
Therefore, the total heat contained in steam at any
time is the sum of the sensible heat, latent heat and
super heat (Figure 8-2).
Note the numbers 3’ and 4’ refer to changes in the
Another steam property to define is its specific
quality of steam as it travels without system units.
volume (v). It is defined as the amount of
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 8: Steam generation, control, and quality for feed manufacturing

Beyond that point, additional heat added to the Condensate (1) returns from the steam trap as a
water causes some of the water to boil off as steam, saturated liquid. During pumping it is slightly
which is piped to the feed conditioner. This compressed (2). The condensate is mixed with
evaporation requires a huge amount of energy per make-up water before entering the boiler. The feed
unit weight of water vaporized. It also transfers that water is heated to its boiling point (2'). Steam exits
energy to the steam to be used to increase the the boiler as a saturated vapor (3). As it travels
temperature and moisture content of the mash in the along the pipe, energy is lost and condensate forms
conditioner. (3') before reaching the steam regulator. The
condensate and any suspended solids are
Steam quality is controlled with steam traps, subsequently separated out and returned to the
separators, and regulators placed along the steam boiler (1). The regulator acts like a throttle and
pipes. The proper placement of each component is reduces the steam pressure at constant enthalpy.
critical to the efficiency of the system. A valve After the regulator (4) the steam thermodynamically
operated either manually or automatically controls is a superheated vapor. As soon as the superheated
the steam flow into the feed mash conditioner. steam enters the conditioner, the steam pressure is
Condensate is collected along various points of the reduced to atmospheric, and the steam condenses
steam pipe; collection is especially critical before into the mash. This raises the temperature and
the conditioner. The condensate is returned to the moisture content of the mash. The amounts of heat
boiler via a pump. The steam quality at various and moisture added are completely dependent on
points in the system can be analyzed in terms of its the thermodynamic steam properties.
thermodynamic properties such as temperature,
pressure, enthalpy, and entropy (Wark, 1983). Steam Supply
Figures 8-4 summarizes the temperature-entropy An adequate supply of high-quality steam is
and pressure-enthalpy relationships for the necessary to have an efficient pelleting operation. A
simplified system presented in Figure 8-3, properly sized steam supply accounts for steam
respectively. quantity, pressure, and quality. The amount of
steam flow per hour needed from a boiler is directly
Figure 8-4. Idealized thermodynamic steam related to the amount of moisture to be added to the
pressure (P) vs. enthalpy (h) diagram with steam mash, and the pellet mill capacity (Figure 8-5)
state points for a basis feed mill system. (Leaver, 1982). For example, if 4 percentage points
of moisture are to be added to a mash at a pellet mill
capacity of 15-ton per hour (TPH) the boiler needs
to supply about 1450 lb of steam per hour.

Figure 8-5. Pellet mill capacity as a function of

steam supply and moisture added during mash
conditioning. Adapted from McEllhiney, 1994.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 8: Steam generation, control, and quality for feed manufacturing

The amount of steam required can also be

calculated based on the heat energy required to raise = 929.1 BTU/lb + (243.1 BTU/lb – 153.0 BTU/lb)
the mash temperature. Every material has a
characteristic specific heat (cp). Water has a = 1,019.2 BTU/lb of steam energy condensed
specific heat of 1 BTU/lb./°F, which is defined as
the amount of heat energy needed to raise the Step 5 – Calculate the amount of steam required:
temperature of one pound of water by one degree
Fahrenheit. Most grains and feed ingredients have a Steam (lb/h) = Heat required / Steam condensed
specific heat of 0.45 BTU/lb./°F, which implies that
it only takes 0.45 BTU to raise the temperature of = 1,035,000 BTU/h / 1,019.2 BTU/lb = 1,015.5 lb/h
one pound of grain by one degree Fahrenheit.

This is difficult in concept, but the examples to Example: What is the final moisture content of the
follow should help provide clarity. conditioned maize-based mash into the pellet mill if
the initial moisture content was 13% wet basis?
Example: How much steam (lb./h; kg/h) at 30 psig
is required to condition 20,000 lb./h (10 T/h) of Step 1 - Determine initial water content:
maize-based mash from 21°C (70°F) to 85°C
(185°F) prior to pelleting? Water (lb.) = 20,000 lb. x 0.13 = 2,600 lb.

Step 1 - Determine the heat energy required: Step 2 – Determine the dry matter content of the
feed mash:
Heat (BTU/h) = M x cp x (Tf – Ti)
Dry matter (lb.) = 20,000 lb. total – 2,600 lb. water
= 20,000 lb./h x 0.45 BTU/lb.°F x (185°F – 70°F) = = 17,400 lb. dry matter
1,035,000 BTU/h
Step 3 – Determine the final moisture content of
Step 2 – Determine the heat content of the steam the feed mash:
from steam tables assuming saturated steam at
30 psig, which yields: Final moisture content = (Initial Water Content +
Steam Condensation)/(Dry Matter + All Water)
Latent heat = 929.1 BTU/lb. Sensible heat = 243.1
BTU/lb. = [(2,600 lb. + 1,015.5 lb.) / (17,400 lb. + 2,600 lb.
+ 1,015.5 lb.)] × 100%
Step 3 – Account for the sensible heat content in = 17.2% moisture content (w.b.)
the conditioned mash:
Steam Boiler
Sensible heat of water at 0 psig and 185°F is 153 When steam is generated, pure water vapor is
BTU/lb discharged from the boiler. Since water contains
solids, the concentration of dissolved and suspended
Note: When conditioned to 185°F, the water in the solids increases in the remaining boiler water as
mash at 0 psig (atmospheric conditions) contains steam evaporates. To maintain optimum steam
153 BTU/lb in sensible heat energy. generation and boiler efficiency, a maximum
allowable concentration limit for each solid
Step 4 – Calculate the amount of steam energy component in the boiler water exists. To prevent
condensed into the mash: exceeding these limits, boiler water is withdrawn
and discarded, while feed water is added to dilute
Steam energy (BTU/lb) = latent heat + sensible heat the solids concentration. This process is known as
difference boiler blowdown (or bleedoff).
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 8: Steam generation, control, and quality for feed manufacturing

water temperature from a lower initial temperature

Boiler blowdown is either intermittent or to the boiling point. In addition, excess water is
continuous (Murphy, 1994). If the blowdown is consumed and water treatment chemicals are
intermittent, the boiler water is allowed to wasted.
concentrate until the maximum level is reached. A
valve is opened for a short time (e.g., open the valve Steam Piping
for 3 s, close it for 3 s, open it again for 3 s, then Steam supply from the boiler to the mash
close it again), while boiler water is withdrawn and conditioner also requires properly sized piping.
feedwater is added. If no chemical analysis of the Supply piping should be sized so that steam velocity
water is used as a guide, blowdown should occur at is about 100 ft/s (30 m/s) (McEllhiney, 1994). A
least once every 24 h. The boiler water is then steam trap should be installed at every low point
allowed to reconcentrate. If the blowdown is and major directional change in the piping system.
continuous, a regulating valve removes a small but All piping including valves should be insulated in
steady stream of boiler water in order to maintain a order to reduce heat loss. The final pressure
constant solids concentration. reducing valve should be no closer than 15 ft. (4.5
m) from the conditioner use point.
One measure to determine adequate blowdown is
the concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS)
(Table 8-2). It is the sum of all particles dissolved Example: What pipe diameter is needed between a
in the boiler water. The maximum limit boiler and regulator, and between a regulator and
recommended to provide an adequate steam supply conditioner given a mass steam flow of 400 kg/h
in boilers operating at up to 300 psig (2,069 kPa) is (880 lb/h), boiler steam pressure of 100 psia, and
3,500 mg of TDS per liter of boiler water (or parts regulated steam pressure of 30 psia?
per million, ppm) (Murphy, 1994). If the TDS is too
high, the boiler walls will build-up scales, and Step 1 - Determine the steam properties:
solids may be carried over into the steam. As little
as 1/8" of scale deposits can reduce boiler Assuming 100 psia steam is saturated vapor, then T
efficiency by 18% (Anon, 1988); while carry-over = 164°C (328°F); v = 0.2761 m3/kg (4.4325 ft3/lb.)
causes corrosion of steam pipes, traps, regulators Assuming 30 psia steam is superheated, then T =
and valves. 147°C (296°F); v = 0.9176 m3/kg (14.7306 ft3/lb.)

Table 8-2. Recommended boiler water control limits Step 2 – Calculate the supply line diameter based
for total dissolved solids (TDS) in drum-type boilers. on the fact that mass steam flow multiplied by
Adapted from Murphy, 1994 specific volume (v) of the steam yields volumetric
Softened (non-deionized) feed water steam flow, which when divided by the
psi 150 300 600 900 1,200 1,500 recommended design steam velocity yields cross-
TDS sectional area of the pipe:
4,000 3,500 3,000 2,000 500 30
(mg/L)
High purity (deionized) feed water (400 kg/h x 0.2761 m3/kg)/( 30 m/s x 3600 s/h) =
psi < 0.001023 m2
900 1,200 1,500 1,800 2,400
600
TDS 3,000 The cross-sectional area (A) of the pipe is defined
(mg/L) to 500 300 200 100 50 as A = (π d2)/4, which can be solved as follows:
4,000
d2 = 4 (0.001023 m2) / 3.141, or d = 3.6 cm (1.4 in)
If the TDS is too low, too much make-up water and
too little condensate enters the boiler. This reduces Thus, a supply line diameter of 1.5 inches is needed
the steam production capacity of the system, since from the boiler to the steam pressure regulator.
the available energy is needed to raise the feed
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 8: Steam generation, control, and quality for feed manufacturing

Step 3 – Calculate the line diameter between the eliminated a waste of about 29 ft3 of gas per hour
regulator and conditioner: assuming a heat content of 800 BTU per ft3 of gas.

(400 kg/h x 0.9176 m3/kg) / (20 m/s x 3600 s/h) = Steam Regulation
0.005098 m2 The steam supply includes a regulator that
controls the steam pressure before the conditioner.
d2 = 4 (0.005098 m2) / 3.141, or d = 8.1 cm (3.1 in) The steam pressure from the boiler modulates
between a high and a low setting to maintain an
Thus, a steam line diameter of 3 inches is needed average desired operating pressure. Without a
from the steam pressure regulator to the conditioner. steam regulator the pressure at the flow control
valve would modulate up and down also. This
would cause unsteady temperatures in the
Example: How much heat is lost through the surface conditioner, and uncontrolled moisture addition.
of a conditioner of 5 ft. in diameter and 12 ft. tall Strainers, separators, and traps are needed to
that is 1/8” thick and not insulated? The thermal provide high quality steam before the conditioner.
conductivity of steel is 312 BTU-in/ft2/h/°F The removal of condensate is especially critical
before the steam enters the conditioner. The flow
Equation to calculate heat loss due to conduction is: control valve regulates the amount of steam into
the conditioner (but not its quality).
q = [A × {T2-T1)] / [(1/hci) + (d/k) + (1/hco)]
Steam Quality
Where q = heat loss due to conduction, A = area of Steam quality is critical, yet much confusion
the conditioner = 2π (d/2), T2 = temperature inside appears to exist among feed mill managers with
vessel, T1 = temperature outside vessel, hci = respect to its thermodynamic behavior. Steam
conductance coefficient for condensing steam quality (QS) is defined as the percentage of steam in
(5,000 BTU/ft2/h/°F), d = material thickness, k = the water phase. It is calculated by dividing the
material thermal conductivity, hco = conductance mass of steam (ms) by the sum of the mass of steam
coefficient for air on surface (1.65 BTU/ft2/h/°F), plus mass of water (mw):
For A = 188.5 ft2, T2 = 210°F and T1 = 60°F, d =
0.125 in., the heat loss is: QS = ms / (ms + mw) × 100

q = [(188.5 ft2) × (210°F - 60°F)] / [(1/5000) + Steam produced at a given boiler pressure enters the
(0.125/312) + (1/1.65)] steam pipe at its saturation vapor temperature (see
Table 1). As the saturated steam vapor travels along
q = 46,581 BTU/h the insulated pipe, the steam cools off, and moisture
condenses out. The condensing steam loses its
saturated quality and turns into a liquid-vapor
Example: How much heat is lost through the surface mixture (QS < 100%) that carries actual water
of the same steam chest when insulated with one droplets along ("wet" steam). The total heat energy
inch of glass wool with a thermal conductivity of of "wet" steam consists of sensible heat plus latent
0.3 BTU-in/ft2/hr/°F? heat only. If “wet” steam is allowed into the
conditioner, it may not have enough energy to
q = [(188.5 ft2) × (210°F - 60°F)] / [(1/5000) + properly heat and add moisture to the feed mash.
(0.125/312) + (1/0.3) + (1/1.65)] When saturated steam vapor cools, moisture
condenses out. In this case, the energy transfer from
q = 7,176 BTU/h the steam to the mash would be primarily in terms
of latent heating. If during condensation a sufficient
Thus, adding insulation reduced the heat loss by temperature rise of the mash is not achieved, it may
23,405 BTU/ h (46,581 BTU/h – 7,176 BTU/h) and condense too much moisture, which can only
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 8: Steam generation, control, and quality for feed manufacturing

partially be absorbed by the mash. This may lead to concurrently through the length of the conditioner.
plugging of the pellet mill, or the production of poor In the chamber steam and liquids, such as molasses
pellets. and fat, are thoroughly mixed with the feed mash.
The shaft speed varies from 90 to 500 rpm
Though actual water droplets in the steam liquid- depending on the feed being processed and the
vapor mixture can be removed with steam retention time that is needed. The pressure in the
separators and steam traps, the steam quality before conditioner is atmospheric. Most research suggests
the conditioner can only be returned to a saturated that both pellet quality and throughput are
vapor state by reducing its pressure. The pressure is optimized when mash retention time in short-term
reduced by regulating the boiler pressure from its conditioners are in the range of 30 to 90 seconds
range of 75 - 160 psig (517-1,103 kPa) to 20 - 35 (Behnke, 2006).
psig (138-241 kPa) before the conditioner (Leaver,
1982; Anon, 1984). This pressure reduction turns To keep track of the conditioning process, it is
the steam liquid-vapor mixture into superheated important to measure the temperature of the mash
steam (QS = 100%). For example, the saturation both upon entering and leaving the conditioner. For
temperature at 100 psig (690 kPA) is 338°F example, if the initial mash temperature is 68°F
(170°C), while it is only 275°F (135°C) at 30 psig (20°C) and the final mash temperature is 158°F
(209 kPa) (see Table 8-1). Thus, throttling the (70°C), the temperature increase is 90°F (50°C). As
boiler pressure before the conditioner turns high a rule of thumb, about 1 percentage points of
pressure "wet" steam into low pressure "dry" steam. moisture are added for every 25°F (14°C) of mash
The superheated steam contains sensible, latent and heating (Anon, 1984). Thus, the moisture increase
super heat. of the mash during the conditioning process in this
example would be about 5 percentage points (i.e., 5
When superheated steam vapor cools, steam x 1% = 5%). The addition of too much moisture to
becomes saturated first during which sensible the feed mash (due to excess steam condensation)
heating of the mash occurs. This raises the mash causes the rolls of the pellet mill to slip on the die
temperature without moisture addition. surface; while insufficient moisture in the mash
Subsequently, latent heating of the mash increases causes dry and brittle pellets. The addition of too
the mash temperature further while adding moisture much heat can cause denaturation of feed
due to steam condensation. ingredients, which reduces the feed efficiency in
animals; while too little heat causes significant
Feed Mash Conditioner frictional heating in the die, which reduces the
A pellet mill consists of a (a) variable speed feeder pellet mill capacity and shortens die life.
unit, (b) conditioning chamber, (c) die-and-roller
assembly, and (d) electric motor. The variable speed
feeder unit is generally a screw conveyor and Acknowledgements
controlled with a variable frequency drive (VFD). The author is grateful for the contributions to this
The purpose of the feeder is to provide a uniform chapter by Mr. Joseph Gardecki, former Technical
flow of mash into the conditioner. The feed quality, Sales Representative with Lignotech USA,
pellet durability, and power, requirements of the Conyngham, Pennsylvania, who tirelessly raised the
pellet mill are significantly influenced by the awareness about the importance of steam
effectiveness of the conditioning process. Short- generation, control and quality among feed mill
term conditioning generally occurs in a mixer operators during his professional lifetime. The
mounted on top of the pellet press. author is also thankful for the technical review and
helpful suggestions of Dr. Keith Behnke, Professor
The flow-through mixer, containing bulk fixed and Emeritus of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas
adjustable paddles, is equipped with steam State University, Manhattan, Kansas.
manifolds and liquid injection ports. The mash and
steam enter the chamber at the same end and flow
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 8: Steam generation, control, and quality for feed manufacturing

References Jim and Carol Brown Associate Professor of Feed

Anon. 1984. Pelleting of mixed feed (In German). Technology at Kansas State University, and Dr.
IFF Report No. 1. IFF Braunschweig, Cassandra Jones, Assistant Professor of Feed
Germany. Technology at Kansas State University.
Anon. 1988. Boiler care training course – Parts 1-3.
Dubois Chemicals Co., Cincinnati, OH
Bode, W. 1986. Possibilities to ensure economic
mixed feed production saving energy on
pelleting and cooling. Feed Magazine.
November 1987.
Leaver, R.H. 1982. The pelleting process. Koopers
Co., Muncy, PA.
MacBain, R. 1968. Pelleting – Formulation –
Conditioning, Operating Techniques. AFIA,
Arlington, VA.
McElliney, R.R. Feed Manufacturing Technology
IV. AFIA, Arlington, VA.
Murphy, D.T. 1994. Boiler water treatment. In:
McElliney, R.R. (ed.) Feed Manufacturing
Technology IV. AFIA, Arlington, VA.
Skoch, E.R., Behnke, K.C., Deyoe, C.W. and
Binder, S.F. 1981. The effect of steam-
conditioning rate on the pelleting process.
Animal Feed Science and Technology. 6:83-
90.
Wark, K. 1983. Thermodynamics, 4th ed.,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY.
Wetzel, W. 1991. Process technology: Pelleting.
Swiss Institute of Feed Technology, Uzwil,
Switzerland.
Winowiski, T. 1985. Optimizing pelleting
temperature. Feed Management. July 1985.
Winowiski, T. 1988. Wheat and pellet
quality. Feed Management. September 1988.

Dr. Carlos Campabadal is the Program Specialist

for Grain Storage, Quality and Processing, U.S.
Grain Grading and Export Systems, and Feed
Manufacturing for the International Grains
Program at Kansas State University. Dr. Dirk
Maier is the head of the Department of Grain
Science and Industry and Director of the
International Grains Program at Kansas State
University.

This content was edited and reviewed by Dr. Adam

Fahrenholz, Assistant Professor of Feed Milling at
North Carolina State University, Dr. Charles Stark,
 Atmospheric conditioning
BY KEITH C. BEHNKE, PH.D.

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, CHARLES STARK, AND CASSANDRA JONES

Steam is used in the pelleting process primarily

The typical conditioner, commonly associated
because of its unique ability to carry and transfer
with a pelleting system, is referred to here as an heat through condensation. If only moisture was
“atmospheric conditioner” (see Figure 9-1). As the needed to optimize the pelleting process, a hose
name implies, these conditioners operate under attached to a faucet would be a much more
atmospheric pressure and are typically exposed to economical source than steam. Similarly, if heat
ambient conditions. As a rule, the atmospheric was all that was needed, a gas-fired burner would be
conditioner is basically a single cylinder with an cheaper than a boiler. However, what we need in
agitator shaft. The dimensions of the cylinder vary the conditioning process is a great deal of heat and
with manufacturer, but will range from 38-76 moisture targeted at a very precise location—
centimeters in diameter and 1.5-4.6 meters in namely, the surface of each particle in the pellet
length. The agitator shaft is usually drilled to mash. Steam is the most practical way to do this.
accommodate several picks (paddles) that can be
adjusted or replaced as needed. As the relatively-cool mash particles are placed in
close contact with the steam, the heat from the
The function of the conditioner is to provide for the steam is transferred to the particle, causing its
intimate contact and mixing of steam with the pellet temperature to rise. For each 0.28 kWh of heat (at 0
mash. An understanding of how steam and pellet psig) transferred from the steam to the mash, 2.2 kg
mash interact is critical to the understanding and of water is condensed onto the surface of the mash
management of a pelleting system. particles. This phenomenon of condensation is not
unlike the condensation of water vapor from humid
Figure 9-1. Pellet mill equipped with a single-pass air to the surface of a cold drink can. If this concept
conditioner. is well understood by the reader, a good
understanding of the atmospheric conditioning
process is near at hand. This is the most basic
process that happens during conditioning.

Once the condensation to liquid takes place on the

surface of the particle, both the heat and moisture
begin to migrate into the particle because of a
moisture gradient difference between the surface
and the interior of the particle. This concept
follows the age-old principle of diffusion where
there is movement (in this case, heat and moisture)
from areas of high concentration to areas of low
concentration. The heat supplied by the condensed
steam provides the energy to drive the migration.

Because grains, protein meals and other common

ingredients are typically good insulators (low heat
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 9: Atmospheric Conditioning
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 9: Atmospheric Conditioning

transfer coefficients), the process of heat and mill begins to drop, read the watch. This will give
moisture migration is relatively slow. This brings some idea as to the average retention time in the
into focus issues related to optimum atmospheric chamber. Other techniques involve injecting dye
conditioning—i.e., mash particle size and retention into the feed throat of the conditioner and collecting
time. samples of the conditioner every two seconds. The
visual color intensity will increase then decrease
with progressive samples. The time at which you
Mash particle size see the most intense color is taken as the average
If the above description of relatively-slow heat and retention time. Similar results can be obtained
moisture migration is true, it is logical, then, that the using dyed iron tracers.
smaller the particle size the more thorough the heat
and moisture can penetrate to the core of the A more precise retention time can be determined if
particle in a given amount of time. Conversely, if the pellet mill is equipped with a “dump chute” and
we use a coarse particle in the mash, the heat and a way to collect the output of the chute, and if the
moisture will not fully penetrate the particle, hourly pellet production rate is accurately known.
leaving a hard, dry particle core that will not be soft At the beginning of the study, the mash feeder is cut
enough for ideal pellet formation. off and the dump chute is activated. The
conditioned mash is collected until no further mash
It is well known that as the average particle size of leaves the conditioner. The conditioned mash is
the mash is reduced, the surface area of the mash is then weighed and the retention time can be
increased geometrically. This concept is important calculated as in the following example:
because it is the surface on which the steam
condenses, and it stands to reason that if we have Pellet throughput rate = 20 tons/hr (302 kg/minute)
more surface area, we can condense more steam per Conditioned mash weight= 100 kg
unit of mash weight. 100 kg ÷ 302 kg/min = 0.33 min avg. retention time
or 60 × 0.33 minute = 19.8 seconds
The major reasons that pellet quality is often
improved with fine grinding are directly related to The objective of such an estimation is to optimize
particle size (heat/moisture migration) and surface retention time and improve the overall conditioning
area (steam condensation). If atmospheric process. In order to do so, one has to know where
conditioning is to be optimized, then we should be the starting point is. This brings up the question as
using the finest practical grind that we can. to what the ideal retention time actually is. The
topic has never been fully addressed, but most
research would suggest that both pellet quality and
Retention time throughput are improved if conditioning time is in
the range of 30 to 90 seconds. It is not uncommon
As previously mentioned, most of our ingredients
for a conditioner to fall short of these values, and
have high insulating values; therefore, it takes time
there are real opportunities to improve pellet quality
for the heat and moisture to penetrate into the core
and throughput if appropriate changes are made.
of each particle. The time available is limited to the
You must know where you are before changes are
time it takes for a given particle to move through
made in order to determine if the changes are
the conditioning chamber. This is referred to as
positive or negative.
“retention time.”

Retention time is not easily or precisely measured

and, in reality, represents an average amount of time Possible options to increase retention time
spent in the chamber. It can be crudely estimated Rate of mash passing through conditioning is
by simply turning off the feeder and starting a stop controlled by both pick angle and shaft speed. Both
watch at the same time. When the load on the pellet can be adjusted to optimize retention time.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 9: Atmospheric Conditioning

As a rule, original equipment manufactured (OEM) follows that more steam will be condensed onto the
conditioners are factory set at a 30-45° forward feed.
angle. In other words, as the shaft rotates, all picks
move the mash toward the discharge. The pick A slow shaft speed (stirred bed) allows the mash to
angle can be reduced to a more neutral position (75- settle to the bottom of the conditioner and be
85°) if the shaft speed is high (> 150 RPM). In other “gently” pushed along the barrel. This obviously
words, the pick angle can be set to a position nearly allows for longer retention time, but leaves the
perpendicular with the shaft. This has the effect of upper part of the barrel open for steam to move
reducing the “pumping” action of each pick, thereby freely without being utilized.
increasing retention time.
The critical part of the design of a conditioner is to
In slow speed conditioners (80-120 RPM), the picks provide for the introduction of the steam so that it is
can be set more parallel with the shaft (at a 0-15° in close and immediate contact with the cooler mash
angle to the shaft). This setting will allow the picks so that instant condensation occurs. This often
to lift the mash and carry it part way around the requires multiple steam entry ports or an elongated
barrel. slit in the shell of the conditioner. Regardless of
how it is done, the openings must be kept clear so
Setting the pick angle is a “trial and error” exercise that the steam velocity at the entrance is low and the
at best. A word of caution—the pick angles at the steam is not forced through the mash too quickly.
feed throat should be retained at their factory setting As far as adjusting shaft speed is concerned, there
for about the first 25% of the conditioner. This will are no particular rules except that the speed should
ensure that the mash is moved rapidly forward into be great enough to provide good agitation and
the conditioner and provides a void area for the movement through the conditioner.
steam to enter the chamber. Pick angle adjustment
should be done in about the middle 50% of the Shaft speed can be modified by changing belts and
conditioner length. As a suggestion, pick settings pulleys or by installing a variable frequency drive
should be such that the mash level in the (VFD) controller on the drive motor. Since the
conditioner is about 70% of the available volume. probability of getting the shaft speed just right in
If the conditioner is overfilled, there is the risk of one try is likely near zero, a VFD—if available—is
choking the feeder and creating mechanical the best choice. It may also turn out that different
damage. Additionally, the operator needs to realize feeds require different shaft speeds or that seasonal
that increasing the retention time of the mash will ingredient changes (e.g., new crop grain) may do
increase the load on the conditioner drive motor, the same. In a plant with more than one pellet mill,
which may result in overload. Checking the current a VFD could be installed on a single pellet mill to
draw of the motor under load before adjustments are determine optimum speed and the other pellet mill
made will clarify the situation. may be set up with fixed drives at that speed.

The second variable that can be optimized is shaft In any event, it should be recognized that both pick
speed. Before addressing shaft speed, a discussion angle and shaft speed are interrelated and are not
of the two prevailing philosophies is in order. Some independent. An additional word of caution is
engineers subscribe to something called “stirred needed when increasing mash retention time. As
bed” conditioning, while others follow a “fluidized dwell time is increased, the response time to
bed” conditioning idea. The basic difference is the changes in pelleting parameters is also increased.
speed at which the shaft turns. A high shaft speed For example, if current dwell time is 10 seconds, an
(fluidized bed) results in the mash being lifted and increase in feed rate should be noted on the drive
aerated as it moves down the barrel. The idea is to motor in 12-15 seconds. If dwell time is increased
force mash particles to the top of the conditioning to 30 seconds, a feeder rate change won’t be noted
chamber where free or excess steam tends to lay. until 35 or so seconds later.
By placing mash particles in the free steam, it
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 2: Conditioning
Chapter 9: Atmospheric Conditioning

In an effort to prevent steam from escaping contact

with the mash in the conditioner, some suppliers are
placing plates in the top of the conditioner just
downstream of the feed inlet and upstream of the
discharge. The steam is essentially trapped in the
top of the conditioner until it condenses and mixes
with the mash.

The conditioning process is, without doubt, the

most important component of any feed pelleting
system, at least as far as pellet quality is concerned.
It is also perhaps the least understood component by
pellet mill operators, most plant managers and even
equipment suppliers. It was the purpose of this
chapter to provide insight into some of the less-
understood aspects of atmospheric conditioning and
to point out some of the strong points and weak
points of each option available.

There is no single conditioning option that is best

for all applications and situations. In most cases,
replacement is not an option; therefore, steps taken
to optimize a given installation will result in the
best pellet quality at the best production rate
possible. It must be remembered, however, that all
factors involved in pellet quality are inter-related
and must ultimately be addressed if the process is to
be successful.

Dr. Keith Behnke is a Professor Emeritus in Feed

Science at Kansas State University.

This content was edited and reviewed by Dr. Adam

Fahrenholz, Assistant Professor of Feed Milling at
North Carolina State University, Dr. Charles Stark,
Jim and Carol Brown Associate Professor of Feed
Technology at Kansas State University, and Dr.
Cassandra Jones, Assistant Professor of Feed
Technology at Kansas State University.
 Grinding considerations when
pelleting livestock feeds
BY MARK HEIMANN

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, CHARLES STARK, AND CASSANDRA JONES

purchase. In the case of roller mills, the rolls must

In the feed manufacturing industry, particle size have sufficient surface area to be able to utilize the
reduction (grinding) is second only to extrusion connected power. As power capacity goes up, the
processes (pelleting, expanders, extruders) in terms roll diameter and length must increase to ensure the
of total energy consumption. To achieve a finer machine can operate with maximum efficiency, and
grind (smaller finished particle size), energy and that an acceptable roll life will be achieved.
maintenance costs increase and, everything else
being equal, the capacity of the grinding system will Maintenance costs for hammermills include the
be reduced. screens and hammers, as well as a variety of other
wearing items as will be detailed later. For many
customers, maintenance parts are an obvious cost,
The cost(s) of grinding and one that is quite easy to track through
purchasing records, etc. For this reason, many
The cost of grinding can be broken down into three
customers are tempted to try and save some cost by
general categories: Equipment cost, energy cost and
using lower-cost parts, or by using the screens and
maintenance cost. While the initial equipment cost
hammers beyond a reasonable useful life. By
is the most obvious, it certainly should not be the
comparison, the maintenance parts cost for
only consideration when designing or installing a
operating a hammermill are generally only 10-20%
grinding system. In many modern, high-production
of the total grinding cost. In nearly every instance,
plants where the equipment runs two or more shifts
a strong case can be made for the use of high-
per day, the cost of energy during one year can
quality (i.e., high-cost) wear parts in order to
easily exceed the cost of a new hammermill. In
maintain the maximum efficiency—lowering the
other words, the energy to operate a hammermill or
energy cost per tonne, and thus ensuring the lowest
roller mill during its normal expected life will be 10
operating cost per tonne.
to 20 times more expensive than the machine cost
alone.
Maintenance costs for roller mills are generally
higher on a per-tonne basis, typically ranging from
It is therefore very important to make sure the
US$0.05 to US$0.09 per tonne, depending on the
equipment selected is carefully matched to the
size of the machine and the finished particle size
specific grinding task to ensure most efficient
required. The cost of re-corrugation is the most
operation. For hammermills, the diameter (tip
significant factor, accounting for 60-70% of the
speed) and screen area must be adequate to
total maintenance cost. Other regular maintenance
effectively utilize the connected power. While
parts include v-belts, cheek plates (used to prevent
other parameters such as hammer pattern and screen
material from passing the ends of the rolls
size can be changed, the tip speed and available
unprocessed) and dust seals. In most cases, the
screen area are determined with the machine
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

bearings used on roller mills are designed to last the processed feed than do older, more developed
life of the rolls, so routine replacement of bearings livestock.
is not required. Keeping the rolls properly adjusted
and maintaining belt tension will contribute
significantly to keeping the maintenance cost of a How fine do you grind?
roller mill as low as possible.
Determining and expressing fineness of grind have
been the subject of study as long as feed ingredients
have been prepared. While appearances or feel may
Why process at all? allow an operator to effectively control a process,
Of course, the answer is ultimately feed subjective evaluation is inaccurate at best and
efficiency—producing the most milk, eggs, meat or makes objective measurement and control virtually
fiber at the lowest possible cost. Particle size impossible. Descriptive terms such as coarse,
reduction as the first step in the feed manufacturing medium and fine are simply not adequate. What is
process works toward the goal of improved feed “fine” in one mill may well be “coarse” in another.
efficiency by increasing the surface area of the Describing the process or equipment is also subject
materials being processed. This increases the to wide differences in terms of finished particle
amount of materials exposed to the animal’s size(s) produced.
digestive system, and ultimately leads to more
complete digestion, and thus better feed efficiency. Factors such as moisture content of the grain,
Particle size of ground feed ingredients also has a condition of the hammers and/or screens
direct influence on subsequent processing and (hammermill) or the condition of the corrugations
handling. To produce pellets or extruded feeds of (roller mills) can produce widely varying results. In
acceptable quality, the particle size of the ground addition, the quality of the grain or other materials
materials must be correct. Generally speaking, finer being processed can have a dramatic impact on the
grinding will result in a better-quality pellet or fineness and quality of the finished ground
extruded feed, which increases the capacity of the products.
pellet mill or extruder and reduces wear of the pellet
mill or extruder working parts such as dies, rollers The best measurement of finished particle sizing
and worms. will be some form of sieve analysis, expressed in
terms of mean particle size or percentage (ranges)
Because animal needs vary considerably, the degree on or passing various test sieves. A complete sieve
of processing for various diets also must vary. analysis will not only describe the average particle
Ruminant animals such as cattle and sheep have size but will also indicate peculiarities in the
rather long, complex digestive tracts and so require distribution, such as excessive levels of fine or
a less processed feed material. On the other hand, coarse particles, etc. Typical descriptions that lend
many of the ingredients used in ruminant feed themselves to objective measurement and control
pellets consist of low-protein, high-fiber material, might be “corn ground to 750 microns.”
so fine grinding may be required in order to achieve
a reasonable pellet quality. Swine have a fairly
short, simple digestive system (much like humans) Particle size and distribution
and therefore benefit from a more highly-processed
The most common way to analyze ground feed
feed. Poultry have a short but rather complex
materials for particle size and distribution
digestive system and, depending on the make-up of
(uniformity) is to perform a complete sieve analysis.
the diet, can efficiently utilize feedstuffs less highly
The particle size distribution of common ground
processed than swine. The size and the age of the
feed materials is skewed when plotted on normal
animals also affect the dietary requirements so far
graph paper; when plotted on log-normal graph
as particle size is concerned. Generally speaking,
paper, the curve becomes more like the typical bell-
younger animals require a finer, more highly-
shaped curve. In order to make reasonable
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

comparisons between samples, the American fine particles are completely separated and sifted.
Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) has The sieving agent serves to keep smaller particles
defined a procedure, ASAE S319.4 based on a log- from sticking together and ensures a complete
normal distribution of the ground particles. separation of the sample into the various fractions.

This method involves sifting a sample of ground Figure 10-1. Difference in particle size and
material through a set of 14 test sieves (Table 10- standard deviation between roller milled and
1), weighing the fraction on each sieve, and hammermilled corn.
computing the “geometric mean particle size.” This
figure represents the mid-point (mean) of the
distribution, where 50% of the material by weight is
coarser and 50% of the material by weight is finer.
Although technically it is not correct, the mean
particle size (in microns or µ) is commonly referred
to as the “average” or the “micron size.”

Table 10-1. Sizes of US standard sieves.

US standard sieve Nominal opening, mm
4 4.76
6 3.36
8 2.38
12 1.68
16 1.191 Differences in particle size analysis can come from
20 0.841 a number of causes, including incorrect sampling or
30 0.594 sample division; inadequate separation in the sifting
40 0.420 (sieving); screens blinding due to oil, moisture or
50 0.297 electrostatic charges; and errors in math or
70 0.212 procedures. One common mistake is failing to use
100 0.150 all of the sieves as described in the procedure. In
140 0.103 this case, the missing fine sieves artificially shift the
200 0.073 distribution coarser and more uniform. As grain
270 0.053 quality changes, the characteristics of the ground
materials will vary as well. Even the variety
(hybrid or type) of grain, especially with corn, can
Another common calculation performed in the size affect the quality and consistency of the finished
analysis procedure is to determine the “log-normal ground material. Grain with more hard, horny
standard deviation.” For most feed materials endosperm will tend to produce samples that are
ground through a roller mill, the log-normal coarser and contain fewer fines and a lower log-
standard deviation will be in the range of 2 to 2.5. normal standard deviation. Grain with more soft,
For most feed materials ground through a floury endosperm will produce finer finished
hammermill, the log-normal standard deviation will products with more fines and a higher log-normal
be from 2.5 to 3.5 (see Figure 10-1). standard deviation.
In order to obtain an accurate description of the To illustrate how the mean particle size and log-
ground material, the sieve analysis must thoroughly normal standard deviation numbers really work,
separate the fine particles. In order to achieve this consider these examples of hammermill and roller
separation, the sample size must be correct (100 mill ground corn (Figure 10-2).
grams as prescribed by the ASAE procedure) and
normally, a sieving agent will be added to ensure
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Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

Figure 10-2. A comparison of particle size range the hammermill as the only choice for particle size
differences between hammermill and roller mill reduction (grinding) applications. In the following
ground corn. discussions, both roller mills and hammermills will
be looked at in terms of equipment selection,
operating conditions and parameters and relative
costs to acquire and to operate.

Roller mill grinding

Roller mills have been used in the processing of
common feed materials for years. The earliest
roller mills used in feed milling were abandoned
flour milling roll stands, used primarily to produce
coarse granulations of friable materials. Over time,
roller mills have been used to perform a wide
variety of tasks related to the production of animal
Hammermill: feeds.
Particle size = 841 µm; std. deviation (sgw) = 2.449
841 µm ÷ 2.449 = 343 µm Roller mills are commonly referred to by the type of
841 µm × 2.449 = 2,060 µm service they perform. A mill used to crack grain or
Thus, 67% of the material would be between 343 other types of friable materials may be called a
and 2,060 µm cracking mill. Mills used to flake grains or other
products may be called flaking mills or flakers.
Roller mill: Roller mills used to grind in a feed mill are
Particle size = 841 µm; std. deviation (sgw) = 2.134 commonly referred to as a roller mill or roller mill
841 µm ÷ 2.134 = 394 µm grinder.
841 µm × 2.134 = 1,792 µm
Thus, 67% of the material would be between 394 Double-pair (two pair high) roller mills may be
and 1,792 µm utilized in feed milling operations when two
distinctly different grains are processed through one
mill. A machine processing both corn and oats, for
Grinding equipment example, requires one set of coarse-grooved rolls to
crack corn and one set of fine-grooved rolls to be
Both roller mills and hammermills have been able to effectively process the oats. A double-pair
applied to the task of particle size reduction or mill equipped with differential roll speeds (one
grinding in feed milling applications. Hammermills turning faster than the other) can be utilized as a
have traditionally been used to produce the finer grinder to reduce all kinds of friable materials
grinds commonly used for pelleting and for many including grains, pelletized products, oilseed and
mash (meal or non-pelleted) feed applications as byproduct meals and many other common feed
well. The hammermill is a relatively simple ingredients. Double-pair mills are usually referred
machine and requires a fairly low degree of skill in to as roller mills or roller mill grinders.
regards to both the operation and maintenance.
Triple-pair (three pair high) mills are used for
However, recent significant changes in the industry special applications requiring a finer finished
have caused many to reassess their approach to product, or when a wide range of materials will be
particle size reduction. Increasing energy costs, processed through the same machine. A triple-pair
increasing customer awareness of feed quality and mill may be employed to achieve a variety of
environmental concerns all challenge the validity of finished products from different feed stocks such as
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

whole grain, mixed meals or other combinations. achieve this roll adjustment. Adjustment can be
Occasionally, three pair high roller mills will be manual or remote operated and may feature some
used to permit one machine to serve as both a two means to display the roll gap setting at a remote
pair high grinder and a single pair location. Roll corrugations (also described as roll
cracking/crimping mill (Figure 10-3). cut or fluting) will vary depending on the material
to be processed, initial and finished product sizes
Figure 10-3. Typical roller mill configuration. and the product quality (amount of fines) desired.
Coarse grooving will produce a coarse finished
product at high capacities, while finer grooving
produces a finer finished product at lower
capacities.

While flour milling may require many different

corrugation styles to produce the desired finished
products, feed processing can usually be
accomplished with less sophisticated roll
corrugations. The most commonly employed
corrugation styles for roller mill grinding will be
round bottom V (RBV). For certain special
applications such as high-moisture grain, some form
of a raked tooth with different leading and trailing
angles, commonly known as sawtooth, may be
beneficial. Occasionally, crumbler rolls (roller
mills dedicated to the reduction of pellets) will
Basic machine characteristics feature a classical LePage cut, with one roll
corrugated longitudinally and one corrugated
Roller mills used in various feed processing circumferentially. The circumferential roll will
applications will have some common often be equipped with a groove known as the
characteristics, as well as certain features peculiar to LePage ring cut (Figure 10-4).
specific tasks, such as machines used to flatten
(crimp) small grains or crumble pellets. All roller
Figure 10-4. Roll corrugation profiles.
mills will have some kind of framework to house
the rolls and contain the roll separating forces
experienced in operation. This basic frame must be
robust enough to hold the rolls securely in position
during operation, yet allow easy access to the rolls
for normal service. In any roller mill, the rolls will
need to be removed periodically for re-corrugation.
This very important detail must be carefully studied
when roller mill selection is made and the
installation is laid out.

Generally, one roll is fixed in the frame and the

opposing roll can be adjusted to set the clearance or
gap between the rolls. This roll gap adjustment
needs to be quick and easy and must accommodate
the requirement of maintaining the rolls in parallel.
Common systems employ screws, cams or fluid-
operated (hydraulic or pneumatic) cylinders to
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Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

Rolls may operate at differential speeds depending bins and feeders can be difficult to regulate and
on the task the mill is called to perform. Cracking, where segregation and separating may occur in
crimping and flaking use lower roll (peripheral) shipping and handling. Because the product is not
speeds and no roll speed differentials. Mills used to heated significantly in the grinding process, less
grind will operate with higher roll speeds. Roll moisture is driven off and the finished product is
speed differential simply means one roll turning not prone to hanging up in the bins, spoiling in
faster than the other and is usually described in the storage and other maladies related to heat and
form of a ratio, slow roll speed expressed as 1. For moisture. Figure 10-5 illustrates the difference in
example, rolls operating at 1.5:1 differential with a particle size distribution on corn ground to similar
fast roll speed of 1,000 RPM would have the slow finished mean particle sizes through both double
roll turning 667 RPM. pair (DP) and triple pair (TP) roller mill grinders
and hammermill grinders.

Grinding with a roller mill Figure 10-5. Efficiency differences between roller
mills and hammermills.
In recent years, more attention has been given to the
roller mill set up to function as a grinder. Several
important factors have contributed to this, including
energy costs, product quality concerns and
environmental issues.

Energy costs have escalated dramatically in the last

20 years and, at the same time, margins in feed
manufacturing have decreased. As a result, cost
savings of US$0.10-0.40 per tonne for grinding can
mean a significant difference in the bottom line of a
feed manufacturing operation. Because of an
efficient reduction action, roller mill grinders will
produce 15-40% more tonnes/hour at a given power
level than traditional “full-circle” hammermills
when producing the same finished particle size. Environmental issues of concern to the feed
Roller mill energy savings advantages will be even manufacturer today include particulate emission,
greater when compared to older half-screen employee exposure to noise and the risk of fire and
hammermills with direct-connected fans. In many explosion. Because roller mill grinders create fewer
instances, the energy savings potential of a roller fines, less material is likely to be lost to the
mill grinder will justify the capital expenditure. atmosphere. Additionally, high-efficiency
hammermill installations require air assist to
Product quality concerns have always been a part of achieve the rated performance. Cyclones and bag
feed manufacturing, and there are many quantitative filters are not 100% effective in removing the
methods for measuring feed quality. Nonetheless, particulates from the air streams and so some
the physical traits (appearance, feel, handling emissions occur. Whether or not these emissions
characteristics) will always influence the feed are a problem will depend on widely varying local
buying customer. Because the grind produced by a conditions and regulations. Because roller mill
roller mill is very uniform, the finished products grinders operate at lower speeds and with a different
have an excellent physical appearance. The low kind of reduction action, less noise is generated in
level of fines and lack of oversize particles make a the grinding process. In many cases, this reduction
feedstuff with excellent flow and mixing in noise means a roller mill grinder will not require
characteristics. This is especially important for a separate enclosure to limit employee exposure to
mash or meal type feeds where the flow from the high noise levels. Lower operating speeds in roller
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Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

mill grinders mean less frictional heating and less uniform feed across the full length of the rolls.
inertial energy (such as thrown hammers) in a Pocket feeders have the inherent advantage of
hammermill. This reduction in ignition source, utilizing conventional inverter (variable frequency
combined with less dust in the product stream, drive) technology to control the feed rate and
greatly reduces the risk of fire in the grinding simplify automation where required.
operation.
Figure 10-6. Roll parallel and tram settings.

The roller mill grinder

Not every make or style of roller mill can be applied
to the task of grinding. Essentially, a roller mill
grinder will utilize rolls from 23-41 cm in diameter
operating at differential speeds. Roll speeds will be
higher for roller mill grinders than for
cracking/crimping and flaking mills. Typical
peripheral speeds range from 457 meters per minute
to more than 914 meters per minute for 41 cm
diameter rolls. Due to higher speeds and greater
loads, the bearings and shafts of a roller mill grinder
experience far more demanding conditions than Because roller mill grinders do more work and use
cracking/crimping mills. more power than cracking and crimping mills, roll
wear rates will be greater. Rolls will require re-
Differential ratios vary from about 1.2:1 up to 2:1 corrugation when the capacity of the mill drops by
for typical feed milling operations. Lower 20-30%, or when finished product quality is no
differential ratios do not permit adequate reduction, longer acceptable. Because they do not effectively
while higher ratios can lead to excessive roll wear. reduce fibrous materials, roller mill grinders are
It is essential that the roll speed differential be best applied to grinding friable products such as
maintained when operating at full motor loads, in corn, wheat, milo, soybean meal and similar
order to achieve the desired grinding results. products.

Because the roll clearances need to be maintained Cleaning grain ahead of a roller mill can improve
under demanding conditions, the mill housing and the roll life and the quality of the finished
roll adjustment mechanism of the roller mill grinder product(s). Normally all that is required is some
must be more robust than for cracking and crimping form of scalper to remove gross oversize pieces—
mills. More precise roll position adjustments must stalks, cobs, clods, stones, etc. Magnetic protection
be made and better control over the feeding is ahead of the mill will ensure a minimum amount of
necessary in order to achieve the full benefits of the tramp metal enters the rolls. While grain for a roller
roller mill grinder through its range of capabilities. mill grinder does not require any more cleaning
Rolls must be operated in parallel and tram to than grain going to a hammermill, some
reliably produce quality finished products. For objectionable fibrous materials may be passed
these reasons, many of the existing cracking and unprocessed through a roller mill grinder. Rolls
crimping mills cannot be made to function tend to be self-limiting in so far as the size of
effectively as a roller mill grinder. The illustrations materials that will be pulled into the nip. Rolls
in Figure 10-6 show roll conditions of tram and cannot get a purchase on large stones, etc. and,
parallel. though roll wear may be accelerated by the presence
of such objects, the mill is not likely to suffer acute
Roll feeders or pocket feeders are generally failures. Grain-sized bits of rocks and iron that
preferred for a roller mill grinder to ensure a escape the cleaning system will generally pass
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Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

through the machine without any significant impact On the other hand, a well-designed hammermill
on the processing as the rolls can open (with spring grinding system will offer good long-term
protection) and close again. performance and require a minimum amount of
attention if a few basic considerations are made at
The primary claims against the roller mill grinder the time the equipment is selected. The following
are high initial cost, maintenance hours to change discussion will explore the theory of hammermill
rolls and the need to carry spare rolls in stock. operation as well as supply the good, hard
Roller mills are generally more expensive than engineering principles on which systems may be
hammermills of equal capacity, but total installed successfully designed.
costs for the two systems are not so different when
all factors are considered. Items such as larger While hammermills are primarily applied to the task
motors, starters, wiring, air assist systems of grinding (significant particle size reduction), they
(including fans and bag filter units) and additional are also used at times to produce coarse
labor to install the more complex material handling granulations, crack grain and even, in some cases,
systems of hammermills tend to offset the to homogenize mixtures of materials. Every effort
differences in the basic equipment costs. will be made to explore these alternative
applications and to offer the best information
Because roller mill maintenance (roll change) available dealing with each peculiar task.
occurs in a concentrated block, the actual time
required appears to be significant. In fact, when
compared on a “maintenance hours per tonne” Equipment description
basis, roller mill grinders are quite competitive with
A hammermill consists of a rotor assembly (two or
hammermill grinders. Finally, spare rolls may
more rotor plates fixed to a main shaft) enclosed in
amount to a fair capital investment but, again
some form of grinding chamber (Figure 10-7). The
comparing the actual cost on a “per tonne” basis,
actual working mechanisms are the hammers, which
the maintenance costs of re-corrugation and roll
may be fixed or swinging, and the screen or
replacement are within US$0.01-0.03 per tonne of
grinding plates that encircle the rotor. The rotor
hammermill maintenance costs. Due to the
may be supported from one end only (overhung) or
significantly lower energy cost per tonne, the roller
supported on both ends by the shaft and bearings.
mill offers an overall lower cost per tonne to grind
corn and similar feed materials.
Figure 10-7. Typical hammermill configuration.

Hammermill processing
Hammermills have long been used for particle size
reduction of materials used in the manufacture of
animal feeds. At the same time, it is not far from
the truth to say that the hammermill has been the
most studied and least understood piece of
equipment in the feed manufacturing plant. Much
of this confusion has come about over the years as a
result of hit or miss problem solving, changing
several variables at once when testing or problem
solving, and by treating symptoms rather than
addressing the root causes when treating operational
problems.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

For modern, high-capacity machines in widths of 30 full hammer pattern. The full-width top feed also
cm up to 122 cm, the rotor is normally supported on permits the direction of rotation to be changed,
both ends. This provides a more stable running mill allowing two corners of the hammer to be utilized
and reduces the tendency for a rotor shaft to “wind before a physical change of the hammer is required.
up” or run out of true under load. The hammers are
simply flat metal bars with a hole at one or both
ends and usually have some form of hard face Tear-shaped grinding chamber
treatment on the working end(s). The hammers
A tear-shaped grinding chamber is necessary to
may be fixed, fastened rigidly to the rotor assembly,
prevent material from merely circulating within the
but much more common are swinging hammers,
grinding chamber. Most well-designed modern
where the hammers float on pins or rods. This
hammermills have some sort of flow director or
swinging hammer design greatly facilitates
diverter in the top of the hammermill to properly
changing hammers when the working edges are
feed the hammermill (right relationship of in-
worn.
coming grain to the direction of the hammers) and
to positively stop any materials that are circulating
Reduction in a hammermill is primarily the result of
within the grinding chamber. Hammermills with
impact between the rapidly-moving hammer and the
circular screens lack this important action, and so
in-coming material. There is some attrition (gradual
are more prone to near size material traveling
reduction by particles rubbing) between the
around with the hammers, increasing product
particles and between the hammers and the screen.
heating and reducing capacity.
The efficiency of the grinding operation will depend
on a number of variables including, but not limited
to, screen area/power ratio, screen (hole) size and Split screen/re-grind chamber
open area, tip speed, hammer pattern (number of The tear-shaped screen should be split in two
hammers), hammer position (coarse or fine), pieces, with some device at the bottom of the mill to
uniform feed distribution and air assist. In addition, disrupt the flow of materials within the grinding
the nature and quality of the material(s) being chamber. This device must be large enough to take
processed will affect the performance of the products out of rotation and re-direct them back into
hammermill. the path of the hammers, but should not be so large
as to subtract from the screen area available for
Hammermills used in feed processing have some grinding. The application of a split screen design
common characteristics, but equipment will permit the user to adjust the screen sizing on
manufacturers differ significantly in how they the down-side and up-side to maximize productivity
achieve those same characteristics. For the purpose and product quality.
of this discussion, a number of basic design
principles will be reviewed as they apply to
maximizing the performance and minimizing the Outboard supported rotor
cost of operating a hammermill system.
As noted earlier, the rotor should be supported at
each end, preferably with standard bearings and
bearing housings. This will provide a degree of
Full-width top feed rigidity not available with an “overhung” rotor
The modern hammermill design must include a full- design and reduce any problems with rotor shaft
width top feed in order to achieve maximum “wind up,” even if the mill operates with an out-of-
efficiency and minimize the cost of operation. A balance rotor. Adequate support for the rotor is
full-width top feed ensures the entire screen area particularly important with today’s increased
can be utilized and that the work being capacity demands, requiring wider machines. The
accomplished will be evenly distributed across the use of standard bearings and housings is an added
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Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

benefit to the customer by increasing the the particle (large difference in velocities), less
availability of replacement parts should the need grinding takes place when the particles approach
arise. hammer tip speed. Many manufacturers incorporate
devices within their mills to interrupt this product
flow, allowing impact and reduction to continue.
Rigid rotor support Tear-circle hammermills have a more positive,
natural re-direction of product at the inlet than “full-
In order to maintain the relative position of the rotor
circle” design machines.
to the grinding chamber (screens and supporting
mechanisms) the foundation of the mill must be
Figure 10-8. Particle destruction zones in
extremely rigid since, even under normal
hammermills.
circumstances, a hammermill will be subject to
vibration and shock. A rigid structure positively
maintains the clearances between the hammer tips
and the screen through the full rotation for
consistent, efficient processing. This must be
accomplished without sacrificing the accessibility to
the grinding chamber, as routine maintenance of the
hammers and screens will be required.

Replaceable wear items

One final rule for a good hammermill design is “if it
can wear, it should be replaceable.” Beyond the
hammers, screens and pins, every component within
the hammermill will be subject to wear.
Accordingly, these components should be fabricated
from wear-resistant materials, heavy enough to
provide good service life and ultimately should be
reasonably simple to replace.
While the basic operational concepts are the same
for all hammermills, the actual unit operating
Basic operational concepts conditions change rather dramatically depending on
What is intended to take place inside a hammermill the materials being processed. Grains such as corn,
is the uniform, efficient reduction of the material wheat, sorghum and various soft stocks, like
introduced into the grinding chamber. This particle soybean meal, tend to be friable and easy to grind.
reduction occurs as a result of the impact between a Fibrous, oily or high-moisture products, like
rapidly-moving hammer and a relatively slow- screenings, animal proteins and grains like oats and
moving particle. If sufficient energy is transferred barley, on the other hand, are very tough and
during the collision, the particle breaks and is require much more energy to reduce.
accelerated toward the screen (Figure 10-8). Consequently, the hammermill set-up that works
Depending on the particle size and the angle of well for one will not necessarily work for the other.
approach, it either passes through the screen or
rebounds from the screen into the rapidly-moving The following discussion covers such factors as tip
hammers again. As materials move through the speeds, hammer pattern and position, horsepower
grinding chamber they tend to approach hammer tip ratios (to hammer and screen area) and air assist
speed. Since reduction only occurs when a systems. Little space is devoted to screen sizes
significant energy is transferred from the hammer to (perforation or hole size) since processing
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Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

variables would make any hard-and-fast statements with 1,800 RPM motors (5,425 meters per minute)
nearly impossible. and 112 cm mills with 1,200 or 1,500 RPM motors
(4,115 or 5,258 meters per minute) are both used
extensively in the processing of all kinds of feed
Tip speed ingredients.
Tip speed, in addition to the screen size, has a
significant influence on finished particle sizing.
High tip speeds (> 5,400 meters per minute) will Fine-grinding and tough-to-grind materials
always grind finer than lower tip speeds. Low tip For fine-grinding friable products and tough-to-
speeds (< 3,900 meters per minute), on the other grind materials like soybean hulls, mill feed and
hand, produce a coarser granulation with fewer mixtures with animal protein products, a higher tip
fines, all other factors being equal. As a rule, speed is indicated. Because more energy is required
smaller-holed screens should only be used with to grind these kinds of materials, more tip speed is
higher tip speeds and large-holed screens with needed to impart sufficient energy when the
lower tip speeds. Refer to the Table 10-2 for hammer to particle impact takes place. Normal tip
general guidelines for screen sizing in relation to speeds for fine-grinding and fibrous materials are
tip speeds. obtained on 107 cm and 112 cm mills operating at
1,800 RPM (5,944 and 6,096 meters per minute) or
Table 10-2. Screen sizing guidelines in relation to 71 cm mills operating at 3,000 RPM and 137 cm
tip speeds mills operating at 1,500 RPM (6,401 meters per
Tip Speed, minute). Recent developments in hammermill
< 3,900 3,900 – 5,400 > 5,400 grinding have included the use of 137 cm diameter
m/min
Grind Coarse and mills operating at 1,800 RPM. This very high tip
Coarse Fine speed (>7,620 meters per minute) is particularly
fine
Material Friable well suited to fine-grinding at high capacities and
Friable or high efficiency. Because a larger screen (holes)
Type Friable or
fibrous size can be used while maintaining the fineness of
fibrous
Screen Size, 5 mm or 3 mm or grind, operating costs are reduced as well.
4 mm
mm larger smaller
It should be noted while discussing tip speeds that,
Tip speed is simply a factor of mill diameter and even though two different hammermills with
motor RPM and is not easily changed on direct- different sized screens can make the same finished
coupled machines. There are a few v-belt drive particle size, they will achieve those results with
hammermills on the market today, but the time and different efficiencies. Conversely, hammermills
expense involved in maintaining those machines with different tip speeds will produce different
make them impractical for normal applications in finished products (lower speeds=coarser products)
feed manufacturing and oilseed process plants. even though they are fit with the same sized screen.
This is one reason it is important to include particle
sizing specifications (mean particle size or %
Friable products passing a test sieve) when identifying hammermill
For producing a uniform granulation with few fines performance requirements.
on friable products like corn, wheat, grain sorghum,
pelleted ingredients and solvent-extracted meals, an
intermediate tip speed is normally desired. Hammers
Hammermills with a tip speed of 3,900 to 5,400 There are many hammer styles available from
meters per minute will produce a high-quality suppliers around the world (Figure 10-9). At the
finished product with excellent capacity and same time, there are distinctly different types of
efficiency. Ninety-seven centimeter diameter mills hammers used in different regions of the world.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

European feed processors tend to favor a plain two- grooves in the screen material.
holed hammer with no hardfacing or edge
treatment. North and South American feed millers In most cases, the hammer pattern should include
tend to favor a hammer with a flared hardfaced end double hammers on the outside rows of at least two
(or ends). Each market finds a hammer type that opposing pins. Because the material in the grinding
best suits their particular needs. chamber near the sides of the mill moves more
slowly (dragging on the sides), the outside rows of
Figure 10-9. Possible hammer configurations. hammers must do more work and are subject to
more wear. Other means of dealing with this
problem are also implemented by some
manufacturers including thicker, longer or even
shorter hammers on the outside rows.

The hammer pattern in Figure 10-10 depicts a

typical hammer arrangement with good coverage of
the screen area, no trailing hammers and double
hammers on the outside rows of two opposing pins.
Note that good coverage does not necessarily mean
completely covering the screen with hammers, but
does mean distributing the hammers as uniformly as
possible across the available screen area.

Figure 10-10. Typical hammer arrangement.

As a rule, most of the hammer styles that have been

developed have been modified to meet a specific
operational problem. In many cases, a better design
of the hammermill grinding system would have
eliminated the need for the “special” hammer style.

Hammer patterns and positions have a profound

effect on the performance of any hammermill.
Because different materials grind differently, the
ideal number of hammers (pattern) and clearance to
the screen (position) will need to be adjusted
according to each application. At the same time, it
is important to make sure the hammer pattern
completely covers the working screen without
The hammer pattern (number of hammers used) and
having hammers trailing, that is hammers on
the position (coarse or fine) will affect the capacity
adjacent pins in-line with the preceding hammer.
of the hammermill and the quality (fineness) of the
Complete screen coverage ensures maximum
ground products. For friable products more
process efficiency, as well as controlling operating
hammers (heavier pattern) will reduce capacity and
costs by getting the most out of each screen set.
make the grind finer. Fewer hammers (lighter
Trailing hammers will tend to cause accelerated
pattern) will increase capacity and make the grind
wear in one area of the screen and may actually cut
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Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

slightly coarser and more uniform. turned in time to effectively use the hardfacing on
both ends. It is also important to note that the
Many types of fibrous or tough-to-grind products second hole on two-hole hammers is exposed to
will require heavier hammer patterns just to process the grinding operation and so is subject to some
at all. Indeed, for some very difficult-to-grind wear before it is ever used to mount the hammer to
products the hammermill will be fit with hammers the pin.
on all eight pins, with some coarse and some fine.
Hammer patterns and position for fibrous and
tough-to-grind products
Hammer patterns and positions for friable As materials become tougher to grind, an increasing
products hammer load is employed to maximize contact
When a relatively coarse, uniform finished product between hammers and particles. Where increasing
is desired, a “light” hammer pattern is selected. the number of hammers used to grind friable
This means that there are fewer hammers per pin, so products may decrease mill capacity, increasing the
fewer collisions will occur with particles in the number of hammers for tough-to-grind products
grinding chamber. Light hammer patterns will will often improve mill capacity. In some cases, it
demonstrate higher efficiencies than heavier is desirable to add hammers to all eight pins for
patterns because less work is done. In many cases, maximum grinding efficiency and to improve
hammermill efficiency can be improved from 5- screen coverage and utilization.
10% simply by reducing the number of hammers
used in the mill. While the grind will be slightly Because more work is done by the hammers and
coarser, the difference is not noticeable without the screens on tough-to-grind products, reducing the
benefit of a full sieve analysis. For maximum clearance between the hammer and screen improves
capacity and minimum fines, the hammers should grinding results. This is more true as the screen
be in the coarse position with maximum clearance opening and grind size become smaller. The “fine
between the hammers and the screen. position” puts the end of the hammer 0.48-0.64 cm
from the screen and maximizes the work done to the
When lighter hammer patterns are employed, the product. While wear to the screen and hammer is
power per hammer ratio is also affected. For increased, the work done increases as well, making
grinding friable materials in large diameter a more efficient process.
hammermills (over 91 cm) with 0.6 cm thick
hammers, the ratio should be in the range of 1.9-2.6 With heavier hammer patterns, the power/hammer
kWh/hammer, ideally about 2.2 kWh. For small ratio naturally declines. For tough-to-grind
diameter mills (up to 71 cm) with 0.6 cm thick materials in large diameter hammermills (over 91
hammers, the range is roughly 0.75-1.5 cm) with 0.6 cm thick hammers, the ratio should be
kWh/hammer, with 1.1 kWh/hammer ideal for mills in the range of 1.1-1.9 kWh/hammer under normal
up to 56 cm and 1.5 kWh/hammer for 71 cm mills. circumstances, going as low as 1:1 for particularly
Hammers will typically be mounted on four pins difficult-to-grind materials or when grinding to very
only when processing friable materials to a coarse, fine particle sizes as in aquaculture feeds. For small
uniform finished product. This allows maximum diameter mills (up to 71 cm) with 0.64 cm thick
product into the mill with minimum number of hammers the ration will be roughly 1:1 (1
contacts being made. kWh/hammer) for normal applications, going as
low as 1:2 (1 kWh/2 hammers) for very fine or
Normally, hardface flared hammers will be used difficult grinding. Placing hammers on all eight
for the efficient reduction of friable products. pins tends to reduce surging in the mill and
Either one-hole or two-hole hammers will provide improves screen coverage without overloading
satisfactory results, though good maintenance is either hammer pins or rotor plates.
required to be sure the two-hole hammers are
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

In general, per 0.64 cm thick hammer: frequently as every 8-24 hours of operation.
•For 3,000/3,600 RPM mills use 0.75-1.5 kWh (15-
20 cm long x 5 cm wide hammers). It is easy to see how new screens allow more
•For 1,500/1,800 RPM mills use 1.9-2.6 kWh (25 product to escape, improving capacity and grinding
cm long x 6.4 cm wide hammers). efficiency. While thicker screens may last longer,
•Match hammer pattern (light, medium, heavy) to they significantly reduce the tonnes/hour that a mill
mill horsepower. can process. When maintenance costs are typically
US$0.02-0.04/tonne and electrical costs range from
There is also a relationship between the about US$0.25 to more than US$1.00 per tonne,
kWh/hammer and the wear on the hammer. Too saving money by not changing screens is not cost
much kWh/hammer will tend to “rock” the hammer effective. Normally, screen material thickness will
each time the hammer swings through a bed of be dictated by the hole size, as it is not possible to
material on the screen, leading to rapid wear of the punch a hole in material that is thicker than the
hammer hole and hammer mounting pin. In extreme diameter of the hole being punched.
cases, the bed may be so deep that the hammer
wears above the hard facing. If this happens, the Another screen configuration problem is the amount
correct solution is not to use a hammer with more of open area that a particular screen offers. Factors
hard facing extending up the side of the hammer, affecting open area include hole size, stagger, angle
but to reduce the kWh, increase the number of of stagger and land dimension. Screens with fewer
hammers or reduce the feed rate to the mill. Too holes have less open area, are easier to produce and
little kWh/hammer dramatically reduces generally cost less. Screens with in-line
hammermill efficiency by consuming motor power perforations, as opposed to staggered hole patterns,
simply to turn the rotor with its load of hammers. are also easier to produce and so cost less. Neither
Too little kWh/hammer also tends to wear the can provide good grinding efficiently and both lead
hammers right on the corner and does not to poor finished quality products because of over
effectively use all the working surface of the grinding. Screen wear is accelerated with in-line
hammer. In extreme cases, the rotor may actually perforations and screen may actually be cut by
run slow, allowing the hammers to rock, causing wearing the land between the holes in a very short
hammer hole and pin wear. time. Screens with little open area may wear a long
time, but the actual grinding cost per tonne is
greatly exaggerated because of the increased energy
Screens cost.
Hammermill screens are the highest wearing item
on the hammermill and, in many cases, the most Two rules of thumb apply to hammermill screens in
obvious and seemingly expensive maintenance relation to applied power: 1) Never have less than
item. However, considering the cost of energy, 90 cm2 of screen area per horsepower (more is
hammermill screen cost per tonne is quite low, and always better), 2) Never have less than 26 cm² of
the best way to minimize the cost of hammermill open area per horsepower.
operation is by frequent changing of the
hammermill screens to maintain capacity, efficiency Consider a typical 112 cm diameter by 76 cm wide
and product quality. Depending on the material hammermill grinding corn. A tear-circle machine
being ground and the screen hole size, one set of will have approximately 2.3 square meters of raw
high-quality hard faced hammers will normally screen area. This area divided by 90.3 cm2/kWh =
wear out 2-4 sets of screens before the hammers 250 kWh maximum.
require replacement. For small diameter screen
holes, even more frequent replacement may be If a screen with a 4 mm round hole perforation is
required. For certain aquaculture and pet food used, the actual open area is roughly 36%; or 2.3 m²
applications it is not uncommon to replace screens x 36% = 0.83 m2 of actual open area. This is
with very small holes (1 mm and smaller) as divided by 250 kWh = 32 cm² open area per kWh.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

This machine would grind very efficiently and the hammers to “rock” on the hammer pins.
produce a high-quality, uniform finished meal.

If the same machine were equipped with a 1.5 mm Rotary pocket feeders
round hole screen and 20 mm back-up screen (to
As the name indicates, rotary pocket feeders
prevent the light gauge sizing screen from “blowing
(Figure 10-11) utilize a rotor mechanism much like
out”) for fine-grinding in preparation for pelleting,
a rotary airlock to evenly distribute the feed to the
or extrusion, the open area would be 2.3 m² x 30% x
hammermill. In most cases, the rotor is segmented
51% = 0.36 m². If the same 250 kWh motor were
and the pockets are staggered to improve the
applied, the open area per kWh would be 0.36
distribution of the feed and to reduce surges in the
m²/250 kWh = 0.001 m² open area per kWh. This
feed rate. Because the rotary pocket type feeders
mill would not grind as efficiently, capacity would
rely on a free-flowing material to fill the pockets,
be reduced and the product would be heated
they are best suited to granular materials with a
considerably and moisture driven off in the process.
density of 560 kg/m³ or more, such as whole grains
and coarsely-ground meals.
For screens, screen area per kWh:
• For 3,000/3,600 RPM mills—65-103 cm2/kWh
Figure 10-11. Typical rotary pocket feeder.
typical; 77-90 cm2/kWh for grain; 90-103
cm2/kWh for fiber.
• For 1,500/1,800 RPM mills—65-135 cm2/kWh
typical; 90-103 cm2/kWh for grain; 103-135
cm2/kWh for fiber.
• More is always better.

One very simple way of increasing hammermill

capacity without significantly affecting the finished
grind, or adding expense to the grinding system,
would be to replace the “up” side screen with
perforations that are 0.08-0.23 cm larger than the Air-assist
“down” side screen. This may add 10-15% to the The final application topic to be considered is the
hammermill capacity and produce no noticeable use of aspiration air to improve mill efficiency and
difference in the finished products. performance. A properly-designed air-assist system
will increase hammermill capacity by as much as 15
to 40%. The air-assist system controls the
Feeders environment of the grinding chamber in the
hammermill and aids in moving product from the
Proper feeding of a hammermill is absolutely grinding chamber through the screen perforations.
essential if the system is to operate at maximum A properly-designed air-assist allows a hammermill
grinding efficiency and with the lowest possible to grind more efficiently, producing a more uniform
cost per tonne. Uneven or inconsistent feeding can finished product with less heating, and controls
lead to surges in the motor load. This reduces dusting around the mill. Although hammermill
capacity by causing the feed rate to be set lower capacity will vary with the type of machine and
than optimal in order to ensure the surging load operational parameters, air-assisted grinding
does not overload the motor. Because the load is systems will out produce non-assisted systems by
constantly changing, the motor cannot operate at 15-40%.
peak efficiency, and so increases the grinding costs.
An additional liability of surging feed that is often Any hammermill acts rather like a large fan, with
overlooked is the fact that surges in the feed tend to the rotor and hammers moving air as the blades on
accelerate wear on the hammers and pins by causing the hub would do. Normally this “inherent air” is
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

about 0.014 m3/minute per 6.5 cm2 of raw screen large enough that even when operating at full
area for a modern tear-circle hammermill. In order capacity, the velocity of the air will not exceed the
to assist the mill, an induced airflow from the inlet same 610-762 meters per minute as at the inlet. If
of the grinding chamber through the screen is this critical path does not exist, there will be a high
required. Simply venting the discharge of the static pressure outside the grinding chamber and the
hammermill may not be adequate to relieve the desired pressure drop across the screen may not
pressure inside the mill since the air is being forced exist.
out in all directions, including the inlet.
Once the air is through the mill, it is necessary to
A good rule of thumb for the amount of air required allow the entrained fines to settle out before sending
to assist product and control dusting is 0.04-0.045 it along to the cyclone or filter system. To
m3/minute per 6.5 cm2 of screen area. Pressure accomplish this, a plenum or settling chamber
drops across the mill may range from 0.005-0.012 should be provided between the air/product
bar, depending on system operating conditions. In conveyor and the pick-up point. While in the past,
order to make an air-assist system work, several such figures as “3-5 times the duct diameter” have
items must be factored including the airflow into the been suggested, the bottom line is to reduce the
mill, paths for the air and product out of the mill, velocity as much as possible to permit the fine
separating the product from the air stream and material to settle out. If the plenum is designed so
controlling the path of the air in the system. the air velocity drops below 15 times the bulk
density (183 meters per minute for most feed
To aid the product in moving through the grinding ingredients), the separation will usually be
chamber and screen, the air must enter with the adequate. Larger plenums will reduce the velocity
products being ground (Figure 10-12). If a further and improve the air/fines separation. For
sufficient opening for this air is not provided, the practical purposes, the plenum cannot be too large.
hammermill system may suffer from symptoms not
unlike asthma. The velocity of the inlet air should To make the air-assist system work, it is necessary
normally not exceed 610-762 meters per minute. to control the path the air takes through the
hammermill. Normally, the discharge end of the
Figure 10-12. Air entry in a typical hammermill. take-away conveyor must include some kind of
airlock to ensure the air is pulled through the
hammermill instead of back through the discharge
system. This may be as simple as a shroud over the
take-away screw or as complex as a powered rotary
airlock at the discharge of the drag conveyor.

Other considerations
Not specifically addressed so far in this discussion
is the need to provide a relatively clean feed stream
to the hammermill grinder, no matter what is being
processed. Foreign material such as dirt, stones and
other mineral impurities greatly accelerate wear of
the working components. Large stones and pieces
of non-magnetic metals can not only damage
To permit the air-assist to convey product through hammermill screens, but can cause a set of
the grinding chamber and screen there must be hammers to go out of balance or even fail
some place for the air to go when it discharges from catastrophically. This is not only expensive, but can
the mill. Ideally, the air/product conveyor will be also expose personnel in the area to danger.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

Magnetic protection is necessary in order to realize drive) to allow the tip speed to be adjusted
the best life of the working components of the mill. according to the materials being processed and
Errant tramp iron that enters a hammermill can finished particle size required. Hammermills can
knock holes in the screen, break hammers and easily be set up to grind corn to 500, 400 or even
create undesirable sources of ignition. Always buy 300µ mean particle size or smaller if needed.
the best possible magnetic protection that is
reasonable for a specific system and make sure the Energy cost
magnets are routinely cleaned. Nothing in the In a typical feed milling application grinding corn, a
process plant is less productive than magnets that roller mill will produce anywhere from 15 to 85%
are covered with tramp iron. Hammermills should more tonnes per hour than a hammermill, depending
all have a vibration monitor switch to shut down the on the finished particle size. As energy costs
hammermill in the event excessive vibration is (US$/kWh) increase, the difference between the
encountered. roller mill and hammermill are even more
considerable. For the following examples, an
Perhaps the most important factor to keep in mind energy cost of US$0.05/kWh has been used to
regarding hammermill operating costs, is that the compare the cost difference between grinding with
energy required is typically 5 to 10 times more a roller mill or grinding with a hammermill. As
expensive than the cost of maintenance parts energy prices move higher or lower, the actual
(screens and hammers). grinding costs will change as well.

Type of feed(s)
The economics of grinding It has been well documented that swine diets
utilizing roller mill ground corn provide a positive
As noted previously, both roller mills and
effect in terms of feed conversion, even when the
hammermills are used to grind common feed
diets are pelleted. In a case such as this, the roller
materials in preparation for pelleting and other
mill could easily be applied to the task of grinding
extrusion processes. Whether to use a hammermill
for pelleted feeds. On the other hand, certain
or a roller mill will depend on a variety of factors
poultry rations such as ducks or turkeys require a
including, but not limited to: The material(s) to be
very high-quality pellet in order to allow the animal
ground, energy costs, type of feed(s) produced and
to consume the feed effectively. Hammermill
level of automation required.
grinding may be indicated, particularly if the diet
contains ingredients that are not well suited to roller
Materials
mill grinding.
Roller mills work best on relatively easy-to-grind
materials like corn, grain sorghum, wheat and
Automation
soybean meal. A triple pair roller mill can
Both roller mills and hammermills can be equipped
effectively be used to produce a coarse, uniform
with rotary pocket feeders, making automation of
cracked corn and grind corn down to a finished
feed rate control very simple using conventional
particle size around 400-500µ mean particle size.
inverter (variable frequency drive) technology. By
Roller mills are not particularly effective on rations
constantly monitoring and adjusting the feed rate to
that are high-protein, high-fat or contain a lot of
maintain a pre-determined motor load, both the
fibrous materials.
throughput of the grinding equipment, as well as the
efficiency, are maximized. Since most
Hammermills can process a wide range of products
hammermills operate with a fixed rotor speed (tip
but need to be properly equipped for the specific
speed), the only variable in processing is the feed
task at hand. If a hammermill will be used to
rate; so automation is really quite simple and
process a wide range of materials and finished
straightforward. Roller mills do require some
particle size, it may be necessary to equip the main
adjustment of the roll gap to take into account
driving motor with an inverter (variable frequency
processing variables such as grain moisture or
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 10: Grinding Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

physical conditions, and to accommodate the

normal wear of the roll corrugations. For this
reason, automation of roller mills is more
complicated than hammermills, and final roll
adjustment may still require examining the finished
ground product and additional roll adjustment to
ensure the finished product is within process
specifications.

This content was edited and reviewed by Dr. Adam

Fahrenholz, Assistant Professor of Feed Milling at
North Carolina State University, Dr. Charles Stark,
Jim and Carol Brown Associate Professor of Feed
Technology at Kansas State University, and Dr.
Cassandra Jones, Assistant Professor of Feed
Technology at Kansas State University.
 Mixing Considerations when
Pelleting Livestock Feeds
BY EUGENIO BORTONE, PH.D, PAS, DPL. ACAS

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, CHARLES STARK, AND CASSANDRA JONES

distribution in the meal will be inadequate to

The nutritionist puts together a formula to meet produce pellets with the desired hardness or
the target animal requirements for growth, durability. In this case, the additive will be lost and
maintenance, reproduction and general health. It is excess fines will be produced in the process.
therefore, very important that the ingredients be
proportioned and mixed to obtain a homogeneous Excessive fines will also have a direct impact on
blend. Most of the ingredients in the feed costs, as they increase the shrink and re-process
formulation are in mash form and are added to the costs. The fines that are recovered in the process
mixer according a to pre-set sequence that ensures a increase cost because they need to be re-processed.
homogeneous blend. Most of the time, the fines are recycled back to the
pellet surge bin; however, if excessive fines are put
In order to ensure that the mixing is done properly, into the pellet mill, the pellet quality will continue
the major dry ingredients are added first, from to deteriorate as the fines tend to lose their binding
largest to smallest. The last dry ingredients to be capacity.
added are the minors—composed of the premixes,
which are usually vitamins, minerals and other
additives. After all dry ingredients are added and Moisture
allowed to mix, the operator proceeds to add the
It is common to add liquids in any feed formula.
liquid ingredients. Understandably, mixing is then
One of the most important liquids is water. Water
one of the most critical steps in feed manufacturing
helps reconstitute the moisture loss during grinding
process and, if not done correctly, it can have
of some ingredients. It also helps to raise the
adverse effects on the nutritional and physical
moisture content in the meal that, in turn, can
quality of the finished product or pellet.
improve the pelleting process. Adding 1-2% water
in the mixer can help improve pellet quality. The
Improper mixing can also adversely affect the
moisture added in the mixer should be sprayed so it
pelleting efficiency because of stoppages of the
can be well distributed in the meal. The water
pellet mill. This can occur if excessive ingredients
added in the mixer has ample time to be internalized
(in most cases, liquids) are added resulting in lumps
prior to the conditioning process, and this can help
that can cause the die to plug up.
achieve the desired conditioned mash moisture and
temperature.
Poor mixing This can be explained in the following example:
A complete homogeneous mix will produce uniform Target mash moisture prior to pelleting should be at
pellets. Poor mixing can have an adverse effect on around 17%. The initial mash moisture is 11%, and
the pellet quality. If pelleting aids, such as a binder, the meal temperature is 22ºC and we need to reach
are not added in the correct sequence, their 17% moisture in the conditioner. This means that
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 11: Mixing Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 11: Mixing Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

with low-pressure steam the meal should gain 6% (i.e., fats and oils). If a fat or oil is added first, this
moisture. This amount of moisture can be partially can result in a meal that is coated with a
achieved via water in the mixer or via condensed hydrophobic layer that will repel water and prevent
steam added during the conditioning process. If no its absorption. It is important that aqueous fluids be
water was added in the mixer to achieve the target applied first and allowed some mixing time to
moisture prior to pelleting, it would mean that the improve water uptake. The water that is
meal temperature will need to be raised from 22ºC internalized will improve the starch gelatinization
to 97°C (12.5ºC for every 1% moisture added via and produce pellets that are harder.
steam). This high temperature, although not
impossible, is very difficult to achieve unless the
pellet mill is equipped with double-, triple-, or Ensuring proper mixing
twin-shell conditioners. However, if 2% water was
Any imbalance in the nutritional profile will have
added in the mixer, the amount of moisture added
adverse effects on the growth of the target species.
via steam condensation in the conditioner will be
Fast-growing animals are the most susceptible to
reduced to only 4%; this translates to final meal
any imbalance in the nutritional profile of the feed.
temperature of 77ºC—which is more reasonable.
Therefore, every pellet should be a representative
sample of the formula for the target species it was
Other liquids are added in the mixer to meet
designed for. Nutritional imbalances can occur if
formulation requirements. These include liquid
minor ingredients (vitamins, minerals, antibiotics,
amino acids, molasses and fat/oils. In any case, it is
pelleting aids and other additives) are not
important that the liquids be sprayed and not poured
homogeneously distributed in the mixed meal. The
into the mix. Sprayed liquid ingredients are better
imbalances can be in both directions—one of
distributed in the meal. Poor liquid distribution will
nutrient deficiency if some ingredients are not
result in pellets that do not meet the specifications
mixed, and one of excess or even toxicity (minerals,
of the formula and, worst of all, will not meet the
vitamins, antibiotics) if ingredients are in excess.
requirements of the target animal.
To ensure proper mixing quality, the mixer should
In order to increase liquid distribution in the mix, it
be tested at least every 6 months (McCoy, 1992).
is important to have spray nozzles that can fan out
The mixer test measures the coefficient of variation
the liquid properly. This can be achieved if the
(CV)—which is the standard deviation (σ) divided
atomizer heads are placed as far as possible from
by the mean (µ) multiplied by 100. The mixer is
the mash. Poor liquid distribution can affect pellet
optimized at different time intervals, and the one
physical quality as liquids not properly distributed
with the least amount of mixing time that is below
in the mixer can result in lumps of material. These
10% CV should be selected. The mixing time can
lumps can produce spotted pellets and pellets of
vary with formulation type. Therefore, it is
uneven color, texture and hardness.
important that a mixer test be performed for each
formula type.
When applying liquids in the mixer it is important
to also take into account their physical properties.
Mixer efficiency can be affected by the amount of
Liquids that are highly viscous will need to be
build-up on the paddles and ribbons. The ingredient
applied at temperatures that reduce the viscosity and
physical properties (density, particle size,
ensure their distribution in the meal. If a highly-
hygroscopicity and electrostatic charges) can build-
viscous liquid is added cold it will not disperse well
up in the discharge gates that prevent them from
in the meal, and this can result in poor pelleting
tightly closing, and cause wear of the paddles and
performance, as well as nutritional imbalances in
ribbons. It is therefore important to ensure that the
the finished feed. It is also important to take into
mixer is kept clean and properly functioning to
account how liquids are added in the meal. It is
ensure a homogeneous blend and optimum pellet
recommended that liquids high in water content be
quality.
added first, followed by the more hydrophobic ones
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 11: Mixing Considerations when Pelleting Livestock Feeds

References
McCoy, R.A., 1992. Effect of mixing uniformity on
broiler chick performance. Master’s thesis,
Kansas State University, Manhattan,
Kansas, USA.

Dr. Eugenio Bortone is a Sr. Principal Scientist for

PepsiCo-Frito Lay. He previously served as the
R&D Manager for Ralston Purina and earned his
B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. from Kansas State University.

This content was edited and reviewed by Dr. Adam

Fahrenholz, Assistant Professor of Feed Milling at
North Carolina State University, Dr. Charles Stark,
Jim and Carol Brown Associate Professor of Feed
Technology at Kansas State University, and Dr.
Cassandra Jones, Assistant Professor of Feed
Technology at Kansas State University.
 Matching product to cooling process
BY EUGENIO BORTONE, PH.D, PAS, DPL. ACAS

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, CHARLES STARK, AND CASSANDRA JONES

product must also increase. It is also important to

Moisture is added in the pelleting process to the increase the dwell time in the cooler for the same
meal, both in the mixer and the conditioner. In the airflow as the diameter of the pellet increases.
mixer, moisture is added to reconstitute moisture Table 12-1 shows the relationship between pellet
lost during grinding and also comes in the form of size, retention time, product throughput and airflow
other liquid ingredients, such as liquid amino acids. required to cool the pellets.
Adding water in the mixer is an important step. It
helps to raise the moisture and temperature when In order to better understand the cooling process, it
added as steam during conditioning. As the hot, is important to take a closer look at the energy
moistened meal is pressed out, the temperature is balance and the thermodynamics involved. Animal
elevated further due to the frictional forces exerted. feeds can have a specific heat of about 2.0 kJ/kg°C.
The moisture content of the pellets varies depending The specific heat will depend on the composition of
on the product design, but it can be as high as 17%. the ingredients in the formula. For example, we
In the end, the excess moisture content needs to be have 1,000 kg of a pelleted poultry feed with a
removed in order to increase the shelf life and the specific heat of 2 kJ/kg°C. Air has a specific heat of
pellet hardness. 1 kJ/kg°C.

Cooling must be done as soon as the pellets leave

the die. An efficient cooler should be able to reduce Table 12-1. Pellet size, retention time, product
the product temperature to within 5-8°C of ambient throughput, and airflow requirements.
temperature. As the air is forced through the pellet
bed, it is heated—thus increasing its capacity to
pick up moisture. The hotter air then removes Pellet Airflow, Residence
moisture that has condensed on the surface of the diameter, mm m3/hr time, min
pellets. 2.0 1,200 6-8
2.4 1,200 6-8
The process of removing moisture with unsaturated 3.0 1,500 6-8
air is known as evaporative cooling. When non- 3.5 1,500 6-8
saturated air is passed through, it picks up the 4.0 1,500 8-10
moisture and at the same time cools the pellets. As 4.5 1,600 8-10
more air is passed through the pellets, more 4.7 1,600 8-10
moisture from the core of the pellet is drawn to the 5.0 1,600 10-12
surface, until almost all the moisture added 6.5 1,600 10-12
upstream is removed. 8.0 1,600 12-14
9.5 1,860 12-14
Product size, in particular the diameter, is an 12.5 1,860 14-16
important factor to consider when evaluating the 16.0 2,100 14-16
cooling capacity of the cooler. As pellet diameter 19.0 2,100 16-18
increases, the amount of air required to cool the

Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations

Chapter 12: Matching Product to Cooling Processes
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 12: Matching Product to Cooling Processes

In this example, we want to know how much moisture than the target, resulting in “shrink”
moisture can be removed by air alone, and if the losses. In this case, the excessive loss of moisture
volume of air is enough to cool and dry the pellets can be controlled by reducing the airflow via an air
to safe levels. dampener or reducing the residence time in the unit.
In any case, it is important that pellets leaving the
Assumptions: cooler be no more than 5°C above ambient
 Initial pellet moisture content: 16% temperature. If the pellets are too hot when bagged,
 Energy required for 1 kg water evaporation: this may cause condensation on the surface of the
2,500 kJ/kg pellets that, in turn, will lead to molding—thus
 Mass flow rate of air: 1,500 m3/hr reducing the shelf life of the product.
 Mass flow rate of pellets: 1,000 kg/hr
 Specific heat of air: 1 kJ/kg°C
 Specific heat of pellets: 2 kJ/ kg°C Cooler efficiency
 Temperature differential of air: 45°C when The cooler efficiency depends how evenly the
heated by pellets – 25°C ambient = 20°C airflow is passed through the bed of product.
 Temperature differential of pellets: 80°C as Uneven bed distribution produced as a result of
hot pellets - 30°C when cooled by air = poor pellet dosing to the cooler may result in pellets
50°C with uneven moisture. Air will flow through the
path of least resistance (Figure 12-1) or the valleys
First, we must calculate the energy content of the formed in the bed. If most of the air flows through
pellet: these valleys, the pellets therein will be drier than
the pellets in the peaks (more resistance to airflow).
Energy content of the pellet = pellet mass flow rate To correct this, pellets must be evenly distributed
× pellet specific heat × pellet T differential along the bed (horizontal cooler) or dosed
1,000 kg/hr × 2 kJ/kg°C × 50°C = 100,000 kJ/hr uniformly in the whole area (vertical counterflow
coolers).
Next, we can calculate the quantity of moisture in
the air that is available for evaporation: Figure 12-1. Airflow movement in cooler beds.
Energy from the hot pellets to heat air = air mass
flow rate × air specific heat × air T differential
1,500 m3/hr x 1 kJ/kg°C × 20°C = 30,000 kJ/hr

Total energy left to evaporate the water =

100,000 kJ/hr – 30,000 kJ/hr = 70,000 kJ/hr

Total water evaporated =

70,000 kJ /hr ÷ 2,500 kJ/kg = 28 kg of H2O/hr

In this case, 2.8% of water was removed from the

pellets per hour (28 kg/hr ÷ 1,000 kg/hr × 100),
leaving the pellets with a final moisture content of
13.2% (16 - 2.8 = 13.2%). Clearly, the changing of
other variables will alter the quantity of moisture
removed. Realistically, changing the pellet specific
heat, initial pellet moisture content, or air moisture
content, 2 - 4% moisture can be removed from
pellets. If air is too dry when it enters the pellet
cooler, it may cause the pellets to lose more
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 12: Matching Product to Cooling Processes

In counterflow coolers it is common to find a the cooling process. Also, if too much fat is added
rotating arm that helps to keep bed depth even (see and the pellets are brittle, clumps of fat and fines
Figure 12-2). A disadvantage of such a device is can be formed, inhibiting airflow through the bed of
that it can create more fines as it passes through the pellets. It is therefore recommended to allow for
bed of pellets. To correct this problem, some the fat addition after cooling and after fines have
manufacturers have come up with PLC-controlled been removed, just before bagging.
dosing conveyors that rotate and at the same time
move in the horizontal axis. This allows the unit to Pellet bed depth is also an important factor to
fill at every possible corner of the vertical consider in how the cooler will perform. In
counterflow cooler and produce a very even bed of counterflow coolers, the bed depth can be adjusted
product without imparting mechanical energy or to a specific residence time. These units come with
causing pellet breakage. low and high depth sensors that can be used in PLC
systems to control the dwell time. For larger
Figure 12-2. Counterflow cooler with rotating arm. diameter pellets, the bed depth will be increased to
increase the residence time and provide the right
cooling and drying. The airflow must be properly
balanced to achieve proper cooling conditions. If
the bed depth is too deep, it may restrict the flow of
air and thus reduce the cooling efficiency. In this
case, the manufacturer should ensure adequate
airflow that matches the production rate of the pellet
mill for the maximum residence time. In horizontal
coolers, the bed depth is also important and will
vary depending on the pellet diameter. For smaller
pellet diameters, it is common to have 15-17 cm of
bed depth, and this can increase to 23-24 cm for the
larger diameter pellets.

Pellet porosity will also affect cooling efficiency.

Hard, dense pellets will take a longer time to cool
and dry than pellets that are porous for the same
pellet diameter. As the pellet hardness and diameter
Pellet diameter is also a key factor in how well the increase, the required residence time in the cooler
pellets will cool and dry. Larger diameter pellets also increases as shown in Figure 12-3.
will require longer dwell times in the cooling unit to
allow the moisture to travel from the core to the It is typically recommended to use between 1,300-
surface. Also, the heat transfer from the core to the 1,500 cubic meters of air per metric tonne of pellets.
surface is much slower. This is why smaller pellets This will vary with the type and design of the
cool and dry faster than larger diameter pellets. cooler. The air speed should be sufficient to avoid
Smaller pellets also have more surface area of dust settling in the cooling ducts. Air speeds above
contact with the airflow, thus better cooling and 25 m/s can result in fines being blown out of the
drying efficiencies. In general, cooler capacity cyclone.
increases as pellet diameter decreases. In the pellet
mill, pellet diameter decreases as the capacity of the
mill decreases.

In some feed mills, fat is added to the hot pellets as

they exit the pellet mill. The fat that coats the
pellets creates a barrier for moisture removal during
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 12: Matching Product to Cooling Processes

Figure 12-3. Pellet hardness and diameter vs.

residence time in the cooler. The product depth is not even in both columns;
which may cause air to flow at a higher speed in the
areas of least resistance. An advantage of this type
of cooler is the small footprint and ease of
operation. However, these coolers are known for
having blockage problems, as pellets tend to bridge,
and more so if pellets are high in moisture or too
soft.

Horizontal coolers
These units are recommended for soft, moist or
Air temperature in the duct system needs to be as delicate pellets. They are less prone to compaction,
high as possible to avoid condensation. The hot air but a disadvantage of these units is the large
will carry the moisture out into the exhaust without footprint requirement and high maintenance costs
the opportunity for it to condense in the piping associated with all the moving parts.
system. If condensation occurs, fines can be
trapped and form a crust of material which can Depending on the space availability, horizontal
mold and cross-contaminate the fines that could be coolers can be built as single-, double- (Figure 12-
re-routed to the pellet mill. It is therefore 4) or triple-pass. The single-pass has only one
recommended to set the exhaust air at around 40- moving apron which discharges the pellets at the
60°C. end opposite to the intake. Double-pass units are
shorter, with two decks equipped with a moving
Horizontal coolers are equipped with perforated apron. Pellets fall from the top deck to the bottom
pans or trays. The design and size of the orifices in one and the discharge can be underneath the inlet.
the pans vary between manufacturers. The If not properly designed, their energy costs may
objective of the orifices is to allow enough air also be higher, because they require more air
volume to pass through the pellets. Airflow through volume per unit area than vertical or counterflow
the trays can be interrupted if the orifices become units.
clogged up with fines. Therefore, it is critical to
keep the pans clean. Pellets should also be Figure 12-4. Horizontal cooler.
distributed evenly across the pans and the speed
adjusted to match the throughput of the pellet mill.
If the cooler pans are run too fast, the pellet
distribution and bed depth will not be adequate,
causing uneven moisture distribution in the pellets.

Vertical coolers
Vertical coolers are simple in design and are
considered low-maintenance units because they
have few moving parts. They are basically a tower Counterflow coolers
divided into two compartments with a plenum As with the vertical cooler, counterflow coolers
chamber in the middle separating the two columns (Figures 12-5 and 12-6) require little space and
of product. The pellets are fed from the top and maintenance. Somewhat similar to vertical
exposed to high-speed air that is pulled through the coolers, they are fed from the top via an airlock.
columns by a fan connected to the plenum. They require a properly-designed spreader to
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 12: Matching Product to Cooling Processes

distribute in-coming pellets evenly. Discharge is Maintaining the cooling system in review
automatic when the pellet bed reaches the level 1. Pellets coming out of the cooler should be 5-6°C
indicator that actuates the slide gates. The above ambient. If the pellets are hotter than
discharging gates are designed to lift the pellet desired, the operator must check the speed of the
bed, thus loosening them. unit if it is a horizontal cooler, or the high level
indicator in the case of a counterflow cooler, to
At the same time, the discharge gate opens, ensure adequate residence time.
allowing the pellets to flow through without
pinching them. The gap is adjusted to best match 2. Bed depth or filling should be checked
the pellet diameter. In contrast to vertical coolers, periodically to ensure that the cooler will draw air
where ambient air is drawn from the sides, this correctly. A vertical cooler should be completely
cooler passes air through the bottom, thus the term filled to work correctly. The horizontal cooler also
“counterflow,” or opposite of the flow of the pellets. must have a complete bed fill across its width to
operate efficiently. Unfilled areas of the trays will
Figure 12-5. Counterflow cooler. allow more airflow through them and less in the
trays with pellets, resulting in poor cooling
efficiency.

3. The cooler must be checked periodically for

deposits or build-up that may have occurred during
the time in operation. It is common to find built-up
material that has dislodged from the pellet mill,
clogging the trays of the horizontal cooler.

4. Periodical inspections of the fans, cyclone and

piping should be conducted to ensure that no build-
up has formed inside. The build-ups can be reduced
if the fan is allowed to run for longer periods after
the cooler has been emptied. By doing so, the air in
the system will achieve the same temperature as the
air drawn in, and this will reduce the chances for
material build-up and condensation.
Figure 12-6. Interior of counterflow cooler.
Dr. Eugenio Bortone is a Sr. Principal Scientist for
PepsiCo-Frito Lay. He previously served as the
R&D Manager for Ralston Purina and earned his
B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. from Kansas State University.

This content was edited and reviewed by Dr. Adam

Fahrenholz, Assistant Professor of Feed Milling at
North Carolina State University, Dr. Charles Stark,
Jim and Carol Brown Associate Professor of Feed
Technology at Kansas State University, and Dr.
Cassandra Jones, Assistant Professor of Feed
Technology at Kansas State University.
Post-pellet liquid application systems
BY TERRY STEMLER

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, CHARLES STARK, AND CASSANDRA JONES

into the application system, then you may want to

The ideal post-pellet liquid application system
divert and ignore the material that comes from the
would expose each pellet to the proper amount of cooler during initial start-up when the flow rate is
liquid by weight with a 360-degree uniform coating very low. When looking at various methods for
of material, with no over-spray or residual build-up metering and measuring the flow of material, make
of materials on downstream equipment. In such a sure that you consider the on-going cost, as well as
system, as much of the surface area of the pellet the up-front cost.
needs to be exposed to the spray as possible in a
contained environment, with enough time given for There is a common misconception that if an
the liquid to be absorbed. The general criteria for ingredient is cheap, you can use a cheap method for
the system would be the following: measuring the ingredient because it doesn’t cost
• Accurate ingredient metering; much. If the ingredient is expensive, or if you use a
• Uniform ingredient distribution; large quantity of the ingredient, it can be shown that
• Liquid is absorbed into the pellet; and the more accurate methods of metering pay back
• Liquid and dry material contained within the quickly. For example, if the volumetric meter that
coating system. you are using has an accuracy of +/- 1%, that means
that in order to ensure that enough of the ingredient
goes into the product, you could be over-
General considerations formulating by 1%. It could also be true that a
change in supplier or a change in the lot of
When using ingredients in any process, it is
ingredient that you have been using (or a change in
necessary to examine the characteristics of the
the temperature) has caused a 1% error in the
ingredient to ensure that the method of controlling
measurement that you are using because the density
and metering the ingredient is appropriate. These
of the product has changed and you did not realize
characteristics include density, viscosity, pH,
it. Let’s suppose that you have a pellet line running
percent needed to apply, desired accuracy and
at 55 metric tonnes per hour and you are applying
optimal temperature. Careful consideration should
5% fat to the pellet. The amount that you are
be given to the materials of construction and desired
applying is off by + 1% of the desired flow.
accuracy. For example, it is undesirable for copper
or copper alloys to come into contact with animal
55,000 kg × 5% fat = 2,750 kg
fat. Tallow has a tendency to solidify at higher
temperatures, so it is desirable to heat trace
2,750 kg × 1% error = 27.5 kg per hour
equipment used in the application of this ingredient.
27.5 kg/hr × 16 hr/day × 300 days =
Feeders and pumps should be sized for the
132,000 kg/yr
appropriate flow for the desired percentage of
ingredient being applied. Make sure when sizing
132,000 kg/yr × $0.50/kg = $66,000/yr
the pumps and meters that you consider the
minimum threshold for a no-flow condition. For
$66,000/yr ÷ 12 months = $5,500 per month
example, if there is no way to surge product going
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 13: Post-Pellet Liquid Application Systems
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 13: Post-Pellet Liquid Application Systems

The previous example shows that a coriolis meter cleaning. A regular schedule should be maintained
that is ± 0.1% accurate will pay for itself in about in order to ensure proper cooler operation. If the
two months time (cost of meter is about $5,000, physical layout of the plant allows, a short conveyor
plus installation). It really pays to be accurate. can be added to increase retention time and reduce
the possibility of liquid being drawn off in the
cooler. If the installation is a new one, then a cooler
can be chosen that will minimize the effect of liquid
Methods and metering on the surface of the product. Because of the
In any application system there are two issues that deeper bed depth and the lack of perforated pans, a
must be addressed—method of application and counterflow cooler is more tolerant to this type of
control of metering. Most commonly, the liquid application. If an existing horizontal cooler is used,
application will take place at the pellet die or after the perforated pans can be replaced with solid pans,
the cooler. The addition of liquid immediately after which will prevent plugging. A flow indicator at
the pellet process may be popular where no suitable the pellet discharge will help to ensure that we do
alternative exists to install stand-alone equipment. not spray liquid when no dry product is flowing.
This method uses a spray nozzle or nozzles at the
pellet mill discharge and typically uses volumetric As stand-alone systems, common liquid applicators
measurement of the dry flow based on the number include:
of turns of the feeder into the preconditioner. The • Spray in a screw (solid or cut-flight), ribbon, or
liquid flow is either mass flow or volumetric. The paddle conveyor;
advantage of this type of system is that the liquid is • Spray into a plenum or weir;
being applied to the product while it is still hot from • Spray in a rotating drum or reel;
the pelleting process. It is also inexpensive and can • Spray using a spinning disk; and
be installed on existing equipment. • Spray into a batch mixer.

The disadvantage to this system is that there is very

little retention time for the liquid to absorb into the Spray into a screw conveyor
product. Even though the product is hot, time is
still needed for the liquid to be absorbed into the Many times, spray nozzles are added to a screw
product if the percentage of liquid is above 2% or conveyor to apply liquids to the product before
3%. When the percentage to be applied is higher, packaging (Figure 13-1). Screw conveyors do not
the liquid can be drawn off of the surface of the make good application equipment because they
pellet and end up in the cooler and the cooler air provide very little mixing action or retention. We
system. If the system is not cleaned at periodic can improve the performance of this type of
intervals, the efficiency of the cooling system will equipment if we cut the flights, or substitute ribbons
be affected. Also, the fines that are drawn off of the for solid flights, to achieve better mixing action. If
cooler are laden with fat, and if they are re- we put paddles between the ribbon flights that are
circulated back into the pelleting system, they can pitched to throw product back in the opposite
affect the formulation of the product and the ability direction of conveying, then we have even better
of the pellet mill to make a pellet. The cooler also mixing action and retention.
serves to pull moisture from the pellet, and the Figure 13-1. Example of a screw conveyor.
application of fat or other oils on the surface of the
pellet prior to cooling may change the cooler’s
ability to remove water. These factors will affect
the cooling of a green pellet and affect the pellet
durability. If we run the conveyor full, it will stay cleaner and
give us the maximum amount of retention and less
Where this type of system is used, modifications breakage. The problem with this type of system is
can be made in the duct work and cooler to facilitate that the spray nozzles apply liquid on a relatively
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 13: Post-Pellet Liquid Application Systems

small portion of the product and count on the the drum eliminates pinch points that can cause
mixing action of the conveyor to disperse liquid product breakage, so it is very gentle. The
onto the rest of the product. The dispersion of fats disadvantage of this type of system is that the drum
or oils can be done this way, but a water-soluble is open on two ends and mist from the atomization
liquid like molasses can soak into the pellet almost of the liquid can migrate out of the drum and settle
immediately. This can cause spotty coverage where on the surrounding equipment. This type of system
some of the product has a great deal of liquid can also benefit by putting the spray nozzles into a
applied and some has very little. One way to plenum prior to entry into the drum.
alleviate this problem is to drop the product into a
plenum with spray nozzles prior to entry in a Figure 13-3. Rotating drum.
mixing conveyor.

Spray into a plenum or weir

If we take the nozzles out of the mixing conveyor
and arrange the nozzles on a chute in a pattern for
maximum coverage and easy cleaning, then we can
spray onto the product as it is tumbling in the air.
This will greatly increase the efficiency of the
mixing conveyor (Figure 13-2). By arranging pairs
of nozzles on opposite sides, we have better odds of
hitting all sides of the pellet with spray. In the case Spray using a rotating disk
of a weir (an s-shaped chute), the product is sprayed
from one side and then flipped over and sprayed on One limitation to previously discussed PPLA
the other side. After the product gets the coating of methods is that spray nozzles have a tendency to
liquid, it can then drop into a conveyor or drum to clog when applying liquids with suspended solids.
get more retention. This allows higher liquid Rotating disk applicators use two spinning disks to
addition rates and more time to soak into the pellet. apply liquid to pelleted products, so spray nozzles
are eliminated (Figure 13-4). Dry material is spun
Figure 13-2. Conveyor with a plenum. from a low-RPM rotating disk and falls in a 360-
degree curtain around a second disk. Liquid enters
through the central bore of the dry disk shaft and
drops onto the second disk spinning at a high RPM.
The liquid is atomized into a fine mist that is driven
by centrifugal force into the surrounding curtain of
dry product. This results in a uniform coating of
liquid without the need for spray nozzles.

Figure 13-4. Spinning disk.

Spray into a rotating drum

The food and pet food industries quite often use a

rotating drum with a variable angle of tilt on the
drum (Figure 13-3). The product to be coated is
discharged into the interior of the drum, which
commonly has raised flights on the inside to tumble
the product. The advantage of this type of system is
that retention of the product can be adjusted. Also,
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 13: Post-Pellet Liquid Application Systems

This technology differs greatly from the traditional The advantage of this system is the high level of
method of spraying, which would be to spray on a liquid that can be added. Another advantage is that
relatively small portion of the product and depend the amounts of each ingredient are weighed. The
on the mixing action of a drum or conveyor to disadvantage of this system is that it requires more
further distribute the liquid. Since the rotating disk headroom and is quite expensive.
applicator applies liquid as the product is falling
past the liquid disk, you are assured of having some
liquid on all of the particles that pass by the liquid
disk. These systems do incorporate a mixing Addition of dry ingredients
conveyor; however, the purpose of this conveyor is The most common way to apply dry ingredients
more for retention, in order to give the liquid time after the pellet process is to meter the dry
to absorb into the product. Another obvious ingredients onto the particles after the application of
advantage of the disk applicator is that since it does liquids (Figure 13-5). This causes the dry
not require spray nozzles, any liquid capable of ingredients to stick onto the particles. In order to
flowing through the delivery pipe is going to be apply a uniform application of dust to a particle, the
able to flow through the machine. liquid must first be applied in a uniform fashion.
The dry dusting should be applied just after liquid
This gives the user a great deal of flexibility in the application, and before the retention time has given
selection of ingredients. Liquids that previously the liquid time to absorb into the particle.
could not be used in coating systems because of the
Figure 13-5. Powder feeder.
high percentage of suspended solids easily pass
through the spinning disk applicator. Since these
machines are totally enclosed, the over-spray
associated with open-ended coating systems is
eliminated. The top material disk spins at low
RPM, so the system is very gentle. The amount of
liquid that the machine can apply depends on the
hardness of the product and the porosity.

This can be done in any of the systems that we have

Spray into a batch mixer looked at already. Another method for using dry
Another way to apply liquids is into a batch mixer. ingredients is to blend the dry material with the
These systems are usually located just before load- liquids to be applied. Care must be taken that the
out or packaging. These mixers are typically ingredients are compatible and that the application
fluidized zone mixers that use paddles or a system is capable of applying the solution or slurry.
combination of ribbons and paddles. These mixers One common method for using a slurry application
work well because they are low-shear and gentle on is to have two liquid delivery systems—one for
the product, but at the same time provide a very fast water-soluble ingredients and one for oil-soluble
mixing cycle. This fast cycle time is necessary to ingredients.
keep the size of the mixer small, but still enable the
mixer to keep up with the continuous flow of
material. One advantage to this type of system is Control of metering
that a vacuum can be drawn on the mixer. The idea The preferred method for achieving accuracy in the
is that the vacuum draws the air out of the product proportioning of ingredients into a process is by
and then when the vacuum is released, the liquid is weight. The most accurate weighing processes are
drawn into the product to replace the vacuum. This batch processes. This becomes problematic in the
type of system allows for very high liquid addition addition of ingredients after pelleting and extrusion
by weight. since these processes are continuous. The goal is to
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 13: Post-Pellet Liquid Application Systems

achieve a weight for the product, without density of the products never changes and if the
interrupting the process flow. There are three ratio of liquid to dry does not need to be frequently
principle methods for measuring the flow rate of changed.
material in a continuous system. They are
volumetric, mass flow and loss-in-weight. In all of The disadvantage of this type of system is that it
these methods, we consider the flow of the carrier does not provide very good accuracy (1-2%). It
ingredients, in this case pelleted product, to be the also does not take into account changes in density
master flow. All other additives are slaved from or viscosity, so if the moisture or temperature of the
this master flow. product changes, the system has to be re-calibrated.

Volumetric Mass flow

In mass flow metering, the master flow of product is
In volumetric metering, the master flow of material
sensed with a weigh belt, weigh feeder, impact scale
is sensed by the number of revolutions of a screw
or centriflow meter (Figure 13-7). This type of
conveyor, rotary feeder or belt conveyor (Figure
measurement integrates the weight of the product
13-6). We calibrate the material flow by measuring
with a tach signal from a conveyor or over a
how much product has run through the system in a
specified time period.
given amount of time. It is important to have a
method to divert material from the process flow so
Figure 13-7. Mass flow system.
that check weights can be done to confirm
calibration.

Figure 13-6. Volumetric system.

The preferred liquid meter in this case is a mass

flow coriolis-type meter. This meter measures a
shift in frequency and position of a tube that is
proportional to the mass flowing through the tube.
This in turn tells us the mass of product flowing
The flow of liquid additives is sensed by the through a tube in a specified period of time.
number of pulses we receive from a positive-
displacement liquid meter (nutating disk, turbine or The advantage of this type of system is that the
piston) or the number of revolutions that we see measurement is unaffected by changes in density or
from a tachometer mounted on a positive- viscosity. The accuracy is also quite good (0.5-
displacement pump. If dry additives are to be added 1%). The disadvantage is the higher up-front cost.
to the product stream, then these are sensed in the
same manner as the master flow.
Loss-in-weight
The advantage of this type of system is that the up- In loss-in-weight metering the master flow of
front cost is low and that the overall system is product is sensed by monitoring the loss-in-weight
simple. This type of system works quite well if the of product flowing from a weigh hopper (Figure
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 13: Post-Pellet Liquid Application Systems

13-8). In order to accomplish this type of weighing for less product-on-steel contact.
in a continuous-flow application, a garner hopper B. Belt conveyor—scrapers and brushes should be
must be used to surge product prior to entry in the used to minimize fines carry-over onto the back
weigh hopper. The system cycles drafts of product side of the belt. Belt alignment sensors should
into a scale hopper and discharges the hopper at a be used to make sure that the belt is serviced as
rate that is used as the master flow. This flow is soon as the belt starts to drift, otherwise the belt
then used to signal a speed control on a positive- can be damaged. Auto belt tensioning should
displacement pump for proportional discharge of a also be used.
loss-in-weight liquid scale. C. Rotary pocket feeder—the inlet of the pocket
feeder should have a flex material to eliminate
Figure 13-8. Loss-in-weight system. the pinch point where breakage can occur.
Pockets should be staggered to avoid feeding
the system with a surging flow.
D. Variable slide gate—make sure the slide gate
has high resolution and a linear response.

2. Pellet meter
A. Weigh belt—design of the weigh belt should
eliminate the build-up of fines between the
weighbridge and the belt. Auto tensioning can
eliminate the possibility of weights changing
due to changes in belt tension.
B. Weigh screw—pivot point should have free
movement. Flexible connectors should be
The advantage of this type of system is that the made of material that does not shrink due to
actual weight of the product is being monitored, so changes in temperature or moisture. Conveyor
changes in density are accounted for. Also, should be oversized to maximize material in the
calibration of this type of system is simple, since conveyor.
local scale companies can check the system C. Impact scale—avoid excessive free fall into the
calibration. impact scale (no more than 1 meter). Special
abrasion-resistant materials should be used on
The disadvantage of this type of system is that it the sensing plate. Should be cleaned and
requires a large amount of headroom to inspected on a regular basis.
accommodate the garner hopper above the loss-in-
weight scale. The up-front cost for this type of 3. Liquid pump
system is also greater than both of the systems A. Gear pump or progressive cavity pump—make
mentioned before. However, if the number of sure that contact surfaces are appropriate for the
ingredients being weighed is greater than three, the material that is being metered. Flood feed the
cost can compare well with mass flow technology inlet of the pump to make sure that the inlet is
using coriolis-type meters. not starved. Use a dual-basket strainer so the
strainer can be cleaned without shutting down
the pump. Make sure that the screen in the
Principle components common problems and strainer has a large surface area to avoid having
recommendations to clean too often. Set a maximum Hz or RPM
value in the control system so you know when
1. Pellet feeder the pump is starting to wear excessively.
A. Screw conveyor—should be built with close B. Diaphragm pump—set up schedule for
tolerance to avoid breakage. Over sizing the replacement of pump diaphragm according to
conveyor also keeps the speed low and makes manufacturer’s recommendation for number of
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 13: Post-Pellet Liquid Application Systems

hours use. Use a pulsation dampener and back- some guidelines that have to be followed in the
pressure regulator to eliminate the pulsations installation of these meters. The meters should
from the diaphragm. be mounted so that they are being supported by
C. Centrifugal pump—use for refill applications. the pipe that is supplying the fluid to be
Most centrifugal pumps are not appropriate for measured. If the meter is rigidly mounted on
metering because of internal slippage. They its own surface, separate from the pipe, then
lack repeatability and usually cannot generate when the pipes move during expansion or
higher pressures. contraction, the meter can be subjected to force
that could damage the meter. If the weight of
4. Liquid meter the meter causes the pipe to sag, then the pipe
A. Nutating disk, piston meter, gear meter—meter on either side of the meter should be supported.
should be sized for maximum and minimum If the meter is to be located in an area where
flow. If a large amount of solids is in the fluid, excessive vibration is present, then vibration-
a nutating disk meter is more tolerant. Make dampening mounting adapters are available
sure the transmitter that is selected is from most manufacturers. The vibration
compatible with the automation system. Make dampening is to protect the internal sensing
sure that the fittings that are supplied with the elements, which could be damaged from long-
meter are compatible with the plumbing in the term exposure to excessive vibration. If a fluid
plant. Disk, piston and gear meters are such as tallow is being used, and the lines need
volumetric, so you can help the accuracy of the to be heat traced, most manufacturers have
meter by keeping the liquid at a constant trace kits that allow the meter to be electrically
temperature. or steam heated. In many applications, the
B. Coriolis meter—the coriolis meter is lines into and out of the meter will be traced,
comprised of a U-shaped tube, an and the residual heat is enough to keep the
electromagnetic drive coil and two sensing meter warm. In any case, the maximum
coils. The U-shaped tube is made to vibrate at temperature rating for the meter should not be
a set frequency, usually around 80 Hz. This exceeded (this is around 121°C for the actual
up-and-down vibration has a total movement of fluid temperature, with much higher
less than 2.54 mm, and is stable when no fluid temperatures available when specified). Most
is flowing through the tube. When fluid flows applications will have the sensing element
through the tube, the direction of the fluid flow mounted horizontally, with the inlet and
resists the up-and-down motion of the U- discharge pipes also running horizontally. If it
shaped tube. As the fluid flows around the is necessary to mount the meter vertically, you
bend of the tube, the other side of the U-shaped need to make sure that the direction of flow is
tube also resists the up-and-down motion of the up through the meter, not down through the
tube. This resistance causes a twist in the tube, meter. The meter should always be kept full,
and the sensing coils on either side of the tube so it is a good idea to have a short vertical run
pick up the difference between the two sides of after the meter, rather than discharging out of
the tube, and translate this into the degree of the end of a horizontal pipe.
twist in the tube—which is directly
proportional to the mass flowing through the 6. Mixing conveyor, spray plenum, weir or rotating
tube. Coriolis meters have an accuracy range drum
from 0.1-0.2% of the flow, within the meter’s A. Spray nozzles plug—make sure that the liquid
rated flow capacity. This means if the flow is filtered through a basket strainer and that the
rate that is called for is 4.5 kg's per minute, the filter is sized smaller then the smallest orifice
flow out of the meter will be between 4.5 and opening on a spray nozzle. Make sure that the
4.55 kg's per minute. These meters are very strainer arrangement is a dual-basket strainer so
stable, so once the meter has been calibrated, that when the strainer is plugged it can be
they rarely go out of calibration. There are cleaned out without interrupting production.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 13: Post-Pellet Liquid Application Systems

Arrange the spray nozzles so that they can apply to the metering of small liquid additives such
easily be replaced and swapped out. Some as enzymes, antioxidants, mold inhibitors and other
systems have dual spray bars so that while one micro-additives. These ingredients are quite often
system is being cleaned, the other system takes temperature-sensitive, so the most common
over. Compressed air purging of nozzles is application point would be after the pellet mill.
sometimes used, as well as a solenoid-actuated
needle that periodically cycles in and out of the There are also other considerations that are unique
orifice. to small additives. Small additives are usually quite
B. Spray nozzles dribble—many times spray concentrated, which usually makes the price per
nozzles are sized for the maximum flow and kilogram higher than most other ingredients. This
then when the minimum flow is tried there is increases the need to be accurate in the metering of
not enough hydraulic pressure to get a good not only the liquid or powder that is being applied,
atomization. Again, the system should be but also the accurate measurement of the pellet flow
arranged so that nozzles can be easily changed into the coating system. When these micro-
and swapped out, with one set of nozzles for additives are going to be used, it is always best to
high flows and one set for low flows. use a system that takes the weight, or at least the
C. Over-spray of liquid on surrounding area—one density, into consideration.
problem that is most common with a drum-type
coater is the problem of atomized mist Since these ingredients can be applied at levels as
migrating out of the drum and settling on the low as 50 grams per tonne of feed, it is usually not
surrounding equipment. One way to alleviate necessary to have a bulk storage and receiving
this problem is to decrease the level of system set up for these ingredients. These
atomization. Often atomization of the liquid is ingredients are usually received in plastic totes or
accomplished by combining the flow of liquid drums, so the pumping system should be designed
with compressed air. The compressed air can to easily change out a tote or drum so that when one
cause too fine a droplet and will increase the gets empty the next one can easily be brought on-
possibility of the liquid becoming airborne. line for production. Most systems use another tote
Whenever possible, it is better to use hydraulic or small tank that allows some surge capacity so the
pressure rather than pneumatic pressure to main tank can be run empty without interrupting the
atomize the liquid. flow. It is quite common for the storage tank to sit
D. Build-up of liquid on downstream on a platform scale so that inventory reconciliation
equipment—adjust angle of tilt on the drum for can be easily accomplished.
more retention. Slow down mixing conveyors
for more retention. Make sure that the dry These systems quite often have a transfer pump at
flow-sensing threshold and sequencing are set the main tote in the warehouse that will pump
correctly so that the liquid is being sprayed ingredients to a dosing station close to the
onto dry product flow. application point. This allows the temperature of
the main storage tank to be more easily controlled
7. Rotating disk by keeping the bulk of the ingredient in the
A. Spotty spray coverage—if the dry flow is too warehouse and not in the process area, where the
low to cover the dry disk or liquid goes through temperatures can be significantly higher. A
gaps in the curtain of material and runs down diaphragm, gear pump or other positive-
into the mixing conveyor, slow down the dry displacement pump can be used for these
disk until it is throwing a 360-degree curtain. ingredients, and they are rated in liters per hour
instead of liters per minute.

Micro-liquid dosing These micro-liquid systems may also have a

separate dilution system that is used to dilute the
The principles that have been presented so far also
ingredients prior to the blending system. This helps
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 13: Post-Pellet Liquid Application Systems

spread the ingredients over more surface area and

increases the mixing efficiency. When a dilution
system is used, then it may be necessary to use a
static mixer to premix the ingredients prior to
blending. This is especially true when the carrier
liquid is not compatible with the micro-liquid.

Choosing the correct system

The type of system that is employed depends on the
required accuracy of the ingredients and how
expensive the ingredients are. Even though mass
flow systems and loss-in-weight systems have a
greater up-front cost, a very short payback may be
realized in eliminating the need to over-apply an
ingredient due to worst-case errors. Regardless of
which system is employed, regular cleaning,
maintenance and calibration of the system should be
scheduled to ensure accurate and trouble-free
operation.

Mr. Stemler is President at Automated Process

Equipment Corp. His past experience has been as
an applications engineer for Dukar Limited and
EPE. Email: [email protected]

This content was edited and reviewed by Dr. Adam

Fahrenholz, Assistant Professor of Feed Milling at
North Carolina State University, Dr. Charles Stark,
Jim and Carol Brown Associate Professor of Feed
Technology at Kansas State University, and Dr.
Cassandra Jones, Assistant Professor of Feed
Technology at Kansas State University.
 Process control variables,
instrumentation and automation of
pelleting lines
BY DONALD J. ROOT, PE

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, CHARLES STARK, AND CASSANDRA JONES

characteristics of the product being processed to

Many years ago, it was thought that running a form pellets. The variables monitored and
pellet mill without human intervention was processes controlled in the pellet mill have two
impossible. The proponents of this belief stated that purposes. The first purpose is to properly condition
a human needed to be at the pellet mill to hear and the incoming product to form a pellet with the
see the equipment run, as well as feel the product desired characteristics. The second purpose is to
being made, in order to verify that it was properly properly control the pelleting equipment to enforce
conditioned. In the years since, much advancement the interlocks between the related pieces of
has been made in monitoring the required equipment, to maximize throughput and to prevent
conditions and controlling pellet mills with little equipment damage.
human intervention. In fact, it has been shown that
running a pellet mill automatically is more Steam is the primary variable controlled to properly
productive and energy efficient than manually via condition the incoming product. Steam adds heat
an operator. and moisture. Heat and moisture activate the
starches and other adhesives in the ingredients in
The following chapter will provide the basis to the feed to bind the pellet together as it passes
understand and apply pellet mill automation. The through the compression of the pellet mill die. The
many parameters that govern the operation of a process holds or binds the ingredients together, and
pellet mill will be discussed first. After that, the as the feed is cooled and dried, the softened
instrumentation required to electrically sense and materials harden in the pellet.
monitor the process variables will be introduced.
With an understanding of the control parameters The amount of steam added to the feed is typically
and how they are monitored electronically, the basic controlled by monitoring the temperature of the
methods used to apply this instrumentation to conditioned mash just before it enters the pellet mill
automatically control a pellet mill will then be die. A temperature set point is determined for each
discussed. Finally, emerging trends and technology feed, and the steam valve is controlled by
that will determine the direction of future systems determining the difference between the set point
will be shown. and actual temperature and opening or closing the
steam valve to maintain the desired temperature.
The steam valve position is often monitored by the
Control variables control system and used to set an initial valve
Pellet mills use a combination of compression, the position at the start of a production run.
heat generated by friction and the physical The other primary control loop is the control of the
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 14: Process Control Variables, Instrumentation, and Automation of Pelleting Lines
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 14: Process Control Variables, Instrumentation, and Automation of Pelleting Lines

load on the pellet mill drive motor. This is measure temperature electronically to produce a
controlled by monitoring the motor load, comparing signal compatible with typical programmable logic
it to a desired load and changing the pellet mill controller (PLC) control systems.
feeder speed to maintain the desired load. This
motor load is also used to ensure the motor is not The first device is a thermocouple. Thermocouples
overloaded and to monitor for feed backing up in are simple devices that change their electrical
the die resulting in a plug condition. resistance in direct proportion to the temperature of
the sensor. Most PLC manufacturers make a
The feeder speed is often monitored to determine thermocouple input module that accepts the signal
the dry flow rate through the pellet mill. By generated by these devices and converts the signal
determining the volume delivered by the feeder to a temperature reading. Thermocouples have been
with each revolution, and knowing the density of in use for some time and are readily available.
the feed, the feed rate through the mill can be Since their resistance change with temperature is
calculated. This is used to calculate the tonnes per small, special thermocouple wire must be used to
hour (TPH) production rate. It is also used to connect these devices with the wire being matched
control the addition of any liquids in the conditioner to the thermocouple.
or at the die.
The other method of measuring temperature
Various interlock devices are typically monitored electronically is with a resistance temperature
by the control system. Devices such as the shear detector (RTD) sensor. Like the thermocouple, the
pin switch, door-closed switch, oil pressure, oil RTD changes resistance with temperature, but it
temperature and oil cooling fan are used to protect does not require special wire to be used to connect
the mill from damage or premature wear. If the it. RTD input modules are also readily available
pellet mill is equipped with a die force feeder, the from PLC manufacturers. Any good-quality three-
motor load on the force feeder is often monitored conductor shielded signal cable can be used to
for a plug forming in the die. As feed backs up in connect the RTD. The design of the RTD and
the die, it causes an increase in the force feeder devices that read its signal compensate for any
motor load. Often a die plug can be sensed and resistance in the wire connecting the RTD.
avoided before it requires the mill to be shut down
and manually cleaned out. Both thermocouples and RTDs are very small
devices that are physically frail. In order to be
The pellet mill cooler is also monitored to ensure it inserted into a flow of mash or pellets, the devices
is properly cooling the pellets. It does no good to must be protected physically. This is normally done
pellet a product if it is not being properly cooled. by housing the sensor within a steel probe. The
Typically, the temperature of the pellets exiting the device is mounted inside the end of a small thin
cooler is measured and compared to the ambient air closed tube where it will sense the temperature of
temperature around the cooler. The pellets are the tube wall. The material moving past the tube
normally a little warmer than the ambient air, but if will cause the tube to reach the same temperature as
the temperature difference becomes too great, the material. The sensor can then determine, though
corrective measures must be made at the pellet mill. somewhat indirectly, the temperature of the material
moving past the probe. The tube is mounted to a
junction box where the probe leads are terminated
Instrumentation for connection to the plant system. The probe
typically has a threaded pipe concentrically
One of the key parameters measured in the pelleting
mounted near the junction box to allow the whole
process is temperature. Mash temperature entering
device to be mounted in the proper position to be
the die, ambient air temperature and pellet
exposed to the material being monitored. A typical
temperature at the cooler discharge are just three
temperature probe is shown in Figure 14-1.
examples. There are two common devices used to
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 14: Process Control Variables, Instrumentation, and Automation of Pelleting Lines

Figure 14-1. A typical temperature probe. Figure 14-2. A typical current transformer.

Temperature probes are normally tip sensitive

because the actual sensor is mounted at the end of
the probe. Proper positioning of the probe is
necessary to ensure accurate readings are obtained.
The tip of the probe should be in the center of the A better method of monitoring the pellet mill motor
material flow being measured. The probe must also load is to use a three-phase power monitor. These
be rated for the area where it is used. Normally, devices monitor the current in all three motor leads
feed mills are rated Class II Division II Group G and the voltage to the motor. It internally calculates
areas. Therefore, temperature probes and other the power consumption of the motor and outputs a
electrical devices should be rated NEMA 12 or signal to the control system that is a true
NEMA 9 to meet the rating of the area. representation of the motor load. These devices are
not “fooled” by voltage fluctuations or unbalanced
voltages.
Measuring motor loads
Price often drives the choices made in a control
A common way of monitoring the pellet mill motor system. Current transformers are inexpensive
load is through a current transformer (CT), devices that provide a satisfactory signal under ideal
measuring the current flowing through one of the circumstances. In other situations, a power monitor
motor leads. Measuring the current in only one may be required to provide a reliable signal to the
phase of the motor is usually an acceptable practice control system.
because in a typical three-phase system, the current
is almost the same in all three phases of the motor.
There are two fallacies with this method. Controlling motor speeds
First, if the three-phase voltage becomes Controlling and determining feeder speed has been
unbalanced, the current in each phase of the motor implemented many various ways in the past. The
will also be unbalanced. This can cause an most common methodology used today to control
artificially high or low current in the monitored speed is a variable frequency drive (VFD). A VFD
phase of the motor. The second fallacy with this takes the place of the feeder motor starter and
method is that three-phase voltage fluctuations will changes speed by changing the frequency of the
cause current fluctuations in the motor. A motor voltage going to the motor (see Figure 14-3).
consumes power, which is the product of voltage Despite early problems, VFD technology has
multiplied by current. If the voltage decreases, the become very stable and reliable for industrial users.
current will increase to maintain the same power. VFDs commonly accept a variable voltage or
Both of these situations can cause a current variable current signal generated by most PLCs.
transformer monitoring a three-phase motor to This allows PLC-based control systems to control
produce false readings which the control system the speed of a motor quite easily.
will interpret as a false change in motor load. A
typical current transformer is shown in Figure 14-2.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 14: Process Control Variables, Instrumentation, and Automation of Pelleting Lines

and position and what its flow characteristics are.

Figure 14-3. Face view of a variable frequency Valves used in the past often had bi-directional
drive. motors that either drove the valve open or closed.
The control system would pulse, or jog, the valve
open or closed to control the steam or liquid flow
rate. These valves were sometimes equipped with a
position feedback potentiometer that would provide
a voltage relative to the valve’s position.

Without a feedback potentiometer, the control

system could only pulse the valve and watch the
resultant variable such as a liquid flow or product
temperature. This limited the control system’s
ability to make corrections quickly and accurately.
The addition of a feedback potentiometer allowed
the control system to determine position of the
valve and then make faster, more accurate
corrections.

Valves of newer design usually have a position

control built into the valve. The control system
outputs an analog signal (0-10 VDC, 4-20 mA, etc.)
that represents the desired valve position. The
control built into the valve will set the valve to that
If a motor is controlled by a VFD, determining the position and “follow” the signal from the PLC as it
speed is very easy. Some VFDs have an “at speed” changes over time.
output signal that indicates when the motor is
running at the speed set by the VFD, or they have a Some control valve designs, such as ball valves, are
variable voltage (0-10 volts direct current, or VDC) mechanically non-linear. This increases the
or current (4-20 mA DC) signal that will change difficulty for the control system to predict the
with the speed of the motor. required valve position. Valves that are linear allow
the control system to provide more accurate control
In previous years, when feeder speed was changed with a faster response time.
mechanically, speed was monitored by mounting a
tach generator or a pulser disk on the feeder drive
shaft. A tach generator outputs a 0-10 VDC signal
in relation to the speed of the shaft. A pulse disk Other signals
outputs a series of electrical pulses. The frequency The interlock signals from other devices on the
of the pulses indicates the speed of the shaft. These pellet mill can either be discrete (on or off) or
methods were often less reliable than required, but analog signals. The control system must have
can still be found installed on some machines. inputs matching their individual signal levels to
read these devices. Shear pin and door switches are
examples of discrete devices. For discrete devices,
Control valves the device output voltage must match the PLC input
voltage and type. Care must be taken not to mix
Control valves are used on pellet mills to control direct current (DC) devices with alternating current
steam and liquid flows. These valves come in many (AC) devices.
types and mechanical arrangements. From a control
system aspect, the major considerations are the
signals that control the valve and indicate its status
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 14: Process Control Variables, Instrumentation, and Automation of Pelleting Lines

Analog signals are continuous electrical signals that ranging from 0-500 amps. The control system
vary with time to represent current conditions. analog input converts the 0-10 VDC signal into a
Analog signals that are compatible with most PLCs number ranging from 0-10,000. A mathematical
are 0-10 VDC, 1-5 VDC and 4-20 mA DC. As with equation must be applied to this number to convert
discrete devices, the signal output by each device it to correspond to the true motor load. In this case,
must be matched to the appropriate PLC input. Oil the number must be divided by 20 to convert it so
pressure, motor load and temperature are examples that the value inside the control system corresponds
of analog signals. to the real amperage of the motor. The accuracy
and conversion rate will determine how closely the
value inside the controller matches the real value.
Signal conversion This process is commonly referred to as scaling or
calibrating the control system.
All of the sensors and controllers connected to the
control system use electrical signals to represent a
These considerations must be applied to all analog
physical condition. As such, proper conversion of
signals used in a control system. The selection of
the electrical signals into the proper units
sensors with the proper type, range and accuracy are
representing these conditions is vital. For discrete
vital parts of designing a control system. Proper
(on or off) signals, the control system converts these
conversion and scaling of values to represent the
signals to either a one or zero representing on or off.
real world are the difference between a successful
The control program uses the ones or zeros to
automation system and a disaster.
represent the various states of these sensors in the
program logic.

Converting analog signals for use in the control Automation methodology

program is more complex. Analog signals represent Now that all of the field devices are connected to
some value, such as temperature or pressure that the control system, the control system can
quantitatively changes with time. An analog signal determine what is going on and control the
representing a motor load may be generated by a equipment. The control system itself will be
device that generates a signal ranging from 0-10 examined next.
VDC. As an example, from a specific sensor’s
characteristics, it may be known that 0 VDC Control system technology has changed rapidly
represents 0 amps in the motor and a signal of 10 over the recent past. Originally, small computers
VDC represents 500 amps motor load. So the first were used and interfaced to the “real world” to
consideration in selecting a sensor is to choose a control pellet systems. Cost, reliability and
device with the proper sensing range for what is longevity were issues with these systems.
being measured and an output signal that is Approximately thirty years ago, a new device called
compatible with the control system. The analog a programmable logic controller (PLC) came on the
input on the control system will take the signal from scene in the automotive industry. It solved most of
the sensor and convert it to a number. The number the problems inherent to the computer-based
of times per second that the conversion is made and systems. Even though a PLC is technically a
the accuracy of the conversion are important computer, it has been designed from its very
considerations when matching sensors and control inception for control systems. PLCs are rugged
systems. The number generated by the analog to enough to withstand the temperatures, dirt and
digital conversion process must then be scaled to electrical noise in a typical factory. Their internal
another number representing the real value being operating system and programming methods are
measured. designed specifically for control systems. Instead
of adapting a computer designed for computations
As an example, a motor load sensor generates a 0- to perform process control, the PLC is a computer
10 VDC signal in proportion to a motor load designed for process control systems. It is no
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 14: Process Control Variables, Instrumentation, and Automation of Pelleting Lines

wonder that in the last thirty years the PLC has Figure 14-4. A typical PLC installed inside a
taken over as the overwhelmingly preferred choice control panel.
for process control systems.

Because of its popularity and widespread use, only

PLC-based pellet mill control systems will be
discussed in this chapter. Control systems based on
other technology are typically older systems nearing
the end of their lifetime or are aberrations from the
normal systems found today. The full scope of how
a PLC-based control system is designed is a larger
study and only the required basics relating to pellet
mill control systems will be presented here.

A PLC is a modular system that can be assembled

to meet the requirements of the equipment The control program in the PLC determines how the
controlled. The most basic part of a PLC is the rack system operates. Typically, a PLC program is
which holds the various modules and allows them to called relay ladder logic (RLL). RLL is a graphical
communicate with one another over a language that looks like an electrical schematic. An
communications buss built into the rack. A power example is shown in Figure 14-5. Like the PLC
supply provides regulated, filtered DC power in the itself, RLL was designed specifically for machine
rack to power all the modules plugged into the rack. control. The PLC solves the program from the first
A central processor unit (CPU) contains the control statement to the last in a cyclical pattern called a
program that governs system operations. The other scan. The scan time is the time required for one
modules that plug into the rack are typically either complete pass through the program. As the
input or output modules. Input modules accept program is executed, the CPU reads the inputs,
signals from field devices, convert the signals and solves the logic in each statement of the program
pass them to the CPU. Output modules send signals and changes outputs in accordance with the
to field devices to control the equipment connected program instructions or logic. The scan time
to the PLC. Input and output modules are of two determines the minimum response time the control
types—either digital or analog. The differences system will have. The shorter the scan time, the
between digital and analog have been explained faster the system will respond to changes and
previously. In summary, the PLC CPU recognizes control the system.
the conditions in the pellet mill system through
input signals received through its input modules and Figure 14-5. An example of relay ladder logic in
controls the equipment through its output modules. use.

A typical PLC installed inside a control panel is

shown in Figure 14-4. The CPU module is seen in
the left-most slot with the various input and output
modules shown to the right of the CPU. The
input/output (IO) modules are pre-wired to terminal
blocks mounted below the PLC for the connection
of the field wiring.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 14: Process Control Variables, Instrumentation, and Automation of Pelleting Lines

While the PLC controls the pellet mill and handles operator could.
the real-time process of running the equipment,
there is still a need to display the status of the Some systems have a challenge feature that allows
system, allow the operators to make changes, load the control system to find the maximum production
set points into the process and record data from the rate automatically. A challenge feature will usually
pellet mill. All of these functions are best handled bring the mill to full production as specified by the
by a personal computer (PC) running software preset parameters. After a set period of time
designed for this purpose. The most common way running at a stable rate, the control system will
to display the status of the pellet mill is through a increase the production rate and then monitor the
graphical representation of the pellet mill equipment reaction of the pellet mill. If the mill does not plug,
on the PC screen. This provides the operator with the control system will again increase the
an overall system status with one look at the screen. production rate after a set time. Once the
More information can be provided by allowing the production rate increase causes a plug to start
operator to select a piece of equipment to display forming, the control system will reduce the rate and
more details. This “drill down” methodology wait for a set period of time before challenging the
allows the operator to see the whole system at once mill again. Challenge features work best on smaller
or display any level of detail required. mills where reaction times are faster. The larger the
pellet mill, the more problem is caused if a
The control parameters for each pellet run are challenge step plugs the mill to the point where the
typically stored in a database and organized by operator must shut it down and clean it out.
formula number. When the operator starts a pellet
run, the formula to be pelleted is selected from the The typical parameters recorded during a run are
list of stored formulas. The PC software then total tonnes produced, total liquids applied, total
downloads the parameters to the PLC to properly kilowatt hours of electricity consumed, average
control the pelleting of that formula. The operator production rate and average temperature into the
starts the run through the PC, which passes the run pellet mill die. Some systems will keep records of
signal to the PLC. The PLC starts up the equipment total production made through several dies to enable
per the control program and downloaded die life and costs to be determined. The automation
parameters. As the run progresses, the PLC system should also be able to control the application
controls the steam valve, feeder speed, etc., to pellet of fat at the die, liquids added into the conditioner
the feed. The PC monitors the PLC and displays and the pellet cooler control. Monitoring the pellet
the pertinent information on the screen. Various temperature at the discharge of the cooler and the
parameters are recorded as the run progresses and at ambient temperature at the cooler ensures that the
the end of the run these values are written into a pellets are being properly cooled.
database to create a production record for that pellet
run. Often several of the pellet mill parameters are
displayed on a trend graph on the operator’s PC.
The automation system should be able to start up Trend graphs enable the operator to not only see the
the pellet mill equipment at the beginning of a run, current state of the pellet mill, but what has been
control the feeder speed and the steam valves to get happening during the time period displayed on the
the pellet mill to optimum production within a short trend graph. This is quite helpful for pellet mill
time, and shut down the equipment at the end of the motor loads, temperatures and often liquid addition
run. The system should monitor the pellet mill to rates. A typical graphic screen of a pellet mill
determine when a die plug is forming and be able to system is shown in Figure 14-6.
take corrective measures automatically to clear the
plug and get the mill back into production. The
reaction time of a PLC-based system is often fast
enough to avoid many plugs and keep the mill
running at a higher production rate than a human
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 14: Process Control Variables, Instrumentation, and Automation of Pelleting Lines

Figure 14-6. A typical graphic screen of a pellet These factors can be used to calculate an expected
mill system. return on an investment in automation based on the
size and number of pellet mills in use and the
number of operating hours per year.

Emerging technologies and trends

Pellet mill automation hardware has changed much
in the last twenty years, but the basic program
methods employed to control the mill have
remained constant. This was due to the limitations
of what parameters could be measured. Sensor
technology has grown remarkably in recent years
and has opened several possibilities for controlling
pellet mills in newer, better ways.
A typical pellet mill formula showing the various Steam has always been used for proper conditioning
parameters stored in the system database is shown of the feed before entering the pellet mill die.
in Figure 14-7. Steam supplies both heat and moisture to the feed.
Problems arise if conditions require more moisture
Figure 14-7. A typical pellet mill formula without more heat or more heat without more
showing the various parameters stored in the moisture. Many have thought it advantageous to
system database. add moisture and steam independently. While it has
been easy to measure temperature with simple RTD
probes, measuring moisture content inside the
conditioner has not previously been practical. Now,
several cost-effective moisture probes have been
developed that can measure feed moisture inside the
conditioner. This allows steam to be added to
control the temperature of the feed and water to be
added to control moisture content. There are still
the practical limitations imposed by the moisture
content inherent in the steam, but several have tried
direct water addition with satisfactory results.

One of the duties of the pellet mill operator has

always been to regularly grease the mill. This often
Justification of automation
requires shutting down the mill for several minutes.
As with all automation, an investment in a pellet An auto-lubrication system for pellet mills has been
mill automation system should be justified based on developed that automatically pumps a measured
the return on that investment. Typically, pellet mill amount of grease into the mill bearings on a regular
automation systems have shown the following interval. Auto-lube systems ensure that the mill
impacts on the pellet mill cost center: gets greased when it should, with the proper amount
• Capacity increase between 10-40%; of grease without shutting down the mill. The pellet
• Energy consumption decreased between 10- mill automation system should include the controls
30%; and for the auto-lube system so lubrication information
• 10-30% reduction of wear on dies and rolls. can be added to the records kept for the pellet mill.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 3: Manufacturing Considerations
Chapter 14: Process Control Variables, Instrumentation, and Automation of Pelleting Lines

A feature that has been added to some pellet mill amperage. Pellet mill designs must be modified to
designs is a remote roll adjustment mechanism. install the roll speed sensors in the correct positions
This allows the gap between the rolls and the die to and route the wires through the main shaft, but it
be adjusted while the mill is running without can be done with current technology.
shutting down production. Roll adjustment systems
allow the roll gap to be increased to start the mill Another new option, though not directly mounted
with feed in the die, such as when clearing a plug, on the pellet mill, is an on-line pellet durability
and then closed to normal after the mill is started. index (PDI) tester. This device is mounted after the
This feature also allows roll gap to be adjusted cooler outlet adjacent to the pellet flow (see Figure
during a run to optimize production. Some work 14-8). The device captures a sample from the pellet
has been done that indicates higher production rates stream on a regular basis and performs a PDI test.
are possible on large mills when the roll gap is After each test is complete, the unit transmits the
slightly increased. An automation system should be test result to the pellet mill automation system for
able to control the mill roll gap adjustment recording and corrective action in the control
mechanism. system, if necessary. These devices provide
consistent feedback concerning pellet durability that
Determining if a quality pellet is being produced will allow the automation system to adjust mash
through the die has been difficult at best. One conditioning or the production rate to ensure a
possible method is to measure the temperature that quality pellet is being made.
the feed gains going through the die. Since the
temperature of the mash going into the die is Figure 14-8. Example of a PDI tester.
commonly measured to control steam addition, the
only missing parameter is to measure the
temperature of the pellets exiting the die. This has
been difficult and not accurate because of the
conditions and the flow pattern of pellets exiting the
die and the mill. With the infrared temperature
probes currently available, pellet temperature can be
measured at the die outlet. The rule of thumb is that
the feed should gain between 10-20 degrees passing Current control system technology combined with
through the die. Temperature gains of less than 10 the emerging sensor and control technologies
degrees indicate that there is not enough promises many changes in the future for better,
compression in the die to form a hard pellet. more complete control of pellet mill systems. New
Temperature gains over 20 degrees indicate too methods of sensing conditions in the pellet mill
much compression that can burn the pellet or mean that future control systems will be based on
shorten die life considerably. increased direct measurement and less inference of
actual conditions from other parameters. Control
Typically, the pellet mill drive motor load is systems of the future will not only control the
monitored and used to control the production rate. pelleting process, but handle a variety of other tasks
Some die plugs can cause the main drive load to associated with the pellet mill such as its lubrication
decrease rather than increase, making sensing a plug and managing the energy consumption of the mill.
much more difficult. Some work has been done to
monitor the rotational speed of each pellet mill roll. This content was edited and reviewed by Dr. Adam
By monitoring the speed of each roll and comparing Fahrenholz, Assistant Professor of Feed Milling at
them, the maximum production rate can be North Carolina State University, Dr. Charles Stark,
determined given the current mash conditioning. Jim and Carol Brown Associate Professor of Feed
This is a direct method of determining what is Technology at Kansas State University, and Dr.
happening inside the pellet mill rather than making Cassandra Jones, Assistant Professor of Feed
an educated guess based on the main drive Technology at Kansas State University.
 Binding and other functional
characteristics of ingredients
BY THOMAS WINOWISKI

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, CHARLES STARK, AND CASSANDRA JONES

mm hex nuts per chamber (Table 15-1). Percent

Formulation and ingredient selection are thought reduction of fines (%ROF) was calculated by
to control about 40% of pellet quality (Behnke, comparing the fines from the basal corn/soy ration
1996). Oftentimes, ingredients are dictated by to those in the test formulations. This number gives
economics or nutrient requirements, and the options the relative “binding” strength associated with each
for change are limited. However, changes in change.
ingredients that make up less than 1% of the
formulation can make significant differences. Table 15-1. Effect of Displacing Corn
Selection of phosphate source, addition point of fat with Wheat or Binder1.
or the use of binders will all have a strong influence Formulation PDI2 ROF3, %
on both the pelleting process and subsequent pellet 0 % Wheat 83.7 0.0
durability. 10% Wheat 86.4 16.5
20% Wheat 88.2 28.2
This chapter will use corn/soy-based formulations 30% Wheat 89.9 38.0
to examine the effect of both macro- and micro- 40% Wheat 89.7 36.8
ingredients. The results that will be reported in this 50% Wheat 91.4 47.2
chapter are primarily based on personal 1% lignosulfonate 88.8 31.3
investigations by the author. 1
Diet was corn- and soybean meal-based
(3:1).
2
PDI = Pellet Durability Index
Wheat and cereal grains 3
ROF = Reduction in fines
Shifting from corn to wheat has a large impact on
pellet quality. When wheat is replaced by corn, A second trial was conducted in a commercial feed
binders are sometimes added to maintain a mill. A corn/soy turkey ration was formulated to
consistent product. Two examples are provided that include 10% or 20% wheat or 1.25% lignosulfonate.
illustrate the influence that changes in these Pellets were made on a CPM 7800 at a production
ingredients can have. rate of 35 metric tonnes per hour. Conditioning
temperature varied, but was recorded at the time of
A laboratory trial was run using a CPM CL Type 2 sampling. Pellet durability was measured using the
pellet mill. The basal ration was a straight 3:1 KSU method with two 20 mm hex nuts in each
corn/soy blend. Wheat or lignosulfonate (LS) chamber. Results were plotted as a function of
replaced corn in this mix with no attempt to balance conditioning temperature (Figure 15-1). The slope
nutrients. Meal was conditioned to 85°C with 2 bar of the trend lines is different for wheat and
steam. The pellet durability index (PDI) was lignosulfonate, suggesting that wheat is more
determined by ASAE Standard 269.1 (the KSU strongly affected by the addition of conditioning
Tumbling Can Method) modified to include two 20 steam. Increasing the level of wheat from 10% to
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 15: Binding and Other Function Characteristics of Ingredients
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 15: Binding and Other Function Characteristics of Ingredients

20% clearly increased pellet durability. Adding additional 1.25% lignosulfonate added on top of the
1.25% LS was nearly as effective as 20% wheat, formulation. Each batch was conditioned to 82°C
similar to the results achieved in the laboratory trial. with 2 bar steam. Durability was measured by the
KSU Tumbling method with two 20 mm nuts in
Figure 15-1. Effect of wheat, binder and each chamber.
conditioning temperature on durability of turkey
pellets. Table 15-3. Analyses of DDGS sample source and their
effect on pellet quality.
Sample A B C D E
Nutrient, %
Moisture 7.3 10.4 13.6 14.5 22.3
Protein 27.1 25.2 24.5 29.7 23.1
Fat 8.3 9.3 7.4 10.3 7.7
Fiber 13.2 8.3 8.6 9.3 8.4
Ash 2.5 4.5 5.9 4.0 5.3
Particle Size
US Sieve 12 2.6 11.5 17.6 2.1 3.2
US Sieve 30 40.5 56.8 58.5 56.6 33.8
US Sieve 50 34.6 25.1 16.5 35.3 31.8
US Sieve 100 16.4 5.5 4.7 4.3 19.9
Pan 5.9 1.1 2.7 1.7 11.3
Pellet Durability
No Binder 75.2 81.2 84.7 83.1 88.7
Binder 83.9 87.3 89.2 89.9 91.7
A third test was conducted in the laboratory to
compare the effect of replacing 12.5% and 25% of
This test was conducted at the request of a
the corn with wheat, triticale or barley (Table 15-2).
commercial feed producer who had noticed a
Triticale is a hybrid of wheat and rye and its binding
variation in pellet quality and suspected it was
characteristics were similar to those of wheat.
caused by the DDGS. Results confirmed that this
Replacing corn with barley improved pellet
was in fact the case. The lesson here is that it may
durability, but not to the same degree as was
not be appropriate to make a broad statement that an
observed with wheat.
ingredient is good or bad for pelleting. An
ingredient’s effect on performance may vary
Table 15-2. Durability of pellets made with various
depending on its particular attributes. In this case,
grains replacing corn1.
pellet durability increased with increasing moisture
Percent Replaced Wheat Triticale Barley content. Either the drying process deactivated some
12.5 84.5 83.4 80.9 of the natural binders or the high moisture content
25.0 86.9 86.2 84.2 was the result of a high level of solubles added to
1
Durability with corn was 79.2 the dried grains.

Brewers and distillers grains Brewers grains were also received from five
different suppliers and tested. Durabilities once
Distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) were again varied, ranging from 62.9 to 70.7. Although
collected from five commercial sources, analyzed the brewers grains were analyzed in the same
and tested for their effect on pellet durability (Table manner as the distillers grains, it was not possible to
15-3). The formulation for this trial was 70% identify a particular factor that could be associated
ground corn, 15% soybean meal and 15% DDGS. with the different pellet durabilities. In general
Six batches were mixed for each DDGS sample— though, it appeared that brewers grains were a
three were pelleted without binder, and three had an negative factor for pellet quality.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 15: Binding and Other Function Characteristics of Ingredients

The pelleting performances of brewers grains and computerized mill with set points of 150 amps and
distillers grains were compared by preparing 72°C. The computer adjusted production rate to
composites from the five samples of each of these achieve the desired amperage. Average production
ingredients. The composited ingredients replaced rate with meal containing 1.0% fat was 12.3 metric
15% soybean meal (SBM) in a basal ration that tonnes per hour, versus 11.2 metric tonnes per hour
consisted of 70% ground corn and 30% SBM. In with 0.6% fat.
preparing these rations it was noted that the SBM
was fairly coarse. As a further treatment, a portion It is significant to note that pellet quality did not
of this SBM was milled through a 3 mm screen, and increase with higher conditioning temperatures.
this finer SBM was used in place of the entire This is a typical response in rations that have a high
portion of the unmilled, coarse SBM. All SBM content, and is much different than is seen
treatments were prepared with and without 1.25% with rations high in starch (Figure 15-1). The
lignosulfonate binder and tested in triplicate. slight negative trend in pellet durability with
Pelleting conditions and durability tests were as increasing temperature in this trial was probably
previously described. Displacing 15% SBM with related to production rate. The ration based on
distillers grains had no effect on pellet durability, Supplier B’s SBM increased from 10.9 to 13.2
while replacement by brewers grains caused a metric tonnes per hour as temperature increased.
significant drop in durability (Table 15-4).
Figure 15-2. The effect of conditioning
Table 15-4. Comparison of brewers, distillers, and two temperature of pellet durability of a 37% all-
grind sizes of soybean meal. vegetable protein concentrate.
Coarse Fine
SBM SBM Brewers Distillers
Particle Size
US # 12 12.2 8.6 11.4 10.9
US # 30 41.9 34.8 44.0 43.0
US # 50 18.4 20.0 17.6 18.8
US # 100 11.2 15.0 10.5 11.4
Pan 16.3 21.6 16.5 15.9
Pellet
Durability
No binder 83.9 81.8 70.4 85.6
Binder 90.3 88.4 79.3 90.1 Fat
Adding fat before pelleting is simply the worst thing
that can happen to pellet quality. It might be useful
Soybean meal
to compare binding a pellet with gluing a chair. It is
The previous experiment suggested that particle size not enough to simply pour the glue on the wood; the
of SBM had little effect on pellet durability (Table surface must be free of oil and pressure must be
15-4). Another trial was conducted in a commercial applied. Adding fat hurts pellet durability by
feed mill to compare SBM from two suppliers that lubricating the extrusion process, and thereby
were thought to provide different grinds. The trial reducing the pressure that is applied. Furthermore,
was run on a 37% all-vegetable protein concentrate it creates a hydrophobic film over the feed particles
that contained 70% SBM. There was a clear that prevents them from binding together.
difference in pellet durability between the two
sources of meal (Figure 15-2). However, particle A trial was run in a commercial turkey feed
size analyses failed to show a significant difference operation to determine if conditioning temperature
in grind. Proximate analyses revealed that meal could be increased by the addition of fat—and
from Supplier B contained 1.0% fat, versus 0.6% thereby improve pellet durability. At this particular
from Supplier A. This trial was run on a
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 15: Binding and Other Function Characteristics of Ingredients

mill it was impossible to raise the temperature was 58.9 (Table 15-5). This is somewhat low, but
above 77°C without choking. Addition of 1% fat not unheard of for swine and poultry pellets.
provided lubrication, which allowed pelleting Addition of 2% fat reduced durability to 38.8.
temperature to increase to 82°C, but the negative Addition of 2% of clay #1, clay #2 and clay #3
effect fat had on binding erased any benefit of showed little or no improvement in durability. Clay
improved temperature. #4, a sodium bentonite, brought durability back up
to 56.7. Clay #5 had the strongest binder response,
Fat should be applied post-pelleting whenever in part due to its ability to increase compression by
possible. When sprayed onto the hot pellet as it resisting extrusion.
comes off the die, the effect on pellet quality is
generally neutral. However, if the pellets are
screened and fines returned for re-pelleting, the fat Table 15-5. Effect of clays on pellet
that is returned with the fines will have a strong durability index (PDI).
negative effect. Even when pellets are not screened, Treatment PDI
fines are sometimes transferred in the air stream to No Fat – Control 58.9
the cyclones and returned to the pellet mill. 2% Fat – Control 38.8
Application of fat to the pellets after cooling results 2% Fat – 2% Clay #1 37.2
in the best possible pellet durability. When applied 2% Fat – 2% Clay #2 41.3
in this manner, the fat tends to stay on the surface of 2% Fat – 2% Clay #3 45.3
the pellet, reducing dust and lubricating the pellet to 2% Fat – 2% Clay #4 56.7
reduce abrasion. 2% Fat – 2% Clay #5 68.0
2% Fat – 0.5% Lignosulfonate 57.7
2% Fat – 1% Lignosulfonate 67.4
Wheat middlings
Midds generally make a good-quality pellet and do
not seem to respond strongly to temperature. Dairy Lignosulfonates
feeds that contain 40% midds can be run at 50°C or
Lignosulfonates are the most widely-used binders in
70°C with almost no difference in pellet durability.
the feed industry (Castaldo, 1998). Early research
at Kansas State University (Pfost, 1964) showed
that addition of 1% lignosulfonate to a corn/soy
Clays turkey finisher pellet could reduce fines from 8.2%
Clays are sometimes used as binders for pelleted to 4.9% when conditioning temperature rise was
feeds. They are often inexpensive and may be cost- 28°C and die dimensions were 50 mm by 4.7 mm.
effective fillers in rations that are not nutritionally Pfost also documented lubrication properties of
dense—e.g., range cubes. Research at Kansas State lignosulfonates and demonstrated that they were
University (Pfost and Young, 1973) showed that effective across a wide range of conditioning
addition of 2% bentonite to a medium-grind temperatures. Lignosulfonates are generally twice
corn/soy pellet could reduce fines from 11.7% to as effective as clays (Pfost, 1976; Table 15-5) and
7.8% when conditioning temperature rise was 32°C. approximately 15-20 times more effective than
However, not all clays are effective binders for wheat (Table 15-1 and Figure 15-1).
pelleting. Five clay binders were evaluated on
a pilot plant pellet mill. The basal ration contained Phosphates
70% ground corn, 30% SBM and vegetable oil on Defluorinated (tricalcium) phosphate is known to
top. A positive control was mixed without oil. allow pellet mills to produce at a faster rate
Each of five clays was added on top of the ration at (Behnke, 1981). When defluorinated phosphate is
a level of 2%. Rations were prepared in triplicate replaced by dicalcium phosphate there is increased
and conditioned to 80°C with 2 bar steam prior to resistance to extrusion, production rate declines and
pelleting. Durability with no added fat or binder pellet durability improves. A typical response is
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 15: Binding and Other Function Characteristics of Ingredients

seen when dicalcium phosphate in a grower feed is Urea

replaced by defluorinated phosphate in a finisher Urea is a very special ingredient. It dissolves in
diet (Table 15-6a). water and its solubility increases with heat. It is
also extremely hygroscopic; it will liquefy by
Table 15-6a. Effect of P source on pelleted pulling moisture from the air. Urea does not give up
turkey diets. water easily in the dryer/cooler of the typical
Grower Finisher pelleting system.
Ration Ration
Ingredient, % When steam condenses on the feed mix, urea
Corn 54.0 64.0 dissolves and increases the percentage of liquid in
SBM, 48.0% 40.0 25.0 the mix. When the mixture extrudes through the die
Deflour. P 0.0 2.0 it is further heated by friction and more urea
Dical P 1.2 0.0 dissolves. As soon as the pellet exits the die,
Bakery 0.0 5.5 moisture begins to be lost by evaporative cooling.
Pellet Response As the pellet cools, the dissolved urea solidifies,
Energy, kWh/tonne 6.5 5.4 forms salt bridges between feed particles and acts as
Durability, % 87.4 80.9 a binder. However, as moisture migrates toward the
surface of the pellet, it carries dissolved urea with it
These rations were run on the same pellet mill, both and leaves it deposited on the surface. Eventually
at 36.4 metric tonnes per hour and 84°C. Dicalcium this surface concentration of urea makes further
phosphate in the grower ration increased resistance drying difficult, and therefore reduces the rate of
to extrusion, effectively increasing the amount of heat flow from the pellet (heat is lost most
energy the pellet mill used to push the pellets efficiently by evaporation of water).
through the die (6.5 versus 5.4 kWh/tonne). This
extra work increased compaction and made a more If the pellets are not cooled through when they are
durable pellet (87.4 versus 80.9). It is possible that sent to storage, they will eventually release moisture
some of the response was caused by the addition of that will migrate to the coolest area of the bin or
bakery byproduct or a shift in the corn:soy ratio, but bag, where it will be absorbed by urea on the
the observed result is believed to be typical of the surface of pellets. This moisture migration releases
response to phosphate alone. A second example bonds and causes the pellets to swell and lose
with no bakery byproduct shows similar results durability. The problems associated with urea
(Table 15-6b). pellets are generally not improved by use of
commercial pellet binders.
Table 15-6b. Effect of P source on pelleted Urea pellets are typically run with very little steam
turkey diets. or moisture addition. This limits the amount of urea
Grower Finisher that will dissolve and also increases die friction.
Ration Ration The increased die friction adds “dry” heat to the
Ingredient, % pellet, which encourages moisture loss when the
Corn 55.0 60.0 pellet is in the cooler.
SBM, 48.0% 37.0 31.0
Deflour. P 1.1 2.8 Summary
Dical P 1.5 0.0 A list has been compiled that compares many feed
Pellet Response ingredients on the basis of their pelleting
Cond. T, °C 77 79 characteristics (Table 15-7). These values were
Rate, tonne/hr 22.7 25.0 actually selected from a much larger list containing
Energy, kWh/tonne 6.6 4.8 ingredients commonly used in Europe (Payne,
Durability, % 77.8 64.1 2001). The numbers represent a consensus opinion
based on personal pelleting experience. In theory, a
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 15: Binding and Other Function Characteristics of Ingredients

system like this might make it possible to formulate Payne, J.D., et al., 2001. The Pelleting Handbook.
a ration to achieve a particular durability level. In Borregaard LignoTech, Sarpsborg, Norway.
practice, interactions between ingredients and Pfost, H.B., 1964. The effect of lignin binders, die
variations in pelleting conditions make this difficult. thickness and temperature on the pelleting
However, the numbers can be useful as general process. Feedstuffs 36(22).
guidelines. Pfost, H.B., 1976. Pelleting research results. Feed
Manufacturing Technology, American Feed
Ingredients clearly impact pellet durability and Manufacturers Association, Inc.
pelleting efficiency. It is impossible to report on
each ingredient in this chapter. Furthermore, these Pfost, H.B. and Young, L.R., 1973. Effect of
examples have shown that substantial variation can colloidal binders and other factors on
exist within the same ingredient coming from pelleting. Feedstuffs 45(49).
different suppliers. Information that has been
provided in this chapter is believed to be generally
true and hoped to be helpful. However, the effect of Mr. Thomas Winowiski is the Technical
any ingredient must be determined in the pellet in Applications Manager at Borregaard LignoTech
which it will be used. USA, Inc.

This content was edited and reviewed by Dr. Adam

Table 15-7. Factors affecting pellet durability and Fahrenholz, Assistant Professor of Feed Milling at
die lubrication. (0 = poor, 10 = good) North Carolina State University, Dr. Charles Stark,
Ingredient Durability Lubrication Jim and Carol Brown Associate Professor of Feed
Barley meal 5 6 Technology at Kansas State University, and Dr.
Wheat meal 8 6 Cassandra Jones, Assistant Professor of Feed
Technology at Kansas State University.
Soybean meal 4 5
Brewers grains 3 4
Distillers grains 3 4
Distillers grains with 5 6
solubles
Corn gluten meal 5 8
Molasses 7 6
Skim milk powder 9 2
Fat or oil -40 50
Lignosulfonate 50 30

References
Behnke, K., 1981. Pellet mill performance as
affected by mineral source. Feedstuffs
March 23, 34-36.
Behnke, K., 1996. Effect of hydrothermal
processing on growth explored. Feedstuffs
December 30, 11-13.
Castaldo, D.J., 1998. Feed mill survey results: How
are mills being managed? Feed Management
49(1):16-18.
 Stability of vitamins in pelleting
BY N.E. WARD, PHD, MSC

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY CHARLES STARK, ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, AND CASSANDRA JONES

with formulation changes from the same supplier.

Pelleting of animal feeds has been practiced for For these reasons, historical data must be closely
decades. During the pelleting process, an increased scrutinized.
processing temperature is associated with the
production of more tonnes of feed per hour with Vitamin stability characteristics
improved pellet durability. If conditions are harsh Inherent differences exist in the stability of
enough, however, reduced starch (Brown, 1996) unformulated vitamins (i.e., non-commercial forms;
and protein (Batterham, et al., 1993) utilization can Baker, 1995). Thus, while heat may be especially
occur. destructive to vitamin A, it has little consequence
on niacin (Table 16-1). Vitamins for use in feeds
In addition, the moisture, heat, friction and shear of and foods are formulated to counter anticipated
pelleting can compromise the integrity of added stresses, and formulations are intended to act as a
vitamins (Jones, 1986; Gadient, 1986) and enzymes buffer between the vitamin and the destructive
(Nunes, 1993; Eeckhout, 1999). Taken that the component.
various feed additives are inherently vulnerable to
heat and moisture, this is not a minor concern. Along with the unique chemical structure and
Thus, it’s important to understand the conditions characteristics of each vitamin, the anticipated
that might decrease the efficacy of enzymes and stress dictates the type of stabilization or
vitamins in a processed feed. formulation needed. For example, vitamin A exists
with four double bonds and one hydroxyl group
(Adams, 1978). This chemistry predisposes this
Vitamins vitamin to oxidation, thus vitamin A esters (actetate,
The task facing vitamin manufacturers is to produce palmitate, propionate) help avoid oxidative damage.
vitamins so that losses during storage or feed Additional formulating and beadlet formation
processing are minimized or eliminated—while provides heightened protection against moisture and
maintaining maximum bioavailability and mixing exposure to light.
characteristics in a cost-effective manner. The
stability of commercial vitamin products is The antioxidant capabilities of the tocopherols,
generally good, and is superior to vitamins through the free phenolic hydroxy group,
occurring naturally in feedstuffs (Kurnick, et al., compromise the stability of vitamin E (in the
1978). alcohol form). Esterification with acetic acid
eliminates its antioxidative nature, thereby
As new sources of vitamins are introduced, improving stability. Vitamin K (menadione)
questions should exist about their manufacture and continues to be the most unstable commercial
individual stability characteristics. Not all sources vitamin due to its structure, although modifications
of a particular vitamin are necessarily stabilized in have improved stability.
the same manner, and in some cases proprietary or
patented technology is utilized. Thus, differences Thiamin and folic acid are prone to bind with the
can exist in stability, not only by source, but also carbonyl group of reducing sugars through the
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 16: Vitamin Stability during Pelleting
 Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 16: Vitamin Stability during Pelleting

Maillard reaction (Baker, 1995), and higher while other vitamins may need substantial
pelleting temperatures increase this occurrence. On formulation changes to attain reasonably good
the other hand, in crystalline form with no special stability. With a better understanding of the
protection, calcium pantothenate, niacin and individual formulations, one can sometimes avoid
niacinamide (nicotinamide) exhibit good stability or modify conditions that might be especially
for pelleting. damaging, or modify addition rates according to
expected losses. More than one form of a vitamin
Table 16-1. Factors affecting inherent vitamin stability. can sometimes exist, and depending upon the
O =stable, X = sensitive, XX = very sensitive. intended use, one may be chosen over the other.
Vitamin Heat O2 H2O Light Acid Alkali
A XX XX X XX X O Not all formulation types confer equal stability
D3 X XX X X X O characteristics to a vitamin. In one recent
E X O X X O X experiment, as much as 20% difference existed
K X X XX O XX O across four different sources of commercial vitamin
Thiamin X X XX O O XX A pelleted at 90˚C (DSM internal
Riboflavin O O X XX O O documentation,VFP9964).
Pyridoxine XX O X X X O
B12 XX X X X O O
Niacin O O O O O O Table 16-2. Common commercial vitamin forms
Folic Acid XX O XX XX XX O and their stability.
Biotin X O O X O O Vitamin Rationale Formulation
C O XX XX O O X Ester in cross-
A Stability
linked beadlet
Stability,
Formulation of vitamins D3 Spray-dry Uniform
Heat, moisture and conditioning time can affect the distribution
stability of most vitamins during pelleting. By Acetate ester Stability,
simply acting as a solvent, moisture can favor E granular or Flow,
harmful chemical reactions. Moisture can also spray-dry Reduced dust
soften the coating of some beadlet and spray-dried Crystalline Flow,
K
forms, thus exposing the vitamin to oxygen and powder Handling
other destructive chemical components such as trace Thiamin Coarse granular Stability
minerals (Gadient, 1986). Stability,
Spray-dry
Riboflavin Flow,
granular
Thus, the basic chemical forms of vitamins are Handling
further processed and formulated to avoid some of Stability,
Fine granular
the most obvious stresses and to counter some Pyridoxine Mixing with
crystalline
inherent weaknesses (see Table 16-2). There are Carrier
several basic formulation techniques for the Distribution
Vitamin B12 Crystalline
manufacture of feed-grade vitamins: with carrier
• Chemical modification; Niacin Crystalline
Flow
• Beadlet preparation in a cold starch mist; Reduced Dust
• Spray-drying in a hot air current; Biotin Spray-dry
Distribution,
• Adsorbents onto a stable dry carrier; Handling
• Agglomeration; and Flow,
• Sieving to select appropriate particle sizes. Folic Acid Spray-dry Stability,
Mixing
Some vitamins are innately more stable during Ethyl cellulose Stability,
C
pelleting and require only minimal formulation, coated Biopotency
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 16: Vitamin Stability during Pelleting

Chemical modification nature, is utilized as the calcium salt as the d-isomer

A chemical modification can enhance stability since the dl-pantothenate is hygropscopic with poor
without adversely affecting the vitamin’s handling characteristics. And while the spray-dried
bioavailability. The crystalline form of vitamin C is granular version of riboflavin is preferred for feeds
easily destroyed by moisture and pelleting, and to avoid excessive dust and accumulation onto
exposure to trace minerals such as copper and iron mixing equipment, the use of crystalline riboflavin-
potentiates losses. The esterification of the two- 5-phosphate sodium is far more suitable for liquid
carbon atom of L-ascorbic acid with phosphate applications due to a much greater solubility.
protects L-ascorbic acid from oxidation (Grant, et
al., 1989).
Coating or encapsulation technology
One commercial form of vitamin C stabilized in this
Coatings (e.g., carbohydrate, protein, ethyl
manner consists of a mixture of tri-, di- and
cellulose) or encapsulation gives vitamins such as
monophosphate esters of L-ascorbic acid, and was
vitamin A and D3 greater protection against
designed specifically for extruded feeds, or feeds
moisture, heat and pressure during pelleting (De
pelleted at high temperatures (Roche Animal
Ritter, 1976). Commercial forms of vitamins A and
Nutrition, 1991).
D, as well as some commercial carotenoids, exist in
the matrix of a cross-linked beadlet generally
Plants and some oils contain several tocopherols
composed of gelatin, sugar, gum, starch or some
with naturally occurring vitamin E activity.
similar type of hydrocolloid. The inclusion of
However, as an alcohol, it is an effective
antioxidants such as ethoxyquin, BHA, BHT or
antioxidant. Substantial losses can occur during
tocopherols offers additional protection against
processing, especially during storage when exposed
oxidizing agents. The smooth spherical shape of
to oxygen (De Ritter, 1976). Trace minerals can
the beadlets is usually coated with starch to prevent
exacerbate losses (Adams, 1973; Dove and Ewan,
segregation in feeds.
1986). The esterification to alpha-tocopheryl
acetate stabilizes vitamin E for most pelleting
Today’s beadlets commonly include cross-linked
conditions. This form is widely used in the feed
gelatin. In early literature this technology was
industry because the acetate moiety eliminates its
referred to as “hardening” because it physically
reactive antioxidative character (Adams, 1978).
hardened the beadlet through the cross-linked
gelatin proteins. This beadlet minimizes contact
Menadione is a chemically-unstable compound, and
with moisture and trace minerals because it is more
losses can be substantial over the weeks following
dense and impervious to water. It disintegrates in
pelleting. Although various formulations (including
the acidic stomach environment in the presence of
spray-dried) have been tested to improve its
enzymes, thus bioavailability is not an issue. This
stability, the menadione di-methyl pyrimidinol
process results in minimal losses when pelleting at
bisulfite (MPB) and menadione nicotinamide
85-95°C. The cross-linked beadlet also reduces the
bisulfite (MNB) appear to be the most stable forms
potentially-negative effect of shear or pressure
(Huyghebaert, 1991). The combination of
during pelleting (Gadient, 1986).
menadione and nicotinamide (MNB) provides the
greatest advantage for pelleting (DSM internal
In an early study, vitamin A in a beadlet cross-
documentation).
linked with gelatin was compared to a non-cross-
linked vitamin A beadlet. Both were exposed to an
Thiamin mononitrate is preferred in feeds (Adams,
aggressive trace mineral premix with choline
1978). Thiamin hydrochloride is more soluble and
chloride. After a 30-day period, the cross-linked
is preferred for liquid preparations, but it is prone to
vitamin A lost 6% activity while the non-cross-
greater losses during pelleting. D-pantothenic acid
linked vitamin A lost 35% of its original activity
is the preferred form (the l-isomer has no vitamin
(DSM internal documentation). The spray-dried
activity), but due to its unstable and hygroscopic
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 16: Vitamin Stability during Pelleting
version of vitamin A is understandably less stable 90°C pelleting temperature.
than either of the beadlet forms.
Figure 16-2. Pelleting retention of crystalline and
However, not all encapsulated products experience spray-dried formulation of folic acid (VFP22043).
protection against losses during feed processing
(Gadient and Fenster, 1992). While encapsulated
ascorbic acid products are excellent sources of
vitamin C (Hilton, et al., 1977), only marginal
improvements exist when pelleted in feeds. On the
other hand, an ethylcellulose coating for vitamin C
has successfully enhanced its stability
characteristics, but not to the same degree as with
the phosphorylated vitamin C.
Vitamins such as vitamin E (as the acetate), vitamin
D, riboflavin, biotin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine,
Spray-dried formulations folic acid and vitamin C (as the phosphate ester) are
Spray-dried formulations of vitamins usually usually offered in spray-dried or spray-granulated
provide an improvement in the stability during formulation.
pelleting. The process of spray-drying includes a
mixture of the vitamin, antioxidant, gelatin,
maltodextrin and water that is sprayed into an Others
environment of hot air. A non-starch emulsion is
Niacin, niacinamide, menadione, calcium
used to produce a granulated product with a lower
pantothenate and thiamine generally exist in the
solubility in water. This process provides some
crystalline form. Niacin or niacinamide in this form
“embedding” of the vitamin within the particle,
has high purity (99%) and excellent pelleting
although it differs from a coated beadlet (Figure
stability. In spite of niacinamide’s very high
16-1). Spray-drying reduces the electrostatic nature
solubility, its stability does not differ from that of
of some vitamins, and increases the particles per
niacin.
unit.
As a diluted formulation, vitamin B12
Figure 16-1. Comparison of beadlet and spray-
(cyanocobalamin) is relatively stable to pelleting,
dried formation.
but is sensitive to oxidizing and reducing agents.
Ascorbic acid, niacinamide and breakdown products
of thiamin are known to accelerate its
decomposition (Kurnick, et al., 1978). Vitamin B12
should be diluted for mixing.

Vitamin stability
At one time (Gadient, 1986), the primary vitamins
of concern for stability were vitamins A and D,
Figure 16-2 shows the results of a study with two menadione, thiamin and vitamin C. Today,
forms of folic acid (spray-dried and conventional progress has been made such that we could
crystalline). The spray-dried formulation of vitamin probably remove vitamins A, D and C from that list.
E is generally a little more pelleting-stable than is Efforts to improve stability of formulated vitamins
vitamin E adsorbate. In one internal study, the in pelleted feeds have been successful, especially
retention of the spray-dried form with the gelatin for temperatures of 75°C or less, when losses
coating was 95%, versus 88% for the adsorbate at certainly would be minimal.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 16: Vitamin Stability during Pelleting
update, Arkansas Nutrition Conference, Hot
In a recent field study, the stability of vitamin A, Springs, Arkansas, USA.
vitamin E adsorbate, riboflavin, thiamin and folic Albers, N., 1996. The influence of the production
acid was determined when the feed was conditioned process and the composition of the mixture
for three minutes at 96-99°C, and in a cooker for on vitamin stability. Feed Compounder,
five seconds at 115°C. Losses of approximately April.
10% occurred with vitamin A, riboflavin and folic Angel, R.A. and Ward, N.E., 2005. Comparison of
acid. While no loss occurred with thiamin, about phytases after being pelleted. Unreported.
25% of the vitamin E was lost. Thus, under
relatively-harsh conditions, stabilities were Anonymous, 1991. Stability of vitamin products.
generally good overall. VITEC Ser. Tech. Leaf., Ref. G3 2/1.
Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Basel,
Some nutritionists make adjustments in their Switzerland.
formulations to account for anticipated losses Baker, D.H., 1995. Vitamin bioavailability.
(Perry, 1978), as reflected in commercial averages Bioavailability of nutrients for animals:
(Ward, 1993). Gadient and Fenster (1992) reported Amino acids, minerals and vitamins.
a loss of about 20-30% of most vitamins when Academic Press Inc., New York, New York,
stored three months at 35°C after being pelleted at USA.
90°C. Once the vitamins go through pelleting and Barendse, R.C.M., 1995. Technological aspects of
exposure to moisture, the protective coatings are enzyme usage. Second European
often damaged such that contact with trace elements Symposium on Feed Enzymes.
and moisture becomes more possible. Losses in Noordwijkerhout, Netherlands, 178.
vitamins due to various storage conditions have Batterham, E.S., Anderson L.M. and Baigent, D.R.,
been suggested (Kurnick, et al., 1978; Anonymous, 1993. Utilization of ileal digestible amino
1991; Albers, 1996; Coelho, 1996). At room acids by growing pigs: Tryptophan. Brit J
temperature for 8 weeks after pelleting, thiamin, Nutr 71:345.
menadione, pantothenic acid, folic acid and vitamin
Beardsworth, P., 2004. Technology preserves
B12 appeared most prone to losses (Albers, 1996).
phytase activity. Feed Mix 12(2).
It is reasonable to assume that higher pelleting Bedford, M.R., Pack M. and Wyatt, C.L., 1997.
temperatures result in higher losses post-pelleting, Relevance of in-feed analysis of enzyme
since more of the protective coating is likely activity for prediction of bird performance in
destroyed. While the majority of poultry and swine wheat-based diets. Poultry Sci 76(1):39.
feeds is fed within days after pelleting, bagged Bedford, M.R., 2000. Exogenous enzymes in
pelleted feeds might be stored for several weeks or monogastric nutrition—their current value
months before being fed. Considerations must be and future benefits. Anim Feed Sci Tech
made for the pelleting temperature and the time lag 86:1.
between pelleting and feeding, since a greater loss Behnke, K.C., 1998. Why pellet? Kansas State
in potency occurs with prolonged storage. Unless University/AFMA Pellet Conference,
the conditions are known, it is difficult to predict Manhattan, Kansas, USA.
losses. Brown, I., 1966. Complex carbohydrates and
resistant starch. Nutr Rev 54:S115.
References Clemmensen, J., Westh, P. and Fuglsang, C.C.,
Adams, C.R., 1973. Effect of processing on the 1999. Phytase interaction with water.
nutritional value of feeds. National Unpublished.
Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, Coelho, M., 1996. Stability of vitamins affected by
USA. feed processing. Feedstuffs July 29.
Adams, C.R., 1978. Vitamin product forms for De Ritter, E., 1976. Stability characteristics of
animal feeds. Hoffmann-La Roche vitamin vitamins in processed foods. Food Tech
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 16: Vitamin Stability during Pelleting
30:48. Hooge, D.M., Steward, F.A. and McNaughton, J.L.,
Dove, C.R. and Ewan, R.C., 1986. Effect of diet 2000. Improved stabilities if vitamins A, D3,
composition on the stability of natural and E and riboflavin with tri-basic copper
supplemental vitamin E. Swine Res Rep AS- chloride (TBCC) compared to copper sulfate
80-J. Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, penta-hydrate in crumbled broiler starter
USA. feed. Poultry Sci Abstr No. 189, Montreal,
Canada.
Eeckhout, I.M., 1999. Phytase quality suffers from
steam pelleting and storage temperature. Huber, T. and Gadiet, M., 2002. Stability
Feed Tech 4(2). performance of feed additives in a long-time
conditioned layer feed. VFP22043, DSM
Engelen, A.J., van der Heeft, F.C., Randsdorp,
Nutritional Products, Inc., Basel,
P.H.G. and Somers, W.A.C., 2001.
Switzerland.
Determination of phytase activity in feed by
a colorimetric enzymatic method: Huyghebaert, A., 1991. Stability of vitamin K3 in a
Collaborative inter-laboratory study. J mineral premix. World Poultry 7:71.
AOAC Intern 84:629. Jacobsen, K.T. and Jensen, P.E., 1995. Use of an
Froetschener, J., 2005. Current and future mill enzyme containing granulate in a method for
technology. Arkansas Nutrition Conference, production of a pelletized fodder. US Patent
Rogers, Arkansas, USA, 122-143. 5,391,371.
Gadient, M., 1986. Effect of pelleting on nutritional Jones, E.T., 1986. Effect of pelleting on vitamin A
quality of feeds. Maryland Feed assay levels of poultry feed. Poultry Sci
Manufacturers, College Park, Maryland, 65:1421.
USA. Kurnick, A.A., Hanold, F.J. and Stangeland, V.A.,
Gadient, M. and Fenster, R., 1992. Vitamin stability 1978. Problems in the use of feed ingredient
in aquaculture feeds. Fish Farmer February. vitamin values in formulating feeds. Georgia
Nutrition Conference 107-136.
Gadient, M. and Tritsch, J.C., 1995. Product
formulations for enzymes used in animal Lehmann, M., Pasamontes, L., Lassen, S.F. and
nutrition. Second European Symposium on Wyss, M., 2000. The consensus concept of
Feed Enzymes, Noordwijkerhout, thermostability engineering of proteins.
Netherlands. Biochim Biophys Acta 1543:408.
Garret, J.B., Kretz, K.A., O’Donoghue, E., McKinney, L.J. and Tetter, R.G., 2003. Caloric
Kerovuo, J., Kim, W., Barton, N.R., value of pelleting and the consequential
Hazlewood, G.P., Short, J.M., Robertson, creation of nutritional dead zones. Poultry
D.E. and Gray, K.A., 2004. Enhancing the Sci 82(1):109.
thermal tolerance and gastric performance of McNight, W.F., 1996. Use of NSP enzymes in
a microbial phytase for use as a phosphate- swine and poultry nutrition. BASF
mobilizing monogastric-feed supplement. Technical Symposium, Pacific Northwest
Appl Environ Microbiol 70:3041. Nutrition Conference, Seattle, Washington,
Grant, B.F., Seib, P.A., Liao, M. and Corpron, K.E., USA.
1989. Poly-phosphorylated L-ascorbic acid: Nunes, C.S., 1993. Evaluation of phytase resistance
A stable form of vitamin C for aquaculture in swine diets to different pelleting
feeds. J Wrld Aqua Soc 20:143. temperatures. Enzymes in Animal Nutrition,
Harz, H.P. and Betz, R.J., 1999. Salt-stabilized Kartause Ittingen, Switzerland, 269.
enzyme preparations. US Patent 5,972,669. Perry, S.C., 1978. Vitamin allowances for poultry
Hilton, J.W., Cho, C.Y. and Slinger, S.J., 1977. and swine. Hoffmann-La Roche vitamin
Factors affecting the stability of update, Arkansas Nutrition Conference, Hot
supplemental ascorbic acid in practical trout Springs, Arkansas, USA.
diets. J Fish Res Board Canada 34:683. Pickford, J.R., 1992. Effects of processing on the
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 16: Vitamin Stability during Pelleting
stability of heat-labile nutrients in animal University, Dr. Adam Fahrenholz, Assistant
feeds. Rec Adv Anim Nutr 177-192. Professor of Feed Milling at North Carolina State
Raastad, N. and Skrede, A., 2004. Feed pelleting University, and Dr. Cassandra Jones, Assistant
temperature influences growth performance Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
of broiler chickens. University.
Roche Animal Nutrition, 1991. Technical update:
Stay-C stabilized vitamin C. RCD 8425/491.
Hoffmann-LaRoche, Inc., Nutley, New
Jersey, USA.
Schutte, J.B. and Pack, M., 1995. Sulfur amino acid
requirement of broiler chicks from fourteen
to thirty-eight days of age: Performance and
carcass yield. Poultry Sci 74:480.
Silversides, F.G. and Bedford, M.R., 1999. Effect of
pelleting temperature on the recovery and
efficacy of a xylanase enzyme in wheat-
based diets. Poultry Sci 78:1184.
Smith, A., 2005. Post-pelleting liquid application.
Arkansas Nutrition Conference, Rogers,
Arkansas, USA.
Thomas, M., van Zuilichem, D.J. and van der Poel,
A.F.B., 1997. Physical quality of pelleted
animal feed: Contribution of processes and
its conditions. Anim Feed Sci Tech 64:73.
Ward, N.E., 1993. US commercial vitamin
supplementation rates for broilers, turkeys
and laying hens. J Appl Poultry Res 2:286.
Ward, N.E. and Wilson, J.W., 2001. Pelleting
stability of Ronozyme P (CT) in commercial
US feed mills. Poultry Sci Abstr No. 1968,
Indianapolis, Indiana, USA.
Wyss, M., Brugger, R., Kroneberger, A., Remy, R.,
Fimbel, R., Oesterhelt, G., Lehman, M. and
van Loon, A.P., 1999. Biochemical
characterization of fungal phytases (myo-
inositol hexa-kisphosphate
phopshohydrolases) catalytic properties.
Appl Environ Microbiol 65:367.
Wyss, M., 2005. Personal communication.

Dr. Nelson E. Ward is the Poultry, Technical

Marketing & New Business Development Manager
at DSM Nutritional Products, Inc. He received his
M.S. and Ph.D from Clemson University.

This content was edited and reviewed by Dr.

Charles Stark, Jim and Carol Brown Associate
Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
 Phosphate sources in pelleting
BY D.E. AXE, PHD, PAS, DIPL. ACAN AND K.C. BEHNKE, PHD

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY CHARLES STARK, ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, AND CASSANDRA JONES

sources used in the formulation (McEllhiney, 1986).

Pelleting can be described as a process during Sutton (1979) investigated the effect of DFP and
which individual ingredients or mixed feeds are DCP on pellet mill performance with a broiler
agglomerated using heat, moisture and pressure. grower formula. He found the production rate for
The purpose of pelleting is to transform a finely- the diet containing regular and fine-grind DFP to be
divided, sometimes dusty and difficult-to-handle 60% greater than for the diet containing an equal
feed material and form it into larger particles— amount of DCP.
usually resulting in improved feeding properties and
animal performance compared with non-pelleted Table 17-1. Chemical properties of
product. Thus, pelleting has long been recognized commonly-used inorganic feed phosphates.
as a means of maximizing feed utilization and Ingredient P, % Ca, % Na, %
profitability for both producer and feed Monosodium P 26 - 20
manufacturer. Monoammonium P 24 - -
Dicalcium P 18.5 20 -
This chapter does not elaborate on the merits of Monocalcium P 21 15 -
pelleting, for that has been proven, but rather Defluorinated P 18 30 5
provides insights and a greater understanding of
typical feed ingredients that optimize the pelleting Behnke (1981) also studied the effect of mineral
process. Of particular interest to the feed industry sources on pellet mill performance and pellet
and poultry and swine integrators, and subject to quality. Defluorinated phosphate was compared
much debate over the last 15 years, has been the with DCP and monocalcium phosphate (MCP). He
effect of minerals on hardware, pellet quality and concluded that DFP improved production rate 23%
rate of production. and 33% compared with DCP and MCP,
respectively (Table 17-2). Verner (1988) and
We will focus this discussion, in particular, on others have suggested that DFP either coats or
inorganic feed phosphates (Table 17-1) and their polishes the holes of the die with most plants
effect on the pelleting process. The importance of reporting extended die life.
highlighting inorganic feed phosphates is self
evident in the dietary levels added to our Table 17-2. Effect of inorganic feed phosphate
formulations and the dynamic impact they continue sources on pellet production rate.
to have on the pelleting process. Ingredient Production rate, kg/hr
Source comparisons Defluorinated P 1,877
Dicalcium P 1,528
Much of the early pelleting work with minerals Monocalcium P 1,411
involved assessing the effect of defluorinated
phosphate (DFP) and dicalcium phosphate (DCP) Verner (1988) conducted a year-long research
on pellet mill performance. Pellet mill performance project in commercial feed plants over a broad
can be significantly affected by the physical and geographical area, using many different feed rations
chemical forms of the inorganic feed phosphate to determine the effect of inorganic feed phosphate
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 17: Phosphate Sources in Pelleting
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 17: Phosphate Sources in Pelleting

sources on pellet mill performance (Table 17-3). Particle size

The particle size of common inorganic feed
The tests showed pelleting rate increases using DFP phosphates has had a variable impact on the
in the range of 5-50%, depending on the degree of pelleting process. Sutton (1979) found that the
pelleting difficulty of the original formula. The production rate for a diet containing a regular-grind
greatest improvement (25-50%) appeared in beef DFP was 68.9% greater than for a diet containing an
and dairy feeds using high levels of corn gluten, equal amount of DCP. Comparatively, the finely-
urea and minerals. The next greatest improvement ground DFP produced only a 52.2% advantage over
was found in heat-sensitive feeds (high milk/high DCP. Similarly, Behnke (1981) evaluated a fine-
sugar). Poultry and swine feeds showed increased and regular-grind DFP compared with DCP. In
throughputs of 5-25%, depending on the amount of Trial 1 of his evaluation, he found that a finely-
fat added in the pellet. ground DFP resulted in an increase in production
rate over the more coarsely-ground DFP. However,
Table 17-3. Effects of replacing dicalcium P in Trial 2 the regular-grind promoted a faster
(DCP) with defluorinated P (DFP) in select throughput than the fine-grind DFP (Table 17-4).
pelleted diets. Dietz (1989a) investigated the effect of particle size
Feeder Production Pellet of inorganic feed phosphate sources on pellet
Rate, Rate, metric Mill throughput. The study conducted at Kansas State
Diet % ton/hr Load, % University compared a finely-ground form of DFP,
Poultry diet DCP and MCP with a typical feed-grade size
DCP 98.0 22.5 95.0 product. In all three inorganic phosphate sources
DFP 98.0 25.0 87.0 the finer-grade material resulted in a 6-10% lower
Calf throughput.
supplement
DCP 37.4 3.0 75.0 Table 17-4. Effect of particle size on pellet
DFP 47.1 5.0 88.0 mill performance.
38% cattle Particle Size Production Rate, kg/hr
supplement Regular 1,921
DCP 53.5 6.0 59.7 Fine 1.833
DFP 75.7 9.4 62.8

Starting with a blend of DCP and DFP, an Pellet durability

improvement of 20% was observed when the ration Behnke (1981) compared the pellet durability index
was re-formulated with 100% DFP. An increase of (PDI) of inorganic feed phosphates, which is a
10% was achieved with the replacement of 50% measure of the feed pellets to withstand mechanical
DFP. Pelleting rate improvements were noted using handling (Table 17-5). The DCP and MCP
amounts varying from 6.5-30 kilograms per metric products produced a more durable pellet compared
tonne. Also, the pellet mill size (45-224 kW), die with DFP. Work by Dietz (1989a, 1989b) and Axe
size (3.2-9.5 mm) or die composition (standard (1996) supports these findings. On average, MCP
alloy or stainless steel) had no effect on the was 6% and DCP was 3% higher in pellet durability
percentage improvements, and the pellet durability compared with DFP.
was not significantly different.
Table 17-5. Effects of feed phosphate source on
Dietz (1989a, 1989b), in two pellet studies using pellet durability index (PDI).
broiler type diets, compared DFP with DCP, MCP Ingredient PDI
and monosodium phosphate (MSP). He found that Defluorinated P 88.5
DFP was 7.9%, 14.9% and 13.8% higher in Dicalcium P 89.7
throughput than DCP, MCP and MSP, respectively. Monocalcium P 92.9
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 17: Phosphate Sources in Pelleting

Energy efficiency inorganic feed phosphates to the pelleting process.

The DFP used significantly less energy per unit of This information becomes increasingly important as
feed than either DCP or MCP (Behnke, 1981). we consider substituting feed phosphates with
Differences follow the same trend as found in the phytase and/or alternative ingredients.
production rate data. Table 17-6 shows that DCP
and MCP increased energy used per unit of feed Some of the early work showing a pelleting
20.3% and 29.2%, respectively, over DFP. benefit in adding granular feed phosphates to the
diet was generated by Ranne and Richardson
Table 17-6. Effect of feed phosphate source (1979). They evaluated pelleting efficiency and
on pellet mill energy use. pellet quality of diets containing DCP or a liquid
ammonium phosphate source. They found that
Ingredient Energy use, kWh/ton
diets containing ammonium polyphosphate
Defluorinated P 9.84
required significantly more electrical energy than
Dicalcium P 11.84
corresponding diets containing DCP.
Monocalcium P 12.71
Two studies by Dietz (1989a, 1989b) reported on
Winowiski (1996) compared DFP to MCP, DCP
the effects of pelleting a broiler type diet with
and monoammonium phosphate (MAP). This study
different inorganic feed phosphates compared to a
found that the load amperage increased in a linear
no-feed-phosphate-added diet (control). Both
fashion from DFP to MAP (Table 17-7). Similarly,
studies demonstrated an increased throughput for
Axe (1996) found a 4% increase in energy
feed phosphate sources compared with the control
consumption with MCP over DFP.
diet (Table 17-8).
Table 17-7. Effect of feed phosphate source
Similarly, a pilot study by Winowiski (1996) found
on pellet mill load amperage.
that a control diet (no added inorganic feed
Ingredient Load amperage, % phosphate) dramatically reduced pellet mill
Defluorinated P 65.6 performance compared with diets containing
Dicalcium P 67.5 inorganic feed phosphates. These findings are also
Monocalcium P 68.8 supported by a recent study at Kansas State
Monoammonium P 72.5 University (Axe and Behnke, 1997).

Table 17-8. Pellet mill throughput

Fat addition to inorganic feed phosphates comparison between inorganic vs. non-
Dietz (1989b) and Axe (1996) added 1% fat or inorganic feed phosphate sources.
soybean oil to diets containing different sources of Ingredient Improvement, %
feed phosphates to determine if adding lubrication Defluorinated P 39.5
can reduce observed throughput differences Dicalcium P 28.5
between feed phosphates. Diets with added fat or Monocalcium P 18.7
soybean oil gave higher throughputs and reduced Monosodium P 20.3
energy consumption. In respect to reducing the
throughput differences between feed phosphates, References
there was only minimal effect. All feed phosphates Axe, D.A., 1996. Effect of feed phosphates on the
with added fat produced a similar additive response pelleting process: Research study at Kansas
in production rate. State University. IMC-Agrico Feed
Ingredients, Bannockburn, Illinois, USA.
Axe, D.A. and Behnke, K.C., 1997. Effect of feed
No inorganic feed phosphates added
phosphates on the pelleting process:
We have generally overlooked the value of Research study at Kansas State University.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 17: Phosphate Sources in Pelleting

IMC-Agrico Feed Ingredients,

Bannockburn, Illinois, USA.
Behnke, K.C., 1981. Pellet mill performance as
affected by mineral source. Feedstuffs
53(12):34-36.
Dietz, J., 1989a, 1989b. Effect of feed phosphates
on the pelleting process: Research studies at
Kansas State University. Pitman-Moore,
Inc., Mundelein, Illinois, USA.
McEllhiney, R.R., 1986. Feed pelleting in
perspective. Proceedings of Eighth Canadian
Feed Technology Course, Canadian Feed
Industry Assoc., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Ranne, R.M. and Richardson, C.R., 1979. Effect of
form of feed phosphate on pelleting. Res.
Bull., Texas Tech, Lubbock, Texas, USA.
Sutton, L., 1979. Feed phosphate study. Borden,
Inc., Smith Douglas Division, Elgin, Illinois,
USA.
Verner, W.A., 1988. Phosphates in pelleting: Best
cost vs. least cost. Feed Management
39(4):56-58.
Winowiski, T., 1996. Pelleting investigation:
Phosphate source and lubricant. Lignotech
USA, Rothschild, Wisconsin, USA.

Dr. Axe is a Feed Industry and Nutritional

Consultant. He has a Ph.D. in ruminant nutrition
from Kansas State University. He has years of
experience in food animal agriculture focusing
primarily in mineral and vitamin nutrition, product
development, and feed technology.

Dr. Keith Behnke is a Professor Emeritus in Feed

Science and Technology at Kansas State University.

This content was edited and reviewed by Dr.

Charles Stark, Jim and Carol Brown Associate
Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
University, Dr. Adam Fahrenholz, Assistant
Professor of Feed Milling at North Carolina State
University, and Dr. Cassandra Jones, Assistant
Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
University.
 Considerations for Pelleting for
Aquaculture
BY EUGENIO BORTONE, PH.D, PAS, DPL. ACAS

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY CHARLES STARK, ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, AND CASSANDRA JONES

Figure 18-1. Proportioning, dosing and weighing

Global production of aquafeed is approximately system cost center. Drawing courtesy of Rosal
6.3 million metric tonnes (MMT) per year (FAO, Agro Instalaciones.
2012). Of this total, approximately 44 MMT is
inland production and 19 MMT is marine
production. The growth in aquaculture will continue
as countries increase aquaculture production to meet
the demand for food production, specifically as a
protein source.

The aquafeed mill

Feed mills designed to produce aquafeed have
major differences when compared to traditional
animal feed mills. To understand the differences, it
is necessary to have a basic understanding of an
aquafeed plant layout. Figures 18-1, 18-2 and 18-3
show the three major operational or cost centers of a
plant designed to produce shrimp or fin fish feeds.

One of the major differences between traditional

and aquafeed feed mills is in particle size reduction.
As illustrated in Figure 18-1, aquafeed feed mills
depend more on the post-grind system rather than
the pre-grind system used to produce most other
animal feeds. In pre-grind systems the major
ingredients are ground prior to being weighed. In
aquatic feed mills, the ingredients are weighed prior
to being ground (see Figure 18-2). The pre-
weighed meal is also subjected to a pre-mixing step
as it passes through a hopper with internal flights
creating a cascade mixing action.

Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations

Chapter 18: Considerations for Aquaculture
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 18: Considerations for Aquaculture

Figure 18-2. Grinding and mixing cost centers. hammermill for aquaculture feed applications will
Drawing courtesy of Rosal Argo Instalaciones. have a motor rotational speed of 3,600 RPM, twice
as high as the speed used in most livestock and
poultry feeds.

Figure 18-3. Pelleting and extrusion cost centers.

Drawing courtesy of Rosal Argo Instalaciones.

For larval shrimp feeds it is necessary to reduce the

particle size of an ingredient or blend of ingredients
to as small as 100-150 microns, with a maximum of
5% retained on an 80-mesh Tyler screen. For
adequate feed conversion in growing shrimp it is
generally recommended that the average mean
geometric particle size be 250 microns, with a
maximum of 5% retained in a 60-mesh Tyler
Post-grinding process screen.
A post-grinding system is necessary in aquatic feeds
because of the inclusion of difficult-to-grind Uniform particle size will also improve the moisture
ingredients such as fishmeal. It allows the and heat transfer during preconditioning of the feed
production of a more uniform particle size. Another prior to pelleting. With a uniform particle size the
advantage of the post-grinding system is that it does moisture distribution from steam condensation will
not require storage for the individual ground occur more evenly. If the particles are not uniform,
ingredients, and does not require a grinding process then the smaller ones, with a larger surface area,
for each ingredient. will absorb more moisture and could tend to
produce “spotted” pellets that can have poor water
Hammermills have long been used for particle size stability.
reduction in the animal feed industry. A typical
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 18: Considerations for Aquaculture

Another major difference between traditional and formula.

aquatic feed production can be found in the
pelleting operation. Pellet mills in traditional feed Formulation can perhaps be better understood when
mills use shorter residence time (10-60 seconds) we consider feeding a 1 g shrimp. For this stage of
preconditioners as compared to shrimp feeds that physiological development the shrimp will consume
require preconditioning times of three or more approximately 12% of its body weight per day, or
minutes. The compression ratio used in the pellet approximately 0.12 g of feed. Every pellet or
dies is also different. Shrimp feeds require crumble of feed should contain all the nutrients for
compression ratios of 20-24 (diameter of the bore which the diet has been formulated. In the event
divided by the effective travel length), while poultry the ingredients are not mixed properly, reduced
and swine feeds require compression ratios of 10- growth rates, high morbidity and mortality, and
12. A higher compression of shrimp feeds is poor feed conversion could result.
required in order to produce highly water-stable
feeds. With increased compression, the production Once the major ingredients are ground to the target
capacity is reduced. Therefore, a pellet mill set up particle size, they are passed to the mixer where
to produce 30 MT/hr of poultry feed may only other minor ingredients such as heat-labile vitamins
produce 4-5 MT/hr of high-quality shrimp feed. and some of the liquids are added. From the mixer,
the mixed formula meal is sent to the pelleting line
(Figure 18-3).
Formulation
The high protein levels of most aquafeeds are
achieved by using ingredients high in protein such Mixing: Sequence of ingredient addition
as fishmeal, shrimp head meal, squid meal, clam
meal and soybean meal. Soybean meal use has The order in which ingredients are added to the
increased considerably in an attempt to reduce feed mixer can affect the mixing efficiency. The
costs and lessen the demand on fishmeal. Many of sequence of addition will depend on the
these high protein ingredients also have a high oil formulation, type of ingredients, and the activation
content. When these ingredients are ground, their of natural or synthetic binders. Particular attention
high oil content can clog fine mesh screens. To should be paid to the addition of binders to the mix.
avoid this, it is recommended that ingredients high In most cases, binding agents need to be activated
in oil be ground together with low oil content by water and by temperature. However, if a
ingredient(s) such as cereal grains. hydrophobic liquid, such as oil (i.e., fish oil), is
added in the mixer and coats the synthetic or natural
For shrimp feed manufacturing, the most common binder, it will not be able to readily absorb water
low oil ingredients used in combination with protein and start development of its binding properties,
meals high in oil are whole wheat grain, wheat which can reduce the water stability of the pelleted
flour, wheat gluten, and defatted soybean meal. feed.
Because fibrous ingredients do not grind well,
wheat middlings and similar ingredients are not Aquaculture feed ingredients are added to the
used in shrimp formulations. Although the fiber mixer in the following order:
particles can be reduced in size to a point, because
they are flexible they can be pulled through the • All major ingredients in order from greatest to
screen holes by the air-assist system without being least (fishmeal, soybean meal, cereal flours, etc.).
reduced to the target particle size. These large fiber Allow some mixing time (1-2 minutes depending
pieces will act as avenues for water penetration, and on type of mixer) prior to adding the minor
upon soaking, will expand, leading to the creation ingredients (trace elements, vitamin pre-mixes,
of voids resulting in loss of pellet integrity. For etc.), which will also be added from greatest to
aquafeed manufacturing it is recommended that least.
high-fiber ingredients not exceed 3% of the total
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 18: Considerations for Aquaculture

• Once all the dry ingredients are added, they should After being mixed, the shrimp feed is transferred to
be mixed for a predetermined time before the the pelleting supply bin. A variable speed feeder
addition of liquid ingredients. transfers it to the preconditioner where steam is
added to increase temperature and moisture levels.
• To prevent clump formation, the liquid ingredients Preconditioning is the third most critical step in the
must be sprayed onto the mixed feed as uniformly process for the production of highly water-stable
as possible, with water being the first liquid added shrimp feeds, as the steam activates natural or
because water must be internalized into the synthetic binders to achieve high water stability.
particles, improving the binding capacity once
subjected to higher temperatures in the pelleting The shrimp feed industry in North, Central and
or extrusion processes. South America has relied more on the short-term,
single-pass conditioner in contrast to Asia, where
• After the water is added, other aqueous long residence time conditioners are commonly
ingredients should follow. used. This is because the aquafeed industry was
developed out of feed mills designed to
• Lipids should be added last to prevent coating the manufacture broiler and swine feeds. However,
particles and inhibiting the hydration of the starch with the growth of the aquaculture industry, more
and other binding agents that may be present in and more feed mills are making the necessary
the formula. changes to produce high-quality shrimp feed.

• After all liquid ingredients are added, mix for a

predetermined time to ensure adequate dispersion. Single-pass conditioners study
A single-pass conditioner is shown in Figure 18-5.
A test run was conducted (Bortone, 1995) in this
Production basics for aquafeed conditioner with a 35% CP shrimp diet. It was run
The most common mixer used in commercial to compare the effects of using low-pressure steam
aquaculture feed manufacturing today is the (1 kg/cm2) and high-pressure steam (2 kg/cm2).
horizontal (Figure 18-4) mixers. The pellet mill used in this trial was a CPM Century
125 HP pellet mill with a die orifice diameter of 2.4
Figure 18-4. Horizontal mixer. mm and compression ratio of 20.8 (2.4 mm x 50
mm standard no relief). In this trial, the effect of
post-pellet conditioning was also evaluated.

Figure 18-5. Single-pass conditioner. Photo

courtesy of Sprout-Matador.

Because of short mixing cycles that permit up to 20

batches per hour, most new shrimp feed mills are
using horizontal drop-bottom mixers.
The post-pellet conditioning was accomplished by
Shrimp feed has bulk densities between 550-650 g/l placing hot pellets coming out of the die into a
and is a sinking feed. The most common and most styrofoam container for five minutes. Water
cost-effective method to produce high-density, stability (WS) of pellets not subjected to post
water-stable shrimp feed is the pelleting process. conditioning (OC) versus post conditioned (PC) was
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 18: Considerations for Aquaculture

measured as percent dry matter left after four hours Figure 18-6. Double-pass conditioner. Photo
of water immersion. For this method, 80% WS is courtesy of Sprout-Matador.
considered good and beyond 90% is considered
excellent.

Results indicated that, at a pressure of 2 kg/cm2,

conditioned mash temperature and pellet
temperature exiting the die were higher (95 vs.
92°C and 98 vs. 95°C) than at 1 kg/cm2 pressure. In
contrast, water stability (WS) was higher for low-
pressure (LP) pellets (75.2 vs. 68.0%). The higher
pellet temperature of high-pressure (HP) pellets is
due to lower moisture content, which in turn had
higher friction as they exited the die. This higher
temperature of HP pellets is also responsible for the Figure 18-7. Double-differential conditioner. Photo
higher post conditioning temperatures achieved courtesy of Wenger, Inc.
(95.0 vs. 94.0°C).

Water stability for PC pellets was substantially

higher than for pellets cooled right after exiting the
die at the same pressure. However, there was no
difference in water stability for PC pellets at either
of the pressures tested (92.8 vs. 92.2). The results
clearly show an advantage in using post
conditioning and this should be considered,
especially in situations where double-pass
conditioners are not available. A comparison between (Bortone, 1996) a Sprout-
Matador double-pass conditioner (DPC) and a CPM
A better alternative to the single-pass short retention single-pass (SPC) conditioner was made to
time conditioner is the double-pass (Figure 18-6), determine the effects of long (two minutes) vs. short
and even triple-pass conditioner. Stacking retention time (30 seconds) on shrimp feed water
conditioners on top of each other reduces the total stability. In this case, die specifications (2.4 mm x
length of the unit. Many poultry and swine 50 mm working area, high-chrome die and closed-
operations are turning their attention to double-pass end corrugated roller shells), formula (35% CP
conditioners as a way to increase pellet durability, high-wheat flour) and processing conditions were
reduce fines, increase pellet digestibility and as a equal. The pellet mills were the same brand of
means for sanitizing the feed. equipment and were run at the same die speed side
by side. The steam was injected at 1.5 kg/cm2 of
A disadvantage of multiple-pass conditioners is the pressure. In this trial, post-pellet conditioning
possibility of reduced mixing when the speed is (PPC) of five minutes was tested for both DPC and
reduced or the paddle configuration is changed in an SPC.
attempt to increase dwell time. This dilemma can
be overcome by using double agitators that rotate at Results indicated that a DPC achieved higher mash
different speeds, maintaining adequate mixing and conditioning temperatures than the SPC (97.5 vs.
dwell times. This is known as the double- 82.4°C). Also, mash moisture was higher for DPC
differential conditioner (Figure 18-7). than SPC (15.7 vs. 12.9%). These results
corroborated the advantage of dwell time on mash
temperature and moisture. This experiment
demonstrates that as the residence time increases,
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 18: Considerations for Aquaculture

there is more time for steam to condense and mm can only produce 3-5 MT/hr of shrimp feeds
transfer its energy to the product. The improvement (2.3 mm diameter).
on mash conditioning also resulted in better water
stability for DPC than for SPC (73.0 vs. 62.6); Also, the compression ratio used for poultry and
however, higher water stability results were swine diets is much less than that used to produce
obtained by post conditioning the hot pellets (92.6 good quality shrimp feeds (12-14 vs. 18-20,
vs. 79.5%). respectively). Therefore, when comparing dies
from different manufacturers, use this as one of the
selection criteria, the total open area and not just the
Die thickness and compression price, and always request dies with the most open
area to increase capacity.
Most shrimp dies are manufactured with stainless
steel, with a high chrome content to prevent
The function of the rollers is to force the material
corrosion, as most shrimp formulas can contain
into the die. Roller adjustment is critical in the
acidic materials, and to reduce the coefficient of
pelleting process of shrimp feed. It is recommended
friction. Where high lipid diets are used, and
to adjust the rollers as close as possible to the die
increasing the coefficient of friction is required, the
face. The gap of the roller and the die face should
dies should be manufactured of carburized stainless
be approximately 0.5 mm. The rollers should be
steel.
adjusted at least every two shifts using the touch
skip method. In shrimp feed it is common to have
For shrimp feed manufacturing it is common to use
the rollers over-adjusted with the expectation that
a die with an effective thickness of 40 mm when
this would increase throughput, when in reality, the
using 2.0 mm orifices and a compression ratio of
opposite will occur. Very tight rollers will cause
20. For formulas high in starch and die
spalling of the die (Figure 18-8).
compression ratios of 18 or more, it is
recommended to lubricate the formula by adding 1-
Figure 18-8. Spalling of the die face caused by
2% oil (fish oil) in the mixer. This addition needs
overly tight rollers.
to be accounted for and subtracted from the total
applied during coating.

Typically shrimp feed dies have no counterbores

(standard die). The main reason is to maintain
pellet quality (length, hardness, compression ratio,
water stability) as consistently as possible. Shrimp
pellets produced with a die having the outside rows
relieved will have different dwell times in the
effective pelleting zones, causing pellets to be less
compacted, softer and possibly less water-stable
than pellets produced with the standard die.
Roller shells are made with different
Shrimp feed dies should have optimum hole configurations—dimpled, corrugated open ends and
patterns to maximize open area and throughput. As corrugated closed ends. It is important to use the
the size of the die orifice diameter decreases, the rollers that have the highest traction possible to
pelleting capacity also decreases. This is because push the moist mash through the die. In most cases,
the perforated area (total open area) is considerably the preferred roller shell is the corrugated closed
smaller in dies with small diameter orifices than in ends (see Figure 18-9) since this offers higher
large diameter ones (i.e., 2.0 mm vs. 6 mm). This traction. The closed channels prevent the mash
explains why pellet mills with throughputs of 20 from flowing sideways, thus pushing more towards
MT/hr for poultry and swine diets with dies of 6 the die face where it is pushed out through holes.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 18: Considerations for Aquaculture

Figure 18-9. Corrugated shells closed ends. Photo Figure 18-11. Standard groove shell.
courtesy of Jacobson Inc.

The shells should be rotated at least twice during

the life of the die. It is also important to have each Pellets are cut as they exit the die. The knives used
die placed with its matching set of roller shells. to cut the pellets need to be as sharp as possible.
This is because the shells will conform to the wear Dull blades will only knock off the pellets, creating
of the die, and if used with a different die, will not stress cracks that will cause the pellets to break into
have the same wear pattern, thus affecting smaller pieces with fines production. The stress
throughput and possibly damaging the die. cracks also provide an avenue for water penetration,
which can result in poor water stability. As a
The shells can be fine groove (Figure 18-10) or general rule, all blades need to be replaced at least
standard (Figure 18-11) groove configuration. For every other shift.
moist meals, as in the case of shrimp feed, the fine
groove is the more desired one because it has good
traction due to greater surface area of contact and it Post-pellet cooking
also provides a quieter run. Why is water stability so improved with post
conditioning? As discussed previously, pellets
Figure 18-10. Fine groove shell. subjected to some form of post conditioning had
improved water stability. In those trials, post
conditioning was accomplished by just keeping the
pellets at their own temperature for a determined
period of time. The increments in time in which the
pellets are kept warm have two positive effects.
First, the pellets are not subjected to the sudden
change in temperature due to the cold draft of the
cooler that causes the pellets to contract rapidly.
The sudden contraction causes microscopic cracks
that are avenues for water penetration and result in
poor water stability. Post conditioning, as a very
slow cooling process, allows for the contraction to
occur very slowly and permits particles to come
together in a tight structure rather than the sudden
cooling process, which leaves these particles
separated (no maturation) with micro-cracks or
voids. Second, post conditioning provides the
means for further cooking the starches, which in
turn improves water stability. After all, the degree
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 18: Considerations for Aquaculture

of starch gelatinization is a time- and temperature- steam addition or keep them as hot as possible
dependent process. (jacketed). Some units incorporate steam injection,
temperature control zones and PLC controls to
Post-pellet cookers offer an alternative to monitor temperature and humidity.
substantially improve shrimp feed water stability.
There is no published literature that shows a To understand the size of a horizontal unit we also
scientific explanation as to why post conditioned need to take into account the maximum capacity of
pellets have better water stability than pellets not the pellet mill. This is the highest capacity at which
subjected to this treatment. However, research the “best quality” feed is made. Therefore, if the
(Bortone, 1995) with shrimp feeds using regular pellet mill is known to produce pellets of high
pelleting, extrusion and expander and pelleting quality at 3 MT/hr, with 10 minute residence time in
technologies follow the same trend. No matter what the post conditioner, then these parameters should
process is used, water stability is 10-20% better be used as a guideline to size the unit.
when the pellets are subjected to a post cooking
time.
Figure 18-12 shows post conditioning time
As pellets exit the die some expansion is exhibited, optimization trials using styrofoam boxes to
but if allowed to cook slowly, the pellets’ diameter simulate a post cooker unit. The boxes are labeled
starts to shrink. This shrinkage brings the particles 5, 10, 15 and 20 minutes (Figure 18-13) and the
together, including starch granules, protein and even pellets were collected at a known capacity. This is
other binding agents present in the formula. In repeated at various pellet mill capacities to
contrast, when pellets are subjected to an abrupt determine the optimal capacity without reducing
change in temperature, as in the case of the pellets pellet water stability.
immediately reaching the cooler, they do not have
time to shrink in size, and micro-cracks develop.
Figure 18-12. Styrofoam box simulating a post
Post conditioners, or post-pellet cookers, are not conditioning chamber.
new in the Eastern hemisphere. These units of
operation have slowly made their way to the
Western hemisphere in the last five years, where
they have been recognized to improve pellet water
stability.

A few years ago, this unit was regarded as a “trade

secret,” but not so long ago feed manufacturers
learned about it and started implementing its use.
The main post-pellet conditioners used in the
shrimp feed industry in Asia were horizontal units.
These horizontal units were designed to retain the
pelleted feed for up to 20 minutes. The units can be
anything from slowly-moving drag conveyors to
large holding bins.
Once the minimum residence time is estimated, one
can proceed to size the unit or use this information
Horizontal post conditioners to request the minimum residence time required
from the equipment vendor.
These units may be considered a simple “box.” But
there is more to post conditioners. The units are
designed to either further heat the pellets via live
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 18: Considerations for Aquaculture

Figure 18-13. Styrofoam boxes labeled 5, 10, 15 The dimensions of the horizontal post conditioner
and 20 minutes to measure the effect of post depend on the floor space available. The
cooking time at 4 MT/hr. dimensions can change considerably if the residence
time is doubled. This will practically require
double the space of the footprint or a change of bed
depth. One critical aspect to consider is the bed
width of the unit. The wider the bed, the shorter it
will be. If it is too wide, it will require an
oscillating arm feeder to evenly distribute the
pelleted feed across the bed width. This adds an
extra cost to the unit. Other important aspects to
consider are: Steam injection; jacketed sections to
maintain the temperature product; temperature
control thermocouples (closed-loop control); and
total moisture coming out of the post conditioner.
The latter is often overlooked and may result in
serious problems if live steam is injected. This can
Calculate the space needed result in high moisture in the finished product
How big does this unit need to be to hold the because a cooler alone will not be able to remove
product for 10 minutes? To determine the the excess.
dimensions of the bed needed to hold the product
for the required time, use the following equation: Horizontal post conditioners can work well where
floor space is available, but when sizing a unit or
Footprint area (FPA) = (rate × time/60) / (depth x ) designing a new line, consider other important
For example: aspects such as maintenance. Horizontal units
require more maintenance due to the large amount
Production rate = 3,000 kg of moving parts used. Also, they require more
Feed density = 650 kg/m3 cleaning to avoid cross-contamination or mold.
Desired bed depth of pellets = 0.3 meters One of the major advantages of these units is the
Post conditioning time = minimum 10 minutes fact that the pelleted feeds are gently handled, so
fewer fines are produced.
FPA = (3000 kg × (10 minutes/60 minutes)) /
(0.3 m × 650 kg/m3) = 2.56 m2
Vertical post-pellet conditioners
The total footprint for the bed can be a The vertical post-pellet cooker (Figure 18-14)
combination of lengths and widths as shown on includes the option of further increasing the degree
Table 18-1. of cooking by adding steam to the unit, and a steam
jacket to control the temperature of the unit. The
Table 18-1. Settings for a 10 minute residence addition of steam, coupled with a long residence
time in a horizontal post conditioner. time of up to 20 minutes, increases the total
Length, m Width, m Area, m2 moisture content from 17% (out of the die) to 22%.
2.56 1.00 2.56 Since starch gelatinization is a temperature-,
2.84 0.9 2.56 moisture- and time-dependant process, it is without
3.20 0.8 2.56 a doubt that such a system can further improve the
3.66 0.7 2.56 water stability of the pellets. At these high moisture
4.27 0.6 2.56 contents, however, the system also requires a dryer
5.12 0.5 2.56 to reduce the excess moisture that cannot be
achieved by evaporative cooling alone.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 18: Considerations for Aquaculture

These can be simple round holding bins or more may exist to produce high-moisture pellets that will
sophisticated square units. The main problem with mold. If this is the case, you may need a dryer and
improperly-designed vertical post conditioners is a cooler to reduce the total moisture of the pellets to
that the product can bridge inside the bin. This 9-10% and the temperature to no more than 5°
results in blockage of the whole process and above ambient.
downtime to break up the lumped product.

Figure 18-14. Vertical post conditioner. Photo Pellet crumbling and screening
courtesy of Geelen.
In the crumbling process, whole pellets are cracked
to produce starter diets, which are used to feed
shrimp in their early developmental stages. The
whole pellets used in the production of starter diets
must meet the same standards for water stability and
pellet durability. It should not be assumed that
because the pellets will be cracked, the pelleting
process could be altered with the sole objective of
increasing capacity. Therefore, pellets produced for
the crumbling process should be subjected to the
same processing conditions necessary to achieve the
highest possible quality standards.

The equipment used to crush pellets into small

particles is known as the crumbler (Figure 18-15)
and consists of a set of two rolls that run at different
speeds, each with a different set of grooves (Figure
18-16). The crumbler is usually located after the
dryer/cooler. Shrimp starter crumbles can typically
be as small as 0.5 mm and as large as 3.0 mm. With
Most modern vertical post conditioners avoid hang- whole pellets that are 2.2 mm in diameter and 6-8
ups by providing sliding gates that are adjusted mm long, the crumble distribution typically is 60,
according to the pellet diameter. These sliding 30 and 10% for sizes in the ranges of 1.5-2.5, 1.0-
gates are designed to gently lift the bed, causing the 1.5 mm and 0.5-1.0 mm, respectively. The grooves
product that may have formed a block to gently and roller spacing determine the crumble sizes.
break and flow out.
Figure 18-15. Crumble roller assembly.
Compared to the horizontal unit in the previous
footprint area (FPA) example, a vertical unit will
only require floor space of 0.52 m2 (product depth
was calculated at 1.5 m)—which is a 237% smaller
footprint area. The disadvantage of this unit is that
it requires more head space. If height is not an issue
and footprint is, then the vertical unit has more
advantages than the horizontal unit.

In areas of high relative humidity and temperature it

is easier to achieve the desired moisture and
temperature in the preconditioner without adding
steam to the pellets in the post conditioner. But if
steam is added to the post conditioner, conditions
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 18: Considerations for Aquaculture

Figure 18-16. Crumble rollers rotate at different (Figure 18-17). These screeners are composed of
speeds and have different corrugations. multiple stacked decks of sifting screens. These
units rotate and vibrate in three planes, making
them more efficient than common screener
separators. The rotational action is controlled by a
set of weights and a motor placed at the bottom of
the unit. Shifting the weights can increase or
decrease the dwell time by changing the direction of
flow on the screen.

Figure 18-17. Horizontal rotational screener used

to segregate crumbles.

An important objective of crumbling is to reduce

the amount of fines that are produced as the pellets
are crushed. More fines are generated when the
pellet diameter is too large in relation to the
particles that need to be produced. Larger diameter
pellets cannot properly enter through the nip angle
of the rollers, causing more fines as the rollers erode
them. The average amount of fines produced is
15%. These fines need to be removed, and, unlike
what is done with other farm animal feeds, they
Coating
should be sent to an ingredient bin and not to the
pellet mill. Fines that are returned to the pellet mill Coaters are necessary to add those liquids that were
can drastically reduce pellet quality. Some pellets not included in the mix to avoid affecting the
pass through the crumble rolls without breaking. processing and overall quality of the feed. One of
These pellets must be separated downstream and the most common ingredients added post-pelleting
redirected to the crumbler. or post extrusion is fish oil.

The screening process removes clumps produced in The most common method for adding fish oil is
the pelleting process. These clumps or larger pieces through a drum coater (Figure 18-18). Drum
are removed by the sifter as overs, and should be coaters are equipped with spray nozzles that apply
separated and re-ground. When pelleting is the liquid as the feed is gently tumbled. In the last
adequate, no more than 5% fines should be ten years, new coating systems have entered in the
produced. Exceeding this number may indicate aquatic feed market. One such piece of equipment
problems in the pelleting process or mechanical is the vacuum coater (Figure 18-19). This is
handling that is too harsh. basically a batch unit that is filled with the pelleted
feed and then subjected to vacuum or 200 mbar of
The crumbling process produces different particle absolute pressure. This allows for liquids to be
sizes that need to be segregated into the different drawn into the pellet by capillary forces. Once the
fractions with a screener. The most common liquid is applied and subjected to vacuum, the
equipment used in the separation of crumbles of pressure must be equalized back to atmospheric
various sizes is the horizontal rotational screener pressure.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 18: Considerations for Aquaculture

Figure 18-18. Drum coater. ingredient. The fine particles of liquid then coat
the pellets, which are deposited in a mixing
conveyor.

Figure 18-20. Mist coater unit. Photo courtesy of

APEC Inc.

One of the advantages of this type of coater is the

precision for liquid applications, as well as the
degree of liquid distribution through the feed.
However, this type of coater works best for particles
that have some porosity such as floating extruded
feeds, which permits the liquid to move inward The key element in any vacuum coating system is
under a vacuum. For pelleted feeds where the the precision at which the oil or fat is added to the
surface is rather smooth, the use of vacuum coaters product. This step is key to maintain a good
is still questionable. balance of total energy to protein. If too much fat is
added, the nutritional value of the feed can be
Figure 18-19. Vacuum coater. Photo courtesy of adversely affected, impairing growth and
Forberg International Ltd AS. performance of the target aquatic species.

Figure 18-21. Discs of mist coater. Photo

courtesy of APEC Inc.

Another coater unit used in shrimp feeds is the mist

coater (Figure 18-20). This type of coater offers
the advantage that it is a continuous unit and uses
less space than the drum coater. In the case of mist
Dr. Eugenio Bortone is a Sr. Principal Scientist for
coaters, the liquid is not sprayed but rather applied
PepsiCo-Frito Lay. He previously served as the
as a curtain or mist produced by centrifugal force
R&D Manager for Ralston Purina and earned his
imparted by rotating plates (Figure 18-21). As the
B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. from Kansas State University.
feed enters, it is exposed to the mist of the liquid
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 4: Ingredient Considerations
Chapter 18: Considerations for Aquaculture

This content was edited and reviewed by Dr.

Charles Stark, Jim and Carol Brown Associate
Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
University, Dr. Adam Fahrenholz, Assistant
Professor of Feed Milling at North Carolina State
University, and Dr. Cassandra Jones, Assistant
Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
University.
 Factors affecting pellet quality
BY KEITH C. BEHNKE, PHD

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, CHARLES STARK, AND CASSANDRA JONES

assembly, and reviewing those figures will help the

Pelleting has been, and continues to be, a popular reader further understand the following discussions.
processing technique in feed manufacturing. In
basic terms, pelleting converts a finely-ground Depending upon the physical characteristics of
blend of ingredients into dense, free-flowing the feed, a lesser or greater proportion of the work
agglomerates (pellets). There are many reasons done by the pellet mill is used for compression.
used to justify the process, but it may be appropriate For example, if the feed mix contains a high level
to list just a few: of fibrous ingredients such as bagasse, bran or
• Improved animal performance; ground alfalfa, the mill will expend a large
• Decreased feed wastage; amount of energy simply compressing the mash to
• Reduced selective feeding; the density of the subsequent pellet. Conversely,
• Improved bulk density; for a relatively dense feed such as high grain and
• Better material handling characteristics; soy meal, the mill will expend a lesser amount of
• Destruction of deleterious organisms; and energy for compression and a greater amount for
• Customer expectations. throughput.

Pelleting operations are not without cost. It is a The “extrusion area” is the point at which the mash
fairly expensive process in terms of both capital and has reached pellet density and begins to flow
variable costs, but the expense is usually justified in through the die holes. There are many physical
improved plant profit as well as animal forces that must be dealt with in the pelleting
performance. The purpose of this chapter is to process. The primary purpose of the roll is to
discuss the pelleting process in terms of operations, provide a force on the mash to densify the feed and
and to describe how the success or failure of the cause it to flow toward the die. The gap between
operation can impact on profit as well as animal the roll and the die, the roll surface characteristics
performance. and the physical properties of the mash determine
how great this potential force might be.
The process The die provides not only the final diameter of the
The formation of the pellet actually occurs at the pellet, but the resistance force on the feed and has a
“nip” between the rolls and the die. All other direct influence on throughput rate and pellet
activities associated with the operation such as quality. These two forces (roll and die) are
conditioning, cooling, etc., really support and opposite each other, but must work together to
augment the action at that point in the system. In provide quality pellets at an acceptable production
order to understand the process and be in a position rate. The force generated by the roll must be
to make intelligent decisions to improve throughput, greater than the resistive force provided by the
quality or appearance, one must have a thorough die—if not, throughput is zero.
understanding of what happens at the nip point.
Chapter 3 shows representations of the die-roll
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 19: Factors Affecting Pellet Quality
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 19: Factors Affecting Pellet Quality

With a general understanding of the process inside 2012).

the pellet chamber, it is appropriate to move to a
discussion of various factors that affect both That method is generally known as the K-State, or
throughput and pellet quality. Tumbling Can durability test, and it provided a
means of quantifying the toughness of pellets, or
their ability to withstand the downstream handling
Pellet quality that is typical in feed plants and feed delivery
systems. That was a major breakthrough in the
For purposes of this chapter, pellet quality will be
technology of pelleting and has served the industry
equated to the ability of pellets to withstand
for all these years.
repeated handling without excessive breakage or
fines generation. There are many factors that affect
Table 19-1. Swine diets used for pelleting
pellet quality, but the following will be discussed in
experiment with hard red winter wheat (HRW) as
some detail:
pelleting aid.
• Formulation;
HRW, %
• Ingredient particle size;
• Mash conditioning; Ingredient Ref # 0 5 10 20
• Feed rate; Corn or 4-26-023
76.1 71.1 66.1 56.1
• Die speed; sorghum 4-20-893
• Die specifications (design); and Soybean
5-20-367 20.3 20.3 20.3 20.3
• Other factors. meal, 44%
Dicalcium
6-28-335 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
phosphate
Limestone 6-02-632 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3
Formulation
Salt 6-04-152 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
There are feedstuff materials that pellet well and Trace
produce a durable pellet, and there are others that mineral - 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
will not. MacBain (1966) developed a premix
pelletability chart in which he ranked feed Vitamin
ingredients on their pelletability and degree of - 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
premix
abrasiveness. Bartikoski (1962) experimented 1
Provided per kg of diet
with applying a numerical value to each major 2
Provide per kg of diet 4405 USP Units vitamin A;
(feed) ingredient to indicate its “stickiness,” or its 330 USP Units vitamin D3; 22 International Units
ability to help form a tough, durable pellet. He vitamin E; 5 mg riboflavin; 1.7 mg menadione; 13.2
called that value a “stick factor” and fed that d-pantothenic acid; 27.5 mg niacin; 508 mg choline
factor into the computer, along with the various chloride and 0.2 mg vitamin B12.
nutritive values of each ingredient, to provide
formulas that meet all nutritional specifications as Time and space do not begin to allow for a
well as supply a formula that will produce a presentation of all, or even a significant part, of the
quality pellet at least-cost. research that has been conducted on the effects of
ingredients, mixes of ingredients or binders on
Those early workers led others to experiment with pelletability. However, a good example of the
the effects of various ingredients—grains, milled impact of formulation on pellet quality can be
grain byproducts, fats, pellet binders, minerals, found in a comparison of cereal grains used in
etc.—on pellet quality or durability. They also led feeds. Behnke (1990) describes his research at
the development of a standard method for testing Kansas State University on the effect of hard
pellet durability perfected in the 1960s by Dr. Harry winter wheat, die thickness, and cereal type on
B. Pfost at Kansas State University and accepted as pellet durability index in a swine diet (Table 19-1),
a standard by the American Association of in which the corn or sorghum grain portion of the
Agricultural Engineers—ASAE S-269.5 (ASAE,
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 19: Factors Affecting Pellet Quality

ration was replaced with 5%, 10% and 20% ground Table 19-4. Swine diets used for pelleting
hard red winter wheat (HRW). Results are shown experiment with steam pressure changes.
in Tables 19-2 and 19-3. Ingredient, %
Corn or wheat 72.4
Table 19-2. Effect of hard red winter wheat Soybean meal, 44% 20.0
(HRW), die thickness, and cereal type on pellet Dicalcium phosphate 3.2
durability index1. Limestone 2.4
Die Salt 1.0
thickness: 38.1 mm 50.8 mm Trace mineral premix 0.5
Cereal: Corn Sorghum Corn Sorghum Vitamin premix 0.2
HRW, % Diluent in premixes 0.3
1
0 74.5a 76.5a 94.3a 93.4a Provided per kg of diet
b b b 2
5 77.0 76.8 95.2 94.3a Provide per kg of diet 4405 USP Units vitamin A;
10 79.6b 80.4c 95.3c 95.2b 330 USP Units vitamin D3; 22 International Units
c d d
20 83.0 86.2 96.5 96.7c vitamin E; 5 mg riboflavin; 1.7 mg menadione; 13.2
1 d-pantothenic acid; 27.5 mg niacin; 508 mg choline
Values are means of three replications with four
observations averaged per replication. chloride and 0.2 mg vitamin B12.
abc
Values within the same column without a
common superscript differ P < 0.05. Table 19-5. Effect of steam pressure on pellet
production rate, pellet mill electrical efficiency,
Table 19-3. Effect of hard red winter wheat and pellet durability index (PDI)1.
(HRW), die thickness, and cereal type on pellet Production Efficiency,
production rate, kg/hr1. rate, kg/hr kWh/ton PDI
Die Corn
thickness: 38.1 mm 50.8 mm Low (20) 1,399 6.8 57.5
Cereal: Corn Sorghum Corn Sorghum High (80) 1,273 7.4 57.6
HRW, % Wheat
0 994 908 647 630 Low (20) 1,224 7.8 91.0
5 985 928 696 625 High (80) 1,265 8.1 90.3
1
10 986 937 683 620 The modified method of the tumbling box
20 987 930 700 628 method was used, which included six 12.7 mm
1 national coarse hexhead nuts in each
Values are means of three replications with four
observations averaged per replication. compartment to more severely challenge pellet
durability.
Stevens (1987) conducted experiments using corn
and wheat as the grain portion of the swine ration Now, if we are looking for a quick fix, the cited
shown in Table 19-4 as he attempted to determine research results would indicate that we should
the effect of low (20 psig) and high (80 psig) steam substitute wheat for corn or sorghum grain in our
processes at the conditioning chamber of the pellet rations. But what are the economics? Wheat
mill. farmers would be pleased with such a decision; but
formula costs would increase in most cases,
He found no significant (p<.05) effects due to steam hammermill and pellet mill capacities would
pressure on the production rate, electrical efficiency decrease and manufacturing costs would rise by
or pellet durability; however, the pellets from the some factor. There may, however, be room for
corn formula were of a distinctly lower quality compromise by replacing some portion of the corn
(PDI) than those from the wheat formula (Table 19- or milo with wheat or incorporating wheat
5). middlings or red dog in the ration at something like
65% of the cost of whole wheat. Of course, other
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 19: Factors Affecting Pellet Quality

adjustments in the feed formula would be necessary Table 19-6. Effects of mineral sources on pellet
to provide the nutrient balance required for the production rate, electrical efficiency and pellet
target animal. durability.
Table 19-6. Effects of mineral source on pellet
While cereal grains make up the majority of many production rate, pellet mill electrical efficiency, and
feed formulas, fats and oils, present in much smaller pellet durability index (PDI)1.
amounts, can have as much or even greater impact Production Efficiency,
on pellet quality. In pelleted feeds, the amount of rate, kg/hr kWh/ton PDI
added, or total, fat in the ration and how and where High mineral
that fat is added are critical to pellet quality. Fat level (2.5%)
may act as a barrier to moisture addition in the Dicalcium 1,360 11.46 92.8
conditioner, and lubricates the mash passing phosphate
through the pellet die, reducing friction. Both of Defluorinated 1,491 10.46 89.9
these will negatively impact pellet quality. phosphate,
Research has shown the impact of fats and oils to regular grind
vary based on source, type, and other processing Defluorinated 1,560 10.27 91.3
conditions. However, regardless of other variables, phosphate, fine
fat will nearly always reduce pellet quality grind
significantly if added in large amounts prior to Low mineral
pelleting. level (1.5%)
Dicalcium 1,531 10.78 91.2
phosphate
Minerals Defluorinated 1,557 10.49 89.9
Pellet mill performance can be significantly affected phosphate,
by the physical and chemical forms of the calcium regular grind
and phosphorus sources used in the formula. Sutton Defluorinated 1,650 9.96 90.0
(1979) investigated the effect of defluorinated phosphate, fine
phosphate (two particle sizes) and dicalcium grind
phosphate (18.5%) on pellet mill performance with
a broiler grower formula. He found the production At both levels tested, the production rate for the
rate for the diet containing regular grind defluorinated phosphate sources significantly
defluorinated phosphate to be 68.9% greater than outperformed dicalcium phosphate; while the DCP
for the diet containing an equal amount of dicalcium had a slightly, but not significantly, higher pellet
phosphate. The finely-ground defluorinated durability index. That would indicate that a
phosphate had a 52.5% advantage over dicalcium physical change - thicker die or reduced feed rate -
phosphate. could be made to improve pellet quality without a
substantial loss of system throughput.
A similar study (Behnke, 1981) examined the effect
of mineral sources on pellet mill performance and Behnke, Verner (1988), and McEllhiney and Zarr
pellet quality. Two defluorinated phosphate (1983) reported similar results comparing
sources, a fine grind (DPF) and a regular grind phosphorus sources in a variety of pelleted feeds
(DPR), as well as an 18.5% dicalcium phosphate produced under many conditions. Anne and
(DCP) were used. A practical layer diet was used in Richardson (1979) evaluated pelleting efficiency
which each test mineral source was evaluated at and pellet quality of diets containing dicalcium
both high (2.5%) and low (1.5%) levels in the diet phosphate or a liquid ammonium phosphate source.
(Table 19-6). They found that diets containing ammonium
polyphosphate required significantly more electrical
energy than corresponding diets containing
dicalcium phosphate, while pellet durability was
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 19: Factors Affecting Pellet Quality

significantly enhanced by the addition of and a very slight improvement of percent

ammonium polyphosphate over diets containing “toughness” measured as a percentage of fines
dicalcium phosphate and dicalcium phosphate plus through a 10 U.S. screen when the corn was ground
fat. through a 1.6 mm hammermill screen as opposed to
a 3.2 mm screen (Table 19-7).
Those cases are cited, not to encourage or
discourage the use of any mineral source or any This study concluded that:
other ingredient—that’s the nutritionist’s decision— • Pellet durability improves as (the) particle size of
but to indicate that those sources and ingredients the major ingredient of a given formula becomes
can affect pellet quality and production rate and finer (based on grinding tests using 1.6 mm and
should be considered in the quest for improved 3.2 mm screens).
pellet quality. • The greatest value of grinding can be realized in
formulae that are high in starch or fiber.
• The additional production costs attributed to fine
Binders grinding can make the practice too expensive to
be economical.
Pellet binders are used on occasion by many feed
manufacturers to produce more durable pellets. The
Table 19-7. Effect of fine grinding grain on pellet mill
most commonly-used binders are colloidal clays
performance and pellet durability index1.
and lignin sulfonates, but there are many others
Mash temp, °C 71 82 93
available—some effective under given conditions,
Hammermill
some not so effective. Most offer little nutritional
screen, mm 3.2 1.6 3.2 1.6 3.2 1.6
value and they take up valuable space in a
formulation, adding significantly to the cost of the Motor load, 18- 17- 16- 15- 16- 15-
diet. There are instances where the use of pellet amps 20 19 17 16 17 16
binders is justified; however, it is usually preferable Pellet
9.8 10.2 10.5 10.9 12.2 13.2
to enhance pellet quality with formula modifications hardness2
and/or changes in die configurations and operation Percent fines 1.9 1.7 1.4 1.4 1.0 0.8
1
of the pellet mill (Behnke, 1990). Feed rate was held constant at 1,137 kg/hr.
2
Average of 20 pellets assessed by a Stokes hardness
Mill operators shouldn’t be discouraged from trying tester.
any one of the available binders while seeking to
improve pellet quality; but they should be sure to It is interesting to note in Table 19-7 that the
measure the results and that their use is cost- improvements in “hardness” and “toughness” may
effective in a particular operation. have been as much a function of the temperature of
the conditioned mash as a result of the particle size
of the grain or, possibly, a combination of the two
factors.
Particle size
Optimum particle size for best pelleting results has Martin (1984) compared pelleting efficiencies and
been a matter of controversy for almost as long as durabilities using a hammermill and a roller mill to
feeds have been pelleted. Young (1960) found no grind the corn portion (59.5%) of a pelleted feed.
significant differences in pellet durability when he He did not find any differences (P<.05) among the
experimented with feed rations containing 40%, various treatments. The average particle size of the
60% and 70% ground corn or milo when the grain hammermilled corn (3.2 mm and 6.4 mm screens)
portions were ground coarse, medium and fine. ranged from 595 to 876 microns, and the roller
milled corn (fine and coarse) ranged from 916 to
Smith (1962) experimented with high (65-80%) 1,460 microns.
corn-based rations and found a slight increase in the
“hardness” of pellets using a Stokes hardness tester
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 19: Factors Affecting Pellet Quality

Stevens (1987) conducted similar experiments in wheat also required substantially more electrical
which No. 2 yellow corn was used as the grain energy.
portion of the typical swine formula shown in Table
19-4. The corn was ground with a hammermill McEllhiney (1987) conducted research on the effect
through three screen sizes: 1.6 mm (fine); 3.2 mm of re-grinding mixed mash prior to pelleting on
(medium); and 6.4 mm (coarse). The average manufacturing costs, pellet mill performance and
geometric mean particle sizes of the grain portion pellet quality. The results of that research were that
produced and the final mash feed are shown in grinding a 16% dairy ration and a dairy concentrate
Table 19-8. between the mixer and the pellet mill increased total
manufacturing costs by more than US$2.00 per
Table 19-8. Average geometric mean particle size tonne, reduced the pellet mill’s production rate, and
of hammermilled or roller milled grains and mash. adversely affected the durability of the pellets
Corn Wheat (Table 19-10).
Grain Diet Grain Diet
Screen size, mm Table 19-10. Effect of regrinding on pellet mill
6.4 1,023 944 1,710 967 performance and pellet durability index (PDI).
3.2 794 761 802 797 Particle Std. PDI Fines, Prod.
1.6 551 578 365 539 size, dev. % rate,
µm kg/h
Dairy feed
He then measured the effect of the ground grain Unground 412 2.01 98.9 3.4 910
particle size on the pelleting production rate, Reground 366 1.82 93.2 2.9 890
electrical efficiency and pellet durability (Table 19- Concentrate
9). Unground 591 2.19 96.3 3.3 1,105
Reground 467 1.88 95.1 3.8 752
Table 19-9. Effect of particle size on pellet mill
performance and pellet durability index (PDI). In that test, grinding the mash to a smaller average
Prod. Grind Pellet PDI particle size caused a deterioration of pellet quality;
rate, eff., eff., but that was not a grain-based ration. Incidentally,
kg/hr kWh/ton kWh/ton the loss of vitamin A potency in the concentrate
Corn µm feed due to post-grinding alone was 29.3%, and
1,023 1,964 3.3 8.0 89.8 when the re-ground mash was pelleted another
764 2,018 4.3 7.0 88.8 12.9% was lost. Pelleting alone, without re-
551 2,035 8.3 6.9 90.3 grinding the mash, caused a 17.9% vitamin A loss;
Wheat, µm but when this mash was re-ground and pelleted, the
1,710 1,695 2.1 10.0 92.4 total loss was 38.4%.
802 1,833 6.5 8.8 97.4
365 1,833 6.5 8.8 97.4 While the research cited may seem to provide
conflicting results, there is overwhelming evidence
There were no significant (p<.05) differences in the that the average particle size of the ground grain
pelleting production rate or PDI values from portion of a ration, or of the total ration (mash),
different particle sizes of corn mixed into the swine affects the pelleting process throughput and/or
ration—although, the total electricity required to pellet quality. The effects are not the same under
grind the corn and pellet the mash was significantly all conditions or for all rations. That is where
greater for the fine ground corn. When ground operators must conduct their own research under
wheat was used as the grain portion of the swine their own operating conditions and on the feeds that
ration, pellet production rates and PDIs improved as they produce.
the grain was ground finer, but the finer ground
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 19: Factors Affecting Pellet Quality

We are well aware that some portion of a plant’s counterproductive from the standpoint of pellet
product mix is often in mash or meal form and that durability. If the material slips through the die too
grinding the grains more finely in a pre-grind easily, dwell time in the die hole is reduced, causing
system, or the whole mix in a post-grind system, the pellet to be less durable and the starch
causes handling problems in those mash feeds. gelatinization caused by the heat and friction in the
There are two solutions to that dilemma—either die may be reduced.
provide two ground grain bins over the mixing
system or find a grind (particle size) in the middle Stevens (1987) conducted extensive research into
somewhere that will produce the better quality the phenomenon of starch gelatinization during the
pellet and still provide the flowability or angle of feed pelleting process by pelleting corn that was
repose that is needed for mash feeds. The first hammermill ground through a 3.2 mm screen. He
option is, of course, the better one but may not be used a Perkin-Elmer DSC-23 (differential scanning
possible, or too expensive, in a given calorimeter) with an intra-cooler II system for
grinding/mixing system situation. gelatinization analysis. Ground corn before
pelleting was used as the control. The ground corn
Remember that the capacity of a given hammermill from the hammermill was re-ground in a UDY
is partially a function of the total area of the screen cyclone sample mill for the DSC analysis. Samples
perforations or holes, not the diameter of the holes of the pellets were prepared for analysis in the DSC
themselves. So, rather than reducing throughput by by grinding them in a Braun coffee grinder, then re-
50% from a 6.35 mm to a 3.2 mm screen, it is more grinding in the UDY mill. A 2-mm thick outer
nearly reduced by 25% in capacity. In addition, portion of pellets was scraped with a razor blade
very fine grinding will result in greater shrink from selected samples and ground in the UDY mill.
through moisture and dust losses, and if the
hammermill does not have an air-assist system on it The results of the gelatinization measured in the
now, it will need one even more for finer grinding. samples taken immediately after the die are shown
in Table 19-11.
In summary, grind as fine as is necessary for the
best possible pellet quality in an operation with Table 19-11. Effect of conditioning and pellet
given feed rations, but don’t over-grind. That is temperatures on starch gelatinization (gelat).
wasteful of energy, reduces production rates, adds Conditioner, Pelleting, Gelat.,
to manufacturing costs and may do more harm than °C °C %
good to the consuming animal. Whole pellet 23 69 41.9
Whole pellet 43 76 37.1
Whole pellet 63 82 33.5
Mash conditioning Whole pellet 80 84 28.0
Mash conditioning is a subject unto itself and as it Outer pellet 23 69 58.3
has been addressed earlier, will not be addressed in Outer pellet 80 84 25.9
much detail in this chapter. Many researchers and
practitioners have proven that pellet durability and There was a negative relationship between the
pelleting efficiency can be substantially improved conditioned meal temperature and degree of
by the proper steam conditioning of mash. Steam gelatinization. As the temperature of the
brings to the surface of pellet mash particles the conditioned mash was increased, the degree of
natural oils, which are common to most grains and gelatinization decreased.
provide lubrication of the pellet die, reducing wear
on the die and roller assembly and increasing The high degree of gelatinization that occurred in
production rates (Behnke, 1990). the outer portion of the pellet at 23°C conditioning
temperature indicated that heat and mechanical
In some instances, thorough conditioning may be shear next to the surface of the die hole caused a
substantial portion of the gelatinization at all
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 19: Factors Affecting Pellet Quality

temperatures. However, it was especially seen other of which may or may not be the optimum
when there were greater temperature differentials speed for a given pelleted product.
between the conditioned meal and the pellet. There
is a relationship between that temperature difference Stevens (1987) experimented with die speeds using
and the degree of gelatinization observed. As the a California (CPM) 30 HP (Master Model HD)
temperature differential decreased, the degree of pellet mill equipped with a 38 mm thick die with a
gelatinization decreased. 4.8 mm hole diameter. The pellet mill drive was
equipped with a manually-adjustable belt varidrive
Stevens suggested that the conditioning temperature that can deliver die speeds ranging from 126 to 280
of 80°C was adequate to gelatinize corn starch; RPM. Using the swine formula shown in Table 19-
however, the length of time in the pellet mill 4, he achieved the production rates, electrical
conditioner at that temperature was probably not efficiencies and PDI results shown in Tables 19-12
adequate for a substantial amount of gelatinization. and 19-13.
It would appear, from that research, that most starch
gelatinization occurred as the feed material passed Table 19-12. Effect of die speed on pellet mill
through the die. performance and pellet durability index (PDI) in
a swine diet with 72.4% ground wheat.
The temperature of conditioning mash has long Die speed Production Efficiency,
been a pelleting criterion and an indication of RPM m/min. rate, kg/hr kWhr/ton PDI
thorough conditioning that may, or may not, be a 126 120 1,667 11.9 97.5
totally viable indicator. Time at a given mash 150 143 1,740 11.3 97.7
temperature will affect the conditioning, may affect 174 166 1,582 12.6 97.8
the degree of gelatinization, and will certainly affect 198 189 1,525 13.1 97.6
the pelletability of the mash. 222 212 1,462 13.4 97.8
246 235 1,491 13.5 97.7
268 256 1,342 14.9 97.7
Feed rates
Reducing feed rates in order to improve pellet Table 19-13. Effect of die speed on pellet mill
quality is unpopular, but is one method available to performance and pellet durability index (PDI) in
all pellet mill operators. By reducing feed rate, the a swine diet with 72.4% ground corn.
dwell (residence) time of a given particle of mash is Die speed Production Efficiency,
proportionately increased. This has the same effect RPM m/min. rate, kg/hr kWhr/ton PDI
as increasing the die bore length (thickness), but 126 120 - - -
does not require a die change. Pellet efficiency will 150 143 1,264 15.8 91.0
be reduced, but pellet quality usually improves. 174 166 1,660 12.2 90.0
198 189 1,460 13.8 89.6
222 212 1,582 12.9 89.4
Die speed 246 235 1,670 11.6 89.7
268 256 1,465 13.7 89.8
There is very little published information
concerning the effect of die speed on pellet mill For the corn-based ration, the most desirable die
performance and pellet quality. Leaver (1982) speeds for both production rates and electrical
stated that a peripheral speed of 610 meters/minute efficiency were 174 and 246 RPM; the poorest
is the optimum speed for pellets in the 3.2 mm performance was at the slowest die speed (150
through 6.35 mm diameter range and that die speeds RPM). Incidentally, at 126 RPM, the die kept
of 366-396 meters/minute produce the best quality plugging and there were no usable test results.
cubes – 16 mm, 19 mm and larger diameter. Dual-
speed pellet mills have been available for many
years, but they have two set speeds—one or the
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 19: Factors Affecting Pellet Quality

For the wheat-based ration, production rates and search for improved pellet quality.
electrical efficiency were best at 150 RPM and
poorest at 268 RPM. Those results indicate quite One of the primary objectives of all commercial
clearly that die speeds affect production rates and feed manufacturers is to economically produce the
electrical efficiency and that different rations react best pellet quality possible. This is not only
differently to the speed of the die. Interestingly, important from a customer satisfaction standpoint,
however, there was no practical difference in the but it is apparent that animal performance can be
durability of the pellets at the various speeds, but affected by poor quality pellets. Dairy cattle used to
the wheat-based ration clearly out-performed the consuming pellets readily reject fines. Even the US
corn-based ration in durability. broiler integrators are recognizing that poor pellet
quality can reduce bird performance.

Die specifications Table 19-14. Effect of die thickness on pellet mill

performance and pellet durability index (PDI)
The die is the heart of the pellet forming operation.
Production rate Pellet durability
Many characteristics of the die can be varied to get
the desired results on a particular formulation to be Die, mm: 38 51 38 51
pelleted. In order to discuss dies and die Hard red winter wheat, %
performance, it is important to understand die 0 647 99 94.3 74.5
terminology. Definitions as provided by Leaver 5 695 985 95.2 77.0
(1982) are as follows: 10 683 986 95.3 79.6
20 700 988 96.5 83.0
• d = pellet diameter
• L = effective length, or thickness There are numerous factors that affect pellet quality
• T = total thickness and many are inter-related. It takes a great deal of
• X = counterflow depth—the difference between effort to determine what changes to make and how
total and effective length, or thickness, of the die other aspects of the system or operation might be
• D = inlet diameter affected. Factors not addressed in this chapter
• Compression ratio = D2/d2 (a relationship of inlet include: Double pelleting, optimum cooling,
area to pellet cross-sectional area) automation of the pelleting system, gentler handling
• = inlet angle (normally 30° for small hole dies) of pellets, and new binders. This chapter has not
• L/d = performance ratio (relates the effective dealt with issues of water stability of pellet aquatic
thickness of a die to the diameter of the pellet). diets, but that topic is gaining great importance
around the world. As can be seen, pelleting is a
Behnke (1990) studied the effect of effective die very complex issue and one that deserves a good
thickness, or length (L), on pellet durability in the deal of thought and investigation.
experiments reported earlier in this chapter (Tables
19-2 and 19-3). The results indicate that References
durabilities were significantly enhanced with the ASAE. 2012. Densified Products for Bulk Handling
use of the thicker die; however, production rates — Definitions and Method. ASAE Standard
were as significantly reduced (Table 19-14). S269.5. American Society of Agricultural
and Biological Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
Summary Bartikoski, R.G., 1962. The effect of steam on
Almost anything that is done to improve pellet pellet durability, cost reductions through in-
quality (durability) will either increase the cost of plant production controls. Midwest Feed
the ration or reduce the capacity of the pelleting Manufacturers’ Association, Kansas City,
system, or both. Adding to the effective thickness Missouri, USA, 42-47.
of the die is a perfect example of the sort of tradeoff
Behnke, K.C., 1981. Pellet mill performance as
that can be expected, and must be recognized, in the
affected by mineral source. Feedstuffs
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 19: Factors Affecting Pellet Quality

32(12):34-36. Dr. Keith Behnke is a Professor Emeritus in Feed

Behnke, K.C., 1990. Unpublished. An evaluation of Science at Kansas State University.
wheat as a pellet quality enhancer. Kansas
State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA. This content was edited and reviewed by Dr. Adam
Fahrenholz, Assistant Professor of Feed Milling at
Leaver, R.H., 1982. The pelleting process. Sprout-
North Carolina State University, Dr. Charles Stark,
Bauer Division, Combustion Engineering,
Jim and Carol Brown Associate Professor of Feed
Inc., Muncy, Pennsylvania, USA.
Technology at Kansas State University, and Dr.
MacBain, R., 1966. Pelleting animal feed. Cassandra Jones, Assistant Professor of Feed
American Feed Manufacturers Association, Technology at Kansas State University.
Arlington, Virginia, USA.
Martin, S.A., 1984. Comparison of hammermill and
roller mill grinding and the effect of particle
size reduction on mixing and pelleting.
Master’s thesis, Kansas State University,
Manhattan, Kansas, USA.
McEllhiney, R.R. and Zarr, R.K., 1983.
Unpublished. Results of fish meal analog
trials. Kansas State University, Manhattan,
Kansas, USA.
McEllhiney, R.R., 1987. Mill management
feedback. Feed Management 38(12):28-30.
Ranne, R.M. and Richardson, C.R., 1979. Research
bulletin. Texas Tech University, Lubbock,
Texas, USA.
Schoeff, R.W., 1985. History of the formula feed
industry. Feed Manufacturing Technology
III, American Feed Industry Association,
Arlington, Virginia, USA, 2-8.
Smith, G.M., 1962. The effect of particle size, cost
reductions through in-plant production
controls. Midwest Feed Manufacturers’
Association, Kansas City, Missouri, USA,
47-50.
Stevens, C.A., 1987. Starch gelatinization and the
influence of particle size, steam pressure and
die speed on the pelleting process. Doctor’s
dissertation, Kansas State University,
Manhattan, Kansas, USA.
Sutton, L., 1979. Unpublished. Bordon, Inc., Smith
Douglas Div., Elgin, Illinois, USA.
Verner, W.A., 1988. Best cost vs. least cost. Feed
Management 39(4):36,58.
Young, L.R., 1960. Mechanical durability of feed
pellets. Master’s thesis, Kansas State
University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA.
 Measuring the physical
quality of pellets
BY THOMAS WINOWISKI

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY CHARLES STARK, ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, AND CASSANDRA JONES

removed and the percentage of fines was measured

The physical quality of pelleted feed may
(Pfost, 1962). Using this system, researchers were
contribute to the production efficiency and well able to observe the effect of temperature, binders
being of the animal, or it may simply be a cosmetic and die thickness on pellet durability.
aspect that is important to the buyer. Regardless of
the reason, when quality is desired there must be a Butler Manufacturing Company simplified this
way to measure it. Furthermore, this measurement system into a single rotating chamber called the
should be possible to make as the feed is being “KSU Tumbler” or “Tumbling Can.” In this
produced and be predictive of how the feed will method, 500 grams of cooled, screened pellets are
appear when it reaches the animal. placed in a metal box with dimensions of 30 cm by
30 cm by 12 cm and containing a baffle 23 cm long,
5 cm wide and centered diagonally inside the box.
Durability This box, or can, is rotated at 50 RPM for 10
minutes, after which the pellets are removed and
Pellet durability indicates the ability of the pellet to
screened. The pellet durability index (PDI) is
resist attrition during storage and transport. In the
defined as the percentage of pellets surviving the
real world, pellets are lifted, dropped down chutes
test and retained on the screen (Pfost, 1976).
into empty bins, augured, blown, stacked in bags
and every combination of the previously-listed
The KSU Tumbler often shows good correlation to
actions. Every time a pellet rubs against a surface
the actual quality of pellets delivered to the animal.
or impacts against an object there is potential for
For example, fines in three different formulations of
abrasion to occur. Numerous pellet durability
turkey finisher pellets were measured as the pellets
methods have been used to predict how well pellets
moved to the farm. The different formulations were
will withstand such trauma.
expected to result in different pellet qualities. This
was born out by both the KSU Tumbler and the
actual delivered fines (Table 20-1).
Mechanical tumbling
Early work in durability testing was done at Kansas The first formulation was the standard corn/soya
State University. Dr. Harry Pfost developed a mix; in the second, 1% lignin sulfonate binder was
system to simulate normal handling conditions. added; in the third, 10% wheat displaced an equal
Approximately 25 kg of pellets were loaded into a amount of corn. The KSU Tumbler predicted
surge hopper, emptied into a 15 cm screw, 23.0%, 14.0% and 18.6% delivered fines for the
conveyed one meter to a bucket elevator, lifted 2.5 three treatments, respectively. Actual measured
meters and discharged back into the surge hopper. fines were 21.3%, 9.7% and 15.1% (Winowiski,
After recycling for 10 minutes, the feed was 1988).
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 20: Measuring the Physical Quality of Pellets
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 20: Measuring the Physical Quality of Pellets

Deviating from the standard KSU Tumbler method hardness results measured on an Acme
will change the results. Changing the RPMs usually Penetrometer are a mirror imagine of the extended
results in less abrasion (i.e., higher PDI). Using a tumbling results. In this case, harder pellets tended
larger sample reduces abrasion (higher PDI) while a to be less durable. The erratic response in this
small sample increases abrasion (lower PDI). Steel example is probably related to variation in the
hex nuts or ball bearings are often added to the addition rate of molasses; high levels of molasses
tumbling chamber to increase the level of will cause a pellet to be soft, yet durable.
destruction. Any kind of loose added metal can be
used for this purpose, but large 20 mm hex nuts are
recommended. Smaller nuts are difficult to remove Figure 20-1. Comparison of three test methods for
from the mass of pellets, and ball bearings tend to dairy pellets.
roll away. It should be noted that new hex nuts are
more destructive than old ones, probably due to the
sharpness of their corners.

Table 20-1. Prediction of delivered fined in pelleted

turkey diets according to the KSU Tumbler.
1% Lignin 10%
Control Sulfonate Wheat
Pellet Durability 77.0 86.0 81.4
Index ± 1.3 ± 1.3 ± 1.3
Fines in 12.6 7.8 6.6
Cooler, % ± 2.9 ± 1.5 ± 1.0
Fines after Fat 18.7 11.6 16.0
Application, % ± 1.2 ± 1.2 ± 1.2
Fines after 22.2 11.2 17.2
Trucking, % ± 13.5 ± 1.9 ± 2.5
Fines from 21.3 9.7 15.1
Farm Silo, % ± 6.4 ± 1.3 ± 3.4

The standard KSU Tumbler method may work well

for grain concentrate pellets that are expected to
deliver with a fines content of 10% or more.
A variation of the KSU Tumbling Can is the “tube
However, when a grain concentrate is formulated
tester.” Cylinders, either metal or PVC, are sealed
for dairy cattle—where fines levels are expected to
on one end and fixed with a removable cap on the
be below 5%—the KSU Tumbler may not be
other. Sample size is usually 100 grams of screened
destructive enough to identify quality differences.
pellets. Metal objects such as hex nuts are almost
It is still a useful tool to ensure quality product is
always added with the pellets. The tubes are rotated
shipped out to customers, but it often does not allow
end-over-end at a speed appropriate to give
the level of discrimination that is needed for
maximum impact of the pellets at the bottom of the
understanding the pelleting process.
tube. Tube lengths range from 45 to 100 cm.
Rotation times range from 10-20 minutes. One
Figure 20-1 illustrates 12 samples that were tested
strong advantage of the tube tester is that it is
first by the Standard KSU method and then returned
simple and inexpensive to build. Also, multiple
to the tester for an additional 10 minutes of
tests can be performed simultaneously, depending
tumbling with four 20 mm hex nuts. What was a
on the number of tubes employed.
flat line for quality by the standard test shows
differences between samples when nuts are added
for extra abrasion. It is interesting that pellet
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 20: Measuring the Physical Quality of Pellets

Figure 20-2. Correlation between a Tube Tester and that velocity or pressure of the airflow can affect the
the standard KSU Tumbler. result, and this is sometimes not controlled. Also,
pneumatic testers cannot be used for large pellets; 8
mm might be the practical maximum pellet
diameter that could be used.

One of the earliest commercial pneumatic pellet

testers was developed in England by John Payne of
Holmen Bruk (Major, 1982). While the KSU
Tumbler was spreading throughout the Americas,
the Holmen Tester became the most popular
durability tester in Europe, with very little overlap.
Borregaard recently developed an improved
pneumatic machine that is replacing both the
Holmen Tester and, to some extent, the KSU
This tube method has never been standardized by Tumbler.
the industry, but it is an effective method and
correlates well to the KSU Tumbler. For example, Table 20-2. Pellet durability index of various feeds
direct comparison between the standard KSU according to analytical method.
Tumbler and Tube Tester was made on 41 samples KSU
selected from either broiler, calf or dairy rations Modified
(Figure 20-2). In this case, the tube was 90 cm Tumbling
long, rotated at 20 RPM for twenty minutes and KSU Box with
contained 100 grams of pellets with two 20 mm hex Diet Box Nuts Holmen Borregaard
nuts. Even though a smaller sample size, extended Rabbit 98.4 96.5 96.5 97.7
tumbling time and inclusion of hex nuts made this Dairy,
tube tester more aggressive than the standard KSU 18% 97.9 95.3 94.6 97.2
Tumbler, correlation between the two methods was CP
good (Winowiski, 1982). Dairy,
38% 96.7 91.0 90.2 9..6
CP
Beef,
Pneumatic tumbling
16% 96.1 91.6 89.0 94.0
Pneumatic testers have also been used to measure CP
pellet durability. In most cases, 100 grams of Turkey
sieved pellets are tested. Thus, the weight of the 94.7 82.0 84.6 87.2
Grower
pellets recovered at the conclusion of the test is the Swine
actual percent durability. Pneumatic testers 95.5 83.8 80.5 82.4
Starter
generally offer the following advantages over Broiler,
mechanical tumblers: 89.1 68.2 68.5 64.9
2% fat
• Automatic removal of fines requires less work;
• 100 gram sample eliminates percentage Various testers were used to evaluate durability of
calculation; of commercial feed (Table 20-2). All four methods
• Shorter run time—usually 30 seconds or one identified rabbit pellets as the most durable and
minute; broiler pellets as the least. However, the Holmen,
• No exposed moving parts; and Borregaard and modified KSU were more effective
• Quieter. at discriminating intermediate differences in quality
versus the KSU without nuts. Correlation between
Possible short-comings of the pneumatic testers are all methods was high (Payne, 1997).
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 20: Measuring the Physical Quality of Pellets

Hardness screened pellets were then tested in a KSU Tumbler

Pellet hardness is sometimes measured, whether as with two 20 mm hex nuts in each chamber. During
an indication of physical integrity or to ensure the the sampling period, temperature, fat and binder
pellets are not too hard for the particular target varied, producing a wide range of pellet durabilities.
animal. Pellet hardness is measured one pellet at a Correlation between fines and durability was good
time, versus the tumblers which test hundreds of (Figure 20-3).
pellets at once. In order to get a reasonable average,
it is necessary to test at least 10 pellets per sample. Figure 20-3. Correlation between fines in samples
One problem that is difficult to overcome with collected off the pellet mill die and pellet durability.
hardness testing is the selection of the 10 pellets to
be sampled. The very act of selecting these pellets
biases the result.

Pellet strength will vary depending on what part of

the die it is produced on. The center of the die often
has a higher extrusion rate, less dwell time and
more wear; pellets from this portion will be softer
and less durable. On the average, more pellets
come from the center rows of the die, but the longer
and harder pellets that are produced on the outside
of the die are more likely to be selected for testing.

It is generally accepted that harder pellets will also

be more durable. This may not always be true.
Pellets that contain molasses tend to be soft but
remain durable. Consider the difference between Size
breaking a molasses versus a short bread cookie.
The molasses cookie is softer, but when it breaks it Size does matter in pellet durability. Pellets tend to
produces almost no crumbs. High molasses pellets achieve a stable length that is about two to four
can be softer but have good durability because they times their diameter. Pellets that are shorter either
generate few fines. lack physical strength or have been mechanically
abused. One method of estimating quality is to
The first hardness testers were produced by Stokes weigh 10 grams of pellets, count the number of
and Pfizer. Currently the Kahl Hardness Tester is pieces and then calculate the average weight per
the most commonly used, but other devices such as piece. If a piece does not have a full diameter, do
the Acme Penetrometer can also be of service. not count it.

Grain concentrate pellets of varying durability were

tested by this method (Winowiski, 1995). Pellet
Fines
weight was directly proportional to durability (see
The amount of fines coming directly off the pellet Table 20-3). Pellet length should not be used as a
mill can be a good indicator of pellet quality. Even quality assurance method, but it does provide a first
the best pellets will have about 1% fines at this indication of quality when samples have similar
point. As quality declines, the amount of fines will handling histories.
increase. To test this, 100 samples of turkey grower
and finisher pellets were collected directly off the Measuring length as pellets travel through the mill
die, cooled, weighed and fines removed over a US can also be useful in identifying problem areas
No. 6 Sieve (Winowiski, 1987). The fines were where pellets are broken. A large difference
weighed and their percentage calculated. The between two sampling points may indicate that the
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 20: Measuring the Physical Quality of Pellets

pellets are being subjected to unusual mechanical and even sieves in the laboratory.
stress in that segment.
For example, if 1,000 grams of pellets are collected
Table 20-3. Pellet durability index vs. pellet size. and sieved to remove fines before testing, pellets
KSU Holmen collected on the top surface will have a higher
durability durability Size (mg/pellet) durability than those on the bottom. Longer, more
89.7 51.0 87 durable pellets tend to “float” to the top. Pellets
92.1 59.5 97 collected from the outside holes of a die will have
94.2 71.0 108 higher durability than those from the middle due to
95.3 78.0 115 less-aggressive extrusion conditions. Pellets
collected from the sides of a cooler are likely to be
more durable than those collected from the center
Water stability because the long pellets tend to roll to the sides,
Pellets for feeding shrimp require stability in water while the short pellets remain in the center.
for extended times of one to three hours. High Likewise, pellets collected from the sidewalls of a
durability is required for good water stability, but bin or truck will be longer and more durable than
durability alone is no indication of the longevity of those collected in the center.
a pellet once it is submerged in water. Two of the
most important mechanisms that contribute to There are many good ways to test pellet durability.
durability are hydrogen bonds and salt bridges. The primary consideration must be that the test
Both of these binding mechanisms release rapidly in correlates to the real world—i.e., a KSU Tumbler
water, allowing the feed particles to disperse. The should not be used to predict submerged
fact that water stability can only be tested in water survivability of shrimp pellets. The second
and that shrimp pellets are generally small makes consideration should be simplicity; the test should
quantitative testing difficult. be easy to conduct so that people will actually use
it. Another factor to consider is that the method
A quick subjective method is simply to put pellets should be difficult for the user to bias. The testing
in a beaker, add water and observe. Pouring this equipment needs to be stable and provide consistent
mixture through an appropriate sieve, drying, results. Finally, regular testing must be done to
collecting and weighing the portion retained on the develop a data base for comparison.
sieve would be one way to quantify submerged
survivability. One problem with this method is that References
some feed ingredients expand when they absorb Major, R., 1982. The pneumatic method. Feed
water and might be retained on the sieve even Management 21-26.
though they should be included in the disintegrated
Payne, J. and Winowiski, T., 1997. Pellet durability
portion of the pellet. Sieve openings for collecting
testers. Feed Milling International
the surviving pellets should be slightly larger than
July/August.
the original pellet diameter.
Pfost, H. and Allen, R., 1962. A standard method of
measuring pellet durability. KSU Feed
Mistakes to avoid Production School Proceedings 25-29.
Pfost, H., 1976. Appendix F: Wafers, pellets and
Short pellets and fines don’t travel far; they tend to
crumbles—definitions and methods for
sift toward the bottom of the pile and fill holes
determining specific weight, durability and
rather than rolling along the surface of a pile. This
moisture content. American Feed
causes pellets to naturally segregate. Thus, pellets
Manufacturers Association. Feed
collected at the outside of a pile will generally have
Manufacturing Technology 527-529.
better durability than those in the center. This
phenomena can be observed in coolers, trucks, bins Winowiski, T., 1982. Personal communication,
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 20: Measuring the Physical Quality of Pellets

Technical Service Report, 5/10/82.

Winowiski, T., 1987. Personal communication,
Technical Service Report 4/13/87.
Winowiski, T., 1988. Wheat and pellet quality.
Feed Management September.
Winowiski, T., 1995. Pellet quality in animal feeds.
ASA Technical Bulletin Vol. FT21.

Mr. Thomas Winowiski is the Technical

Applications Manager at Borregaard LignoTech
USA, Inc.

This content was edited and reviewed by Dr.

Charles Stark, Jim and Carol Brown Associate
Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
University, Dr. Adam Fahrenholz, Assistant
Professor of Feed Milling at North Carolina State
University, and Dr. Cassandra Jones, Assistant
Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
University.
 Pellet crumbles: Reducing granule
size while minimizing fines
BY MR. RON TURNER

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY CHARLES STARK, ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, AND CASSANDRA JONES

The typical pellet crumbler is configured with Early Design

either one or two pairs of rolls. Figure 21-1 shows Some early-model crumblers had one roll cut
a pellet crumbler of the single-stand version with circumferentially and one roll cut longitudinally,
one pair of rolls. Double-stand versions with two which allowed some crushing of the pellets,
pairs of rolls are available to give twice the capacity resulting in more fines being produced. This
of the single-stand. One roll is driven by an electric configuration is shown in Figure 21-2.
motor and V-belt drive on one end. This roll then
drives the other roll through another V-belt drive Figure 21-2. Early-model crumbler with cross-
mounted on the opposite end. This secondary drive cut rolls.
includes a different size sheave to provide the speed
differential between the two rolls, and a serpentine
belt so that the second roll rotates in the opposite
direction.

One roll rotates faster than the other, and the speed
depends on the size or diameter of the rolls used as
to maintain an ideal peripheral speed of the rolls to
give maximum performance at the nip point. The
adjustable roll is usually spring-loaded in order to
allow large objects to pass through the nip point
without causing any damage to the rolls.
Early-model crumblers had handwheels, which are
Figure 21-1. Modern pellet crumbler (single- used to adjust each end of the adjusting roll
stand model). individually. This often allows for some roll
misalignment and an uneven gap between the rolls,
which results in an uneven-sized finished product
being produced. The new model crumblers have a
shaft connecting both ends of each adjusting roll so
that both ends of the roll are being adjusted at the
same time, in order to keep the rolls parallel and
the roll gap even along the full length of the rolls.

Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability

Chapter 21: Pellet Crumbles
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 21: Pellet Crumbles

Current Design Roll Parameters

The more recent model crumblers have both rolls Roll diameters vary depending on the production
cut longitudinally in what is known as a “sharp-to- capacity requirements, with the smallest being
sharp” configuration. This sharp-to-sharp 15.24 cm and the largest being a 40.64 cm diameter.
arrangement pulls the pellets into the nip point more The more common sizes used today are 20.32 cm
efficiently, thus producing a better quality crumble and 30.54 cm diameter. Rolls also vary in length
with less fines at a higher capacity, and making this depending on the production capacity requirements,
design more efficient than the old design. This and can range from 60.96 cm long to 182.88 cm
efficiency is due to the fast and the slow roll being long.
cut identically with the same helical angle so that
where they meet at the nip point, the angle is Crumbler rolls can be cut with different
opposite to one another and the teeth are coming corrugations depending on the size of the crumble
together at different speeds. This results in the rolls and the application. Roll corrugation profiles
pellet being cut rather than crushed, which is similar also vary as shown in Figure 21-4, with the
in some respect to a scissors action. “LePage” cut being used on the smaller and older
designs, and the “round-bottom V” being used on
The rolls should be no more than 0.012 cm out of the larger new designs.
parallel with one another in order to maintain
maximum performance. This new design crumbler Figure 21-4. Roll corrugation profiles.
can be set up to be adjusted either manually or with
an air motor. The air motor arrangement also
allows for the roll gap to be adjusted automatically
with a control unit from a remote location. This
allows the machine to be able to produce a fine,
medium or coarse crumble from the same machine
without having to reset the roll gap manually every
time.

For maximum performance, crumbler rolls should

be kept in tram and parallel to one another at all
times, as shown in Figure 21-3.

Figure 21-3. Roll tram and roll parallelism.

The number of cuts per centimeter can vary

depending on the application and the results
expected. The older, smaller model crumblers
usually have a LePage cut with 25 cuts per
centimeter, with the fast roll cut longitudinally and
the slow roll cut circumferentially, as shown in
Figure 21-2. The newer, larger model crumblers
are cut with 15 cuts per centimeter on the fast roll
and 20 cuts per centimeter on the slow roll. Both
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 21: Pellet Crumbles

rolls are cut with the same helix angle Figure 21-5. Small-hole versus large-hole dies.
longitudinally—sharp-to-sharp—with both cuts
being the round-bottom V configuration.

This configuration has usually resulted in being the

most efficient in providing the best results for both
production capacity and overall crumble quality for
such applications as poultry and pig starter feeds.
Smaller cuts of 30 to the centimeter and 36 to the
centimeter are also available, and are typically used
for crumbling shrimp feeds for feeding shrimp
larvae. The corrugation size is usually matched to
the size of the pellet to be crumbled.

Crumbler Operation
There is some opinion within the feed industry that
if you are going to end up crumbling pellets, then
there is no point in making a good quality pellet to
start with. In my opinion, this is not true. In order
to produce good quality crumbles, it is necessary to
start off with good quality pellets. Good pellet
quality produces the best field results and
conversion ratios, and the same applies to crumbles.
Figure 21-6. Counter-rotating corrugated rolls.
Some feed manufacturers prefer to make small Correct flow showing steady stream on the
diameter pellets for pig starter feeds in order to bottom right and incorrect flow showing build-
reduce the amount of fines. They do this instead of up in the bottom left.
making crumbles. Producing smaller pellets entails
changing the die on the pellet mill and also results
in a drastic reduction in production capacity. It is
much more efficient to use a large-hole die with a
larger percentage of open area and a higher
production capacity and make crumbles, than to use
a small-hole die and produce only pellets. This can
be seen in Figure 21-5, which shows the
comparison of the small-hole and large-hole dies.

The crumbler achieves particle reduction by passing

material, or pellets, between counter-rotating
corrugated rolls as shown in Figure 21-6. The
degree of reduction depends on the material, the roll
speed differential, the type of corrugation, the roll
gap setting and the volume of material fed to the
rolls. For correct operation, it is important that the
pelleted material flows evenly into the nip point of
the crumbler in a steady stream, as shown in Figure Roll-feeding devices are available for use with
21-6, and there should be no material build-up on crumblers in order to ensure a smooth and steady
top of the rolls ahead of the nip point (Figure 21-6). flow of material into the nip point of the rolls, such
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 21: Pellet Crumbles

as a roll-type feeder or an adjustable surge panel— holes for taking crumble samples; and the roll-stop
both of which are installed at the crumbler inlet. screws for setting and maintaining the correct roll
These devices eliminate surges caused by such clearance. The correct roll clearance should be set
things as pellet coolers and elevators. at 0.79 mm to 1.59 mm more than the actual pellet
diameter being crumbled, and the minimum gap
If surges and build-up occur due to uneven feeding should never be less than 0.76 mm. A feeler gauge
of the crumbler, the rolls will be temporarily forced should be used at each end of the nip point of the
apart by compression of the springs on the rolls in order to set the roll clearance correctly and
adjustable roll, resulting in an inconsistent product to make sure they are parallel to one another. An
ranging from fine crumbles to whole pellets. This is alternative method is to use a feeler gauge
not acceptable. On double-stand crumblers with underneath the roll-stop screws to establish the
two pairs of rolls, a distributor is installed in the correct setting.
crumbler inlet to ensure that both pairs of rolls are
fed evenly. Figure 21-8. Rolls in crumbling and bypass
position.
New model crumblers are fitted with an air-actuated
bypass, consisting of an air motor mounted at one
end of the adjustable roll, which is connected to the
other end of the roll with a jackshaft (see Figure
21-7). The air motor operates the adjustable roll by
remote control, with the rolls in their closed
position for crumbles, and in their open position for
bypassing the pellets, as can be seen in Figure 21-8.

Figure 21-7. Single-stand crumbler. Manual

roll adjustment with air-actuated bypass.

Manual roll-adjust
With the manual roll-adjust system (see Figure 21-
7), the user adjusts the rolls manually at the
crumbler. The manual adjust crumbler is more
suitable for long production runs that require few
adjustments, or when the operator is located near
the equipment. The manual adjust system uses jack
screws mounted on the crumbler to slide the
movable roll in the bearing rails. The jack screws
are joined with a coupling shaft.

A handwheel, with a position analog indicator

mounted to the jack screw, drives one jack screw.
The handwheel allows rapid roll travel in both
directions. When closing the rolls, adjustable roll-
Figure 21-8 also shows the relief springs, which
stop collars prevent the rolls from touching. Stop
compress to allow large objects to pass through the
bolts control the maximum roll opening.
nip point to avoid damaging the rolls; the sampling
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 5: Pellet Durability
Chapter 21: Pellet Crumbles

Full-feature roll-adjust taken at each end and the middle of the roll
The full-feature roll-adjustment system provides a length to determine the performance of the
digital readout of the roll gap. A quadrature ring crumbler. The rolls should be adjusted as
kit, mounted on the end of one jack screw, keeps necessary in order to obtain the desired results.
track of the motion of the coupling shaft and
converts this into gap distance. The digital readout Mr. Ron Turner is a feed pelleting consultant.
displays the gap distance to an accuracy of +/-0.025
mm. An air motor, mounted on the jack screw, This content was edited and reviewed by Dr.
adjusts the roll gap. A selector switch or push Charles Stark, Jim and Carol Brown Associate
buttons operate a solenoid valve that directs the air Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
to open or close the rolls. University, Dr. Adam Fahrenholz, Assistant
Professor of Feed Milling at North Carolina State
The full-feature roll-adjustment option has two University, and Dr. Cassandra Jones, Assistant
built-in systems to prevent damage to the rolls. Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
Correctly adjusted roll-stop nuts provide positive University.
protection against roll-to-roll contact or the rolls
opening too far. A programmed stop in the digital
readout unit also limits the roll travel.

The full-feature roll-adjust system provides

unlimited gap adjustment to enable the crumbler to
produce different size crumbles on demand, from a
remote location. Figure 21-9 shows a double-stand
crumbler fitted with the full-feature roll-adjustment
and the LED digital readout.

Figure 21-9. Double-stand crumbler with full-

feature roll-adjustment.

Samples of crumbles can be obtained by

inserting a sample scoop through the sample
doors provided at the front of the crumbler, as
shown in Figure 21-9. Samples should be
 Maximizing pellet quality during
load-out and delivery
BY GUUS HEIJNEN

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY CHARLES STARK, ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, AND CASSANDRA JONES

silo, the higher the pressure, and the less friction of

After obtaining the optimum pellet quality in the the product against the wall, the higher the pressure.
pelleting/cooling process, and after screening the Based on this theory, damage to finished pellets
pellets and possible post-pelleting application of stored in silos can be explained.
liquids, the final product has been formed. The
main goal in the steps that follow is to maintain the In order to minimize the damage and to maintain
desired pellet quality achieved in the previous the desired pellet quality, the silo design needs to be
processes. considered. Silo design is important to minimize
the damage; to guarantee first-in-first-out; and to
Post-processing, pellets are generally stored in minimize contamination.
finished product silos, are loaded-out in different
ways to either the bulk truck or packing into bags, Assuming that the pellets are cooled through and
after which the feed is transported to distributors or through, and that the temperature of the pellets after
farmers. These steps will be discussed in this cooling is less than 5°C above ambient, no special
chapter, including the various alternatives available provisions—such as open-silo decks, isolated silos
at different stages. or galvanized silo plates—are required, as
condensation will not occur. In regards to the
design, the silo, as well as the hopper needs to be
Finished product storage silos taken into account. However, the hopper design is
also partly dependent on the out-loading system
The theory of minimizing the damage to pellets in
(screws, grid slides, etc.).
the silo goes back to pressure. The physics of
pressure in silos can be determined by the following
Choices need to be made between round or square
equation:
silos, and build-up out of corrugated silo plates or
flat-wall silo plates. From a contamination point of
Pi = C × (A/U × µ) × γ
view, round silos would be preferred; however, the
Pi—pressure on the product
disadvantage of round silos is that the space
C—constant
available is not maximized, as there is dead space
A—surface
between the different silos (net silo volume is
U—perimeter/diameter
smaller compared to the surface required).
µ—friction coefficient of the product against the
wall
The disadvantage of round or flat-wall silo plates in
γ—density/specific weight
general is that the pressure build-up in the silos is
only directed to the bottom. This leads to a lower
Ultimately with normal pellets, the equation of
friction coefficient of the product against the wall;
pressure goes back to (A/U × µ). The bigger the
therefore, a higher Pi in flat-wall silos than
corrugated silo plates with the same filling height. (mash as well as pellets in the silos, etc.). When
In this regard, corrugated silo plates will lead to less using the finished product silos only for pellets—
damage of the pellets (due to a lower Pi). which means that minimizing the damage to the
pellets and first-in-first-out are the main goals—the
In smooth walled silos the friction coefficient with angle of the hopper, as well as the centricity of the
the walls is lower, and consequently the Pi is higher, hopper are of importance for a proper hopper
causing more damage to the pellets. The pile design. With a proper hopper design first-in-first-
planking structure absorbs part of the vertical out can be achieved, which also results in
pressure force, reducing the vertical load and the minimized difference in speed between the pellets,
risk of consolidation of the product and breakage of leading to a minimum of fines.
the pellets. The Pi in a flat-wall silo can be 2-3
times higher than in a pile planking silo. Asymmetric hopper design avoids the chance for
bridging, which is less relevant when only pellets
On the other hand, the least damage is achieved are stored. This design allows a difference in speed
when pellets all move at the same speed, among the pellets, which results in more fines
minimizing the friction between the pellets—which created, as well as no first-in-first-out.
is dependent on the silo wall type as well as the
hopper design. Also, round corners will lead to a The outlet might seem a simple thing; however,
lower friction coefficient therefore will cause more many silo unloading problems are caused by
damage to the pellets in the finished product silo. incorrect hopper design. The hopper must be
designed in such a way that it enhances a free and
In general, it is recommended to limit the height of even product flow. In general, it can be said that a
finished product silos to 15 meters. Otherwise, the good hopper design must feature:
falling height of the pellets into the silo will cause
excessive damage to the pellets. This is unless • Steep walls (the steepness is determined by the
special provisions are made in the silos to reduce flow behavior of the product)
the falling height of the product. These provisions • A large outlet opening
are normally not used for regular animal feed pellets • No dead angles (or for bad-flowing materials,
but only for very sensitive products. have rounded corners inside)
• A smooth surface
The diameter:height ratio is not important in the • An asymmetric outlet
case of regular animal feed pellets, but it is
important when storing a product, such as a premix Expanding hoppers are an option, but they are not
in finished product silos in order to avoid required when storing only pellets. As pellets
segregation. The maximum static Pi when storing generally have a good flow characteristic, there is
pellets is reached when the height exceeds 2.5 times no need for agitators, vibrators, pneumatic pads or
the perimeter/diameter. This is reached in most of other devices to avoid bridging. If these devices are
the cases when storing pellets in finished product installed, there will certainly be a negative effect on
silos in order to reach the required storage capacity. the pellet quality, as these devices cause friction—
leading to an increase in the percentage of fines.
The dynamic Pi, when out-loading pellets, reaches However, in non-traditional feeds and high-fiber
3-4 times the maximum static pressure, dependent rations, some special attention needs to be given to
on the out-loading capacity and the diameter-to- the flow ability of the finished product in pelleted
height ratio. Ultimately, storage time of the form.
finished product in the silos should not exceed 8
hours, in order to guarantee fresh feed to the In those cases where products pack together during
animals and to avoid the need for aeration systems, the filling of the silo, it might be necessary to
etc. provide the option for re-circulating the product. In
the case of pellets, this is not required if the storage
The hopper design is dependent on the discharge time of the finished product is kept as short as
mechanism and out-loading system chosen, as well possible.
as the flexibility required in the out-loading section
Normal values for damage to pellets are hard to only used for products with poor flow
estimate, as it depends greatly on the physical characteristics. If there is a horizontal distance
quality of the pellets (hardness and durability). If between the discharge point and the truck loading
good pellet quality is achieved (97% Holmen), the point/bagging point, chain conveyors, flight
percentage of fines created after screening of the conveyors or screw conveyors can be used.
pellets should be kept to a maximum of 1.5-2 % Preference is given to drag flight conveyors, as
under practical circumstances. This is created in the screw conveyors damage the pellets too much and
transport on top of the finished product silos, in the drag flight conveyors cause less contamination than
finished product silos, as well as the discharge of chain conveyors. Whenever possible, horizontal
the silos. However, the percentage of fines created transport needs to be avoided in order to maximize
in the finished product section is strongly dependent gravity, minimize contamination, additional
on the pellet quality, and the percentage of fines investment, and operational costs.
created increases rapidly when the physical quality
of the pellets drops. With slide gates (open-close), the out-loading
capacity exceeds 100 TPH, and the Pi during out-
In order to minimize damage to the finished product loading exceeds 3-4 times the static pressure. This
in the silos, as well as to minimize operational ultimately leads to pressure waves in the silos from
costs, gravity transport should be used as much as the product to the silo walls—which causes more
possible. This will allow for minor differences in fines. Therefore, dosing grid slides will lead to a
speed between the pellets, which reduces the lower Pi and will avoid pressure waves, and
friction between the pellets. Of course, storage ultimately leads to fewer fines. Of course, attention
times should also be minimized. The best balance needs to be paid to the design of the dosing grid
needs to be achieved between all aspects of feed slides as the moving part should not be within the
milling, which means not only pellet quality but stored product, minimizing the damage when
also contamination, operational aspects such as actuating the dosing grid slide.
maintenance and operational costs, layout of the
site, etc. Pressure waves of the product to the silo wall are
dependent from the out-loading capacity, as well as
the diameter:height ratio. The change of occurrence
Finished product silo discharge increases when the diameter:height ratio becomes
smaller (a tall silo versus the diameter).
Discharge of finished product silos can be done in
various ways:
Vibrating bottoms are used when products have
• Slide gates/grid slides (open-close)
poor flow characteristics are stored in the finished
• Vibrating bottoms
product silos, which is not the case with pellets. In
• Discharge bottoms
cases when vibrating bottoms are used, a slide gate
• Dosing grid slides
is needed and the vibration will cause fines.
• Chain conveyor/flight conveyor
• Screw conveyor

The preference with regard to maximizing pellet Mass flow and funnel flow
quality during load-out and delivery is to use dosing The product’s own mass and the developing friction
grid slides, as then the damage to the pellets during forces will create compression stress and sheer
transport is the smallest. This is because there is a pressure on the bulk solid itself and the silo walls.
continuous dosed discharge which minimizes the A correct silo design should therefore be based on
pressure in the product. In this system, gravity is stiffness and stability calculations for the silo, as
maximized, while minimizing the Pi. All other well as a geometric design—which can achieve the
discharge methods described will cause more desired flow behavior, thus preventing unloading
damage to the pellet. problems. When designing silos, the geometry of
the silos should promote mass flow of the product.
Discharge bottoms are generally not used for
finished product silos containing pellets, and are
Figure 22-1. Mass flow vs. funnel flow. Bulk out-loading systems
Different options for bulk out-loading are available.
Each feed mill will need to decide what method best
fits their manufacturing process. Several options
for bulk out-loading include the following:

Figure 22-2. Bulk out-loading directly from silo

in the bulk truck with weighbridge.

Mass flow is the optimum movement for solids to

leave the silo. In a mass flow situation, all material
in the silo moves (Figure 22-1). Flow occurs
without cavities being formed. Segregation as a
result of silo loading is almost completely restored
in this movement. Other advantages of mass flow
are that hardly any product is left behind in the silo
and that the first-in-first-out principle is achieved. Figure 22-3. Bulk out-loading using grid slides,
The latter is very important to maintain fresh belt conveyors, a pellet sieve, a movable belt and
product. Mass flow requires a low Pi in order to a weighbridge.
minimize the difference between the maximum Pi
(when the product is stored in a full finished
product bin) and not under pressure (during
controlled out-loading). In that way, the flow of
product will be even in the silos. The product will
stick together when the Pi is the high.

Another, but less favorable, silo unloading

movement is funnel flow. The bulk solid moves
only through the middle part of the silo, forming a
vertical channel. An advantage of funnel flow is
that the silo walls wear less quickly. However,
there are many more disadvantages, such as the last-
in-first-out principle, consolidation of the product
causing channeling, deterioration or even rotting of
the product, un-restorable segregation; decrease of
the storage capacity, and fermentation.

Funnel flow is only acceptable for coarse, granular,

easy-flowing solids and in situations in which
product deterioration and segregation are not The system in Figure 22-2 has a very simple
important. Whether mass flow or funnel flow design. The truck has to be moved after each
occurs depends on: compartment is loaded. Loading efficiency will
• The internal friction of the bulk solid depend on the number of different products that will
• The friction on the silo walls be loaded on the truck. Loading efficiency is
• The design of the outlet hopper generally low due to the time required to move the
truck. However, the potential for cross Figure 22-5. Bulk out-loading using grid slides,
contamination is low. The system shown in Figure pellet sieve, duo-weighing system and movable
22-3, does not require movement of the truck during conveyor.
the loading process. While this saves loading time,
the use of conveyors, has the potential to create
dust, fines, and cross-contamination. The system
has a high dosing and weighing accuracy, with no
dust/cross-contamination problems. The system
tends to be a relatively low capacity bulk out-
loading system.

Figure 22-4. Bulk out-loading using grid slides

with sieve and contraset bins.

This system (see Figure 22-5) is a combination of

high-capacity out-loading and flexibility in trucks of
different standards. This system is advisable when
it is impossible to reach a predictable logistical
output system. Disadvantages occur due to dust and
cross-contamination when using belt conveyors.

This is a flexible and high-capacity out-loading

In Figure 22-4, we see high-capacity out-loading system. Dust and cross-contamination problems
with use of contraset bins. If there are no trucks from the use of belt conveyors are the main
available, the operatorcan fill the contraset bins. disadvantage.
The number of contraset bins will be based on the
number of the trucks each the day. A disadvantage A flexible and high-capacity out-loading system as
to this system is the necessity for standardization of seen in Figure 22-6 has the capability to add liquids
the trucks. Furthermore, the height of the building just before bulk out-loading. This creates increased
must be increased or the capacity of the finished flexibility for the addition of liquids, especially fat
product silos decreased in order to accommodate or molasses that may cause bridging in the bins.
the contraset bins. This high-capacity out-loading
system uses a combination of contraset bins and a This type of system has the potential to blend an
movable conveyor. One disadvantage of this unlimited number of formulas to produce
system is dust and cross-contamination from the use maximumflexibility in animal feeding programs. It
of conveyors. also allows the possibility to blend single raw
materials (cracked corn, wheat, etc) with a
concentrate.. The system also has the flexibility for
separate lines and contraset bins for the different
feeds produced. In terms of cost—when estimating the price of
hiring a truck and driver per hour— a modern
This system has cheaper finished product silos with system could save a feed mill with a capacity of
fewer small cells. Concentrated feeds are possible. 150,000 tonnes approximately 110,000 Euros per
Through the optimal use of the available capacities year in transport costs. Yearly savings in terms of
of each subsequent process, a higher net output in transport hours (2,500) will result in additional
feed mill capacity can be achieved, along with savings in investments of one bulk truck (25 tonnes)
lower production costs. for a total of approximately 175,000 Euros.

Figure 22-6. Flexible, high-capacity out-loading As stated before, the optimal bulk out-loading
system. system is totally dependent on the individual
circumstances of the feed mill. Are standardized
trucks used; is flexibility a key issue; can transport
be planned (which truck arrives when), etc.? An
answer to all the relevant questions will ultimately
lead to the optimal out-loading system for each
individual circumstance.

In the case of remodels to existing feed mills,

constraints generally need to be taken into account
with regard to heights available, etc. Therefore,
may lead to different choices than when greenfield
projects are designed. As each and every situation
is different, specialists need to be involved in
designing the most favorable bulk out-loading
system, as custom-made solutions fulfilling the
goals of the individual feed mill are possible.

Bagging
Although bulk out-loading is common in the more
developed countries, a small percentage of
production from these areas is sold in bags. This is
Overall, these systems allow for simple processes usually seen with specialty feeds. In less-developed
with simple management and automatization. They countries, the majority of feed is generally handled
are less sensitive and have less of a tendency for in bags. Where infrastructure and economy of scale
breakdown, while being more convenient in terms make bulk handling possible, bulk out-loading
of operation with lower maintenance costs. becomes quickly economically feasible as
compared to bagging off. This varies in every
situation of course.

Feasibility of traditional and modern systems If bagging is considered in a feed mill, a number of
Traditional systems including weighbridges have questions need to be answered in order to determine
estimated loading times per tonne of ready product the range of bagging off weighers available for the
in the 1.2-1.5 minute range. Modern systems have specific situation. First of all, the type of bags used
estimated loading times per tonne of ready product is an important input variable. While paper bags are
in the 0.2-0.4 minute range. The savings of common in certain parts of the world, plastic or
approximately one minute in loading time per tonne polypropylene bags are used throughout the world.
of ready product could be possible with a modern Paper bags are generally used with an automatic
system. closing system, whereby the bags are filled through
a spout and the feed itself closes the inlet as the bag
becomes full. The bag is then removed from the gravity, a belt feeder or a screw conveyor (single or
filling spout. Plastic or polypropylene bags are double screw) to move the product along. The
generally filled and stitched closed by sewing feeder that is used depends on the characteristics of
machine. The bags can be placed automatically on the product that needs to be bagged. If
the bagging off weigher or this can be done by contamination is a major concern (as with premix or
hand. concentrates), screw feeders are generally used. In
most other situations, belt feeders are generally
Besides the type of bag used, bag size is an used.
important issue to consider. The size of the bag has
an effect on the capacity of the bagging off weigher, Depending on the design of the feed mill and the
and the capacity per hour decreases when smaller required flexibility, the bagging off weigher(s)
bags are used. In the majority of the less-developed needs to be able to operate at the same time as bulk
countries, 50 kg bags are used. In Europe, however, out-loading occurs, or the bin(s) on top of the
25 kg bags are the maximum allowed by the bagging off weigher(s) needs to have sufficient
government labor laws. holding capacity to ensure that bagging off can
continue while filling a bulk truck. In certain
Filling accuracy also has an effect on bagging situations, the selection can be made for a number
capacity. In general, the more time that is allowed of finished product silos that are used for bagging
for filling, the higher the accuracy that can be off only where the other finished product silos are
achieved. However, there needs to be a balance used for bulk out-loading. All these set-ups are
between accuracy and capacity. An acceptable custom-made depending on the circumstances the
filling accuracy for bag filling is +/-0.25%. feed mill is operating under.
Inaccuracies in filling will lead to either lost
revenue (overfilling) or unsatisfied customers Farmers’ changing demands, strategic objectives
(underfilling). In order to ensure that accuracy is and commercial interests will determine the design
achieved, calibration of weighers needs to be done of the process layout. Legislation in different
regularly. countries can also influence the technologies
applied. As situations are different for every mill,
To achieve higher capacity levels, bagging off there is not a single standard concept. The needs of
weighers with double weighers (versus single the mill should be the starting point for designing an
weighers) allow for the required accuracy while still installation. This allows flexibility, for today and
achieving a higher output capacity. The allowable for the future.
capacity for bagging off is dependent on the
operational aspects of the feed mill—i.e., is bagging This content was edited and reviewed by Dr.
done in two shifts or one shift while the feed mill is Charles Stark, Jim and Carol Brown Associate
operational in two shifts? Also, the percentage of Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
total production capacity that needs to be bagged University, Dr. Adam Fahrenholz, Assistant
plays an important role. Professor of Feed Milling at North Carolina State
University, and Dr. Cassandra Jones, Assistant
Bagging off weighers used in today’s feed milling Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
industry tends to be electronic bagging off weighers University.
instead of the mechanical weighers which were
common in the past. Electronic weighers allow for
better accuracy to be achieved as compared to
mechanical bagging off weighers. Further, the
electronic bagging off weighers can be controlled
with a separate computer control unit, or can be
integrated in the process control system of the feed
mill if required.

Bagging off weighers can be generally equipped

with three different feeders. These feeders can use
 Die maintenance and
die change operations
BY DAVID FAIRFIELD

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, CHARLES STARK, AND CASSANDRA JONES

Next we will discuss some areas to consider when

Pellets are formed at the nip point between the die putting together a die maintenance program.
and the rolls. Within this work area, feed is
compressed and extruded through the pellet die—
the heart of the pelleting operation. Properly Installing a new die
maintaining the die is essential to achieve maximum
Installing a new die provides a great opportunity to
production rates and to prolong die life during the
inspect the die housing (or quill), pellet die and
pellet-forming process.
associated wear components. The following is a list
of possible checkpoints for maintenance personnel
The best way to maximize die performance is to
to look at during this process:\
follow established maintenance procedures that
begin at die start-up and continue throughout the
• Inspect the die housing groove where the die
life of the die. A successful maintenance program
mates to the housing. Look for shiny spots, wear
consists of:
and feed build-up. If found, these conditions may
be indicators that the die did not properly fit into
• Regular inspection and preventive maintenance
the die housing, or that the die was not securely
practices that find minor problems and address
fastened. The vast majority of die breakage
them before they become major issues. Clearly,
occurs because of improper die fit or loose dies.
the most cost-effective manner to maintain pellet
dies, as well as other equipment, is to inspect and
• Inspect the wear ring insert in the die housing.
repair equipment on an on-going basis, rather than
Gauge the inside diameter of the ring to ensure the
waiting for a catastrophic failure. An effective
proper dimension, especially if the wear ring
preventive maintenance program saves both time
appears worn. Worn wear rings are a leading
and money.
cause of improper die fit. Replace worn wear
rings to avoid breaking dies.
• Personnel should have defined responsibilities for
maintaining the die and pellet mill. Limiting the
• Inspect the die housing key and the keyway of the
number of personnel assigned to maintain the die
old die for wear. A key or keyway that is battered
helps increase accountability and ownership
or worn is another indicator that the old die was
associated with these important duties. Providing
not securely fastened to the die housing or did not
personnel assigned to perform maintenance
properly fit. Replace any key that shows wear
activities with adequate training and clear
and evaluate why the wear occurred. Apply anti-
responsibility for those functions helps improve
seize compound to the key before installing to
the overall maintenance program.
facilitate removing the key later.

Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting

Chapter 23: Die maintenance and die change operations
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 23: Die maintenance and die change operations

• If the die attaches to the die housing with clamps, tighten bolts to the pellet mill manufacturer’s
carefully inspect the die clamps and clamp bolts. recommended torque value.
Use an appropriate die clamp wear gauge to
measure clamp wear during each die change. • Install new rolls with a new die, or carefully
Also, look for shiny spots on the die and the die inspect used rolls to ensure they are worn evenly
housing where the die clamps attach. Such spots and match well with the face of the new die.
can indicate die movement from an improper fit Used rolls with uneven surfaces can quickly
or loose clamps. Replace worn clamps damage the new die.
immediately. Use of worn clamps may result in
die breakage and can ultimately cause severe wear
that requires resurfacing of the die housing. Starting a new die
Although the holes in pellet dies are precisely
• Periodically measure the outside diameter of the machined and polished by the manufacturer, it
new die’s pilot diameter—the portion of the die remains important to start up a new die at a lower
that fits into the die housing groove—to ensure than normal production rate. Establish procedures
the correct dimension. This is especially relevant to operate the pellet mill at a reduced setting for a
when purchasing a die from a new supplier. If the given amount of time to allow the holes of a new
die pilot diameter falls outside of the pellet mill die to become polished. This amount of time may
manufacturer’s tolerances, work with the die differ between different dies and feed types.
supplier to resolve the issue. Using a die that has
too small of a pilot diameter can lead to die If possible, when starting a new die choose a ration
movement and breakage during use. that develops low die friction as the first production
run to aid the start-up process. Rations that contain
• Apply anti-seize compound to the surfaces where a high percentage of corn or a high fat content are
the die mates with the die housing and to examples of low die friction feeds. As an
clamping surfaces if clamps are used. Use of anti- alternative to feed, manually running a mixture of
seize compound will help when removing the die corn, silica sand and approved oil through a new die
and clamps during the next die change. for several minutes can effectively polish the holes
and facilitate a smooth die start-up.
• Treat the die and die housing with care while
removing or installing dies. Never strike the die
or die housing with a bare steel hammer or drop
the die on a hard surface. The materials used to Feed distribution
make dies are very durable for their designed
Correct feed distribution over the face of the die is
application; however, structural shocks that are
an important factor in achieving maximum pelleting
severe enough can lead to metal fatigue or
rates and die life. Ideally, the feed plows or
weakness and major die failure. If force is
deflectors and wipers in the die chamber should
necessary to remove or install a die, use a plastic
direct an equal amount and an even mat of feed to
or wooden hammer to soften the blows.
each roll. Improper feed distribution causes uneven
wear of the die face. It also reduces pelleting
• Closely follow the pellet mill manufacturer’s
capacity since feed is not equally distributed to the
recommendations on bolt grades and torsion
entire working area of the die.
specifications. Most pellet mill manufacturers
recommend replacing critical bolts, such as die
To check feed distribution, thoroughly clean the
clamp bolts or hold-on bolts, when installing a
face of the die and closely observe the wear of the
new die. Correctly tighten all bolts associated
individual holes. Look for areas of the die that
with securing the die to the die housing with a
show greater wear than others. The depth of surface
torque wrench. Problems can occur from both
wear is the perpendicular distance of the die face
under-tightening or over-tightening bolts. Always
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 23: Die maintenance and die change operations

from the horizontal plane where the original die Magnets, scalpers and other cleaning devices play
face started. Measure the die face wear by inserting an important role in extending die life. Clean and
a micrometer or small rod from the outside diameter maintain this equipment on a regular basis to ensure
of the die until it appears on the inside die face. it is properly and effectively working. Clean
Mark the rod or check the measurement of the magnets positioned at the discharge of conditioners
micrometer to determine the remaining die or within feed chutes at the end of each shift.
thickness. Subtract this measurement from the
original die thickness to determine the depth of
wear. To ensure consistency when using this Die flushing and storage
method, take measurements from the same row of
Flush the die with an oily mixture at the end of each
holes in several areas of the die during each
production day or if the die is taken out of service.
inspection. If high wear areas are found, that means
Flushing will protect the die by preventing
these areas are receiving more feed and doing more
corrosion caused by moisture or corrosive feed
work than the remainder of the die.
ingredients. It also allows the die to easily start
when put back into production.
Checking for uniform feed distribution is especially
important when starting a new die. If pelleting is a
If the die is placed in extended storage, in addition
significant part of the feed mill operation, check the
to flushing, store the die in a dry, protected area.
face of a new die daily to ensure even wear. It is
Using a proper storage area will minimize the
essential to establish a good wear pattern in a new
potential corrosion that can reduce die life.
die in order to maximize production and die life.

Various types of feeds may distribute differently

within the pelleting chamber. Since it is not Other die conditions
practical to change feed deflector positions for each
type of feed, the overall goal is to adjust the feed Honeycombing: Moderate honeycombing of the
deflectors to an average position for good feed die—the condition where the diameter of the die
distribution over the life of the die. Adjust the feed holes enlarges and the ligament thickness of the
deflectors accordingly to distribute feed away from metal between the holes thins through wear—is a
high wear areas. Regularly inspect feed plows and normal condition and generally indicates good die
wipers and replace worn parts. performance. However, severe honeycombing can
cause die breakage due to the structural weakening
of the die. If severe honeycombing is experienced,
decreasing the open area of the die by changing die
Tramp metal
specifications or changing die material may help
Tramp metal reduces die life and pelleting rates. reduce the problem.
This is because tramp metal reduces the working
area of the die and causes uneven die wear. Feed Corrosion: Die corrosion is caused by the
does not flow through a die hole filled with tramp combination of heat, moisture and feed in the die.
metal. In extreme situations, the uneven die wear Corrosion may cause pitting and rough surface
caused by tramp metal may make it impossible to areas within the holes of the die. Pitting slows
properly adjust the rolls. down production rates and can cause frequent plug-
ups because of increased friction while the feed
Inspect the pellet die at least weekly for tramp moves through the die hole. To check for pitting,
metal. Use an appropriate pin punch to remove any thoroughly remove all feed from the die hole and
metal found by starting from the outside of the die shine a light from the inside diameter of the die so
and punching the metal back out into the die that the internal surface of the hole can be seen.
chamber. Look down the hole from the outside of the die to
evaluate the condition of the surface. Mild pitting
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 23: Die maintenance and die change operations

looks like pin pricks on the sides of the hole wall. • Thoroughly clean off the die face and rolls.
Severe pitting appears as large abrasions. To avoid
pitting problems, properly flush and store dies. • Loosen the locking screw away from the roll-
Also, work with pellet die manufacturers to select adjusting gear.
the proper die material for the types of products
being pelleted. • Adjust the tightening screw on the roll-adjusting
gear so that the rolls barely touch the die face.
Scoring: Scoring of the die holes can occur when Spinning the rolls by hand provides a good
pelleting abrasive materials. Scoring appears as indication of roll clearance.
longitudinal lines down the hole wall. Often,
scoring will occur due to earlier pitting of the die • If the end of the adjusting gear adjustment is
hole surface. To inspect for scoring, follow the reached, completely back off the tightening screw,
same procedure used to evaluate die holes for remove the adjusting gear and re-install the gear
pitting. If scoring is a problem, take steps to as close as possible to the tightening screw.
minimize die corrosion and work with pellet die
manufacturers to select appropriate die materials. • After adjusting the rolls, lock the adjusting gear in
place by tightening the locking screw against the
Rollover: Die rollover is a condition that occurs gear.
when the inlet area of the holes in the die face begin
to be peened shut. Rollover is caused when the • To check the roll adjustment, re-energize and start
force exerted on the face of the die is greater than the pellet mill, bring the die up to full speed and
the strength of the die material. Typically, rollover then turn the mill off. Properly adjusted rolls will
results from improperly setting die rolls, but it also spin when the die is rotating at full speed, but will
may occur when pelleting certain types of feed. quit turning as the die coasts to a stop. Tighten
Regardless of the cause, rollover can greatly reduce rolls that fail to spin when the die is at full speed.
the pelleting capacity of the die and adversely affect Loosen rolls that continue to spin until the die
pellet quality. completely stops.

Proper roll adjustment is critical to avoid die

rollover and to achieve maximum pelleting Die maintenance records
production rates. Adjusting the rolls too loosely Keep accurate and complete records on all die
reduces capacity and causes plugs. Adjusting the specifications and tonnage to help evaluate die
rolls too tightly causes excessive roll wear and performance. In addition, recording hours that a die
rolled-over dies. Because pelleting causes the die runs provides a means to evaluate the overall
face to wear away, regularly inspect and adjust the production rate of the die. Maintain all die records
rolls to ensure they are in the proper position. The for a period of time long enough to establish
required inspection frequency depends on the historic trends.
pelleting operation.
Die change operations: Removing worn dies
Follow these procedures to correctly adjust the die
rolls: The cost of a die is a major operating expense
associated with the pelleting process. Although
• Never adjust rolls while the die is turning. Follow running more feed tonnes through a die that still
established lock-out, tag-out procedures to de- runs results in lower costs per tonne, other
energize all energy sources to the pellet mill conditions may make it cost-effective to install a
before making any adjustments or repairs. new die. In other situations, such as catastrophic
die failure, it becomes immediately necessary to
• Wear appropriate personal protective equipment, make a die change.
such as gloves and eye protection.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 23: Die maintenance and die change operations

The following list shows some of the common • Follow established lock-out, tag-out procedures to
reasons for replacing a die: de-energize all energy sources to the pellet mill
before removing the die or making any
• The die is worn so deeply that the rolls can no adjustments or repairs.
longer be adjusted out far enough to contact the
die. • Use all appropriate personal protective equipment
during the die removal operations. Examples of
• The pellet quality produced by the die does not some of the protective equipment that may be
meet customer expectations. necessary are leather gloves and eye protection.

• The die creates too many fines that take too much • Carefully inspect all equipment involved in lifting
time and energy to recycle and reprocess. and transporting dies before each use. Develop a
safety checklist for use by personnel.
• The die is damaged due to breakage, excessive
tramp metal, pitting, scoring and/or uneven wear. • Flush the die with an oily mixture if it will be
returned to use.
• The die is worn below the wear groove cut in the
die face, which exerts a higher load on the roll • Back-off all cutting knives from the die.
shells and accelerates roll wear. Monitoring this
condition is especially important when running • Open the pellet mill door and remove the feed
hardface rolls intended for use with more than one cone.
die.
• Loosen and adjust the roll-adjusting bolts to
completely back the rolls away from the die.
Die removal
Removal of the pellet die may be necessary to • Adequately support the die with a die stand or
perform pellet mill maintenance; produce a different hoist system designed for die removal.
pellet size or type of product; and install a new die.
Some pellet mills are designed for die changes by • Remove the die clamps or die bolts from the die
manually unbolting the old die and bolting the new and remove from the die housing.
die in its place. Other pellet mills are designed for a
more rapid die changeover that is accomplished by • Store the die in a dry protected area if it will be
removing the entire die and die housing cartridge returned to use.
assembly and replacing it with a different die and
cartridge assembly. With either system, at some Pellet dies are the heart of the pelleting process —
point the die must be physically attached to the die typically the most expensive operation in terms of
housing. capital investment and energy cost within the feed
mill. Die maintenance deserves and requires close
Manually removing and installing dies is a attention due to its impact on the overall mill
potentially dangerous process. Dies can easily operation. Properly maintaining the die is essential
weigh hundreds of kilograms, and may be awkward to achieve maximum production rates and to
to handle. Each operation should carefully develop prolong die life.
appropriate procedures for manual die removal and
adequately train personnel involved in this Take the time to establish a thorough die
operation. maintenance program and adequate procedures for
die change operations. Look at the time spent as an
The following are some guidelines to consider when investment in improving the mill’s bottom line.
developing procedures for manually removing and
changing dies:
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 23: Die maintenance and die change operations

Mr. David Fairfield earned his Bachelor’s degree This content was edited and reviewed by Dr.
in Science, Feed Science and Management from Charles Stark, Jim and Carol Brown Associate
Kansas State University in 1981. He has managed Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
commercial feed plant operations for Cargill, University, Dr. Adam Fahrenholz, Assistant
Continental Grain Company and Ridley Inc. His Professor of Feed Milling at North Carolina State
responsibilities included profit/loss management University, and Dr. Cassandra Jones, Assistant
and ensuring operational compliance with Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
regulatory standards. He is currently Vice University.
President, Feed Services for the National Grain and
Feed Association.
Troubleshooting pelleting operations
BY DAVID FAIRFIELD

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY ADAM FAHRENHOLZ, CHARLES STARK, AND CASSANDRA JONES

To paraphrase poet Robert Burns: The best laid Preventative maintenance goals
plans of mice and men often go awry, and leave us
nothing but grief and pain instead of promised joy. Goals are essential in developing and maintaining a
The pelleting operation is a complex process that maintenance program. Unfortunately, at times, mill
deserves careful planning and execution. But management may view the costs associated with
inevitably, as is the case in any process where preventative maintenance as being excessive and
people and machines are involved, desired results burdensome. In these cases, maintenance personnel
will not always be achieved. The following are may simply become a rescue unit, springing into
some key troubleshooting factors to consider that action to try to repair mill breakdowns when they
can help reduce “grief and pain” and maximize occur, and then standing by for the next emergency.
quality and output during the pelleting operation. In contrast, appropriate goals provide the
maintenance program and associated personnel with
a defined direction and structure. A maintenance
Effective preventative maintenance program that has established goals can become
proactive to prevent equipment breakdowns, rather
Pelleting systems are a multi-faceted integration of than just reacting to problems as they occur.
mechanical, electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic
systems that require an effective preventative Any goal or objective, whether for a maintenance
maintenance program in order to optimize quality program or other area of mill operation, should have
and production output. A good maintenance the following characteristics:
program will incorporate methods to maintain
desired operating conditions, while minimizing • Goals need to be realistic: A goal that is
unexpected equipment failures and the costs impossible to attain does little but discourage
associated with them. those who are trying to achieve it. Goals should
be developed with high standards, but be within
The success of the pelleting operation, as well as all reach. Also, a goal is unrealistic if the
other areas associated with feed mill operations— employees involved have little control over the
such as quality, safety, housekeeping and customer outcome.
service—are greatly influenced by the performance
of the mill’s preventative maintenance program. • Goals need to be measurable: A goal should be
A preventative maintenance program that works quantifiable. Most goals should have numbers
consists of three major parts. These parts are: tied to them. If goals are vague or cannot be
measured, no one will know if they have been
• Program goals or objectives accomplished or not.
• Program structure and organization • Goals need to be time-specific: Goals should be
developed that have specific time deadlines that
• Management of the established program
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 24: Troubleshooting Pelleting Operations
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 24: Troubleshooting Pelleting Operations

provide maintenance personnel defined Preventative maintenance program structure

timeframes to work within. and organization
To achieve the established goals, an effective
Preventative maintenance goals can relate to several
preventative maintenance program will have several
factors, such as expenses, safety and productivity.
key elements that help make the program
Mills can develop specific goals by using historical
successful. These areas include:
records, industry standards or computerized models.
Each mill operation is unique and should develop
• Maintenance personnel: The first step in hiring
goals that meet the needs of their situation. In
and employing qualified mill maintenance
addition, goals are best developed through the
personnel is determining the necessary skills for
combined input of the employees associated with
each maintenance position. This is especially
the maintenance program. Getting employees
important in the areas of specialized mechanical
involved in goal setting gives everyone involved a
and electrical systems. To measure qualifications
sense of ownership in what is to be accomplished.
in these areas for hiring or promoting employees,
Some examples of maintenance goals are:
it may be appropriate to develop tests to ensure
individuals meet standards for these skills.
• Maintain mill maintenance labor and
Formal job descriptions also play an important
repair/equipment expenses within budget
role in assigning responsibilities to maintenance
guidelines during the fiscal year. Expense
personnel. Each maintenance position should
guidelines can be developed on a total dollar
have a job description that clearly defines 1) who
basis or a per metric tonne basis. Once expense
maintenance personnel report to; 2) who is
guidelines are established, actual results can be
authorized to assign work; 3) what physical parts
measured against these guidelines.
of the mill and equipment personnel are
responsible for, along with routine lubrication and
• Ensure both the feed mill equipment and
inspection assignments; 4) documentation and
facilities are in compliance with mill and
recordkeeping requirements for maintenance
government safety standards during the fiscal
activities; 5) personnel spending authority; and 6)
year. Much of the feed mill’s equipment and
objectives for the program.
facility needs to be periodically inspected by
maintenance personnel to ensure it meets safety
• Equipment data/history records: Every item of
standards. To accomplish this need, goals can
equipment in the feed mill at some time or another
be established to help ensure the maintenance
will require maintenance attention. The various
department completes these inspections in a
components that make up each piece of equipment
timely and thorough manner. This type of goal
must be identified before determining a
could be measured through the use of safety or
maintenance schedule. The amount of
insurance audits.
information required will depend upon how
complex the equipment is and what information
• Limit mill downtime to allow mill productivity
will be useful. For some equipment, information
goals to be achieved during the fiscal year.
about motors, gearboxes, drive belts and bearings
Most mills have systems in place to measure
will be adequate. For other machinery, it may be
productivity, but the maintenance department
necessary to collect data on all mechanical,
often is excluded, since it is sometimes more
electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic items
difficult to quantify its results. However, an
associated with the equipment. Some of the
effective maintenance program is necessary to
sources of information for creating equipment
achieve desired mill productivity. Thus, it may
data files include: Manufacturers’ bulletins and
be appropriate to develop efficiency goals for
manuals; mill blueprints; purchase records; and
the maintenance department. Productivity goals
conducting a mill walk-through to inspect
can help promote an atmosphere of timeliness in
equipment and gather data. In addition to having
maintenance activities.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 24: Troubleshooting Pelleting Operations

equipment data available, historical repair records the past and can provide an indication of what
on equipment are an essential part of a parts will be necessary in the future. Evaluating
preventative maintenance program. Equipment equipment data information can help identify
history logs need to be developed and major common parts among different pieces of
repair or adjustment work posted to these logs as equipment and streamline the number of spare
maintenance work is completed. Repair logs can parts needed. Equipment purchasing decisions
provide valuable information for establishing also should be influenced by the availability of
inspection and lubrication schedules, for parts for the equipment from suppliers.
determining spare part needs, for tracking repair Standardizing equipment can have many
costs and for justifying equipment upgrades or advantages to the mill in terms of operation, ease
replacements. of maintenance and spare parts availability.

• Maintenance schedules: The maintenance • Program organization: Documents associated

department needs to establish routine inspection with the preventative maintenance program such
and lubrication schedules for each piece of as equipment data sheets, equipment history
equipment in the mill. Management and records, maintenance schedules, equipment
maintenance personnel can work together utilizing manuals, spare parts inventory, and purchase
experience and manufacturers’ recommendations records need to be stored and organized within an
to determine the most appropriate schedules and orderly system. This system should provide easy
procedures for equipment lubrication and access to information and records, allow
inspection. The established schedules should information to be readily updated and provide an
outline the specific work to be completed. For effective way to schedule maintenance work and
example, the maintenance schedule procedures for document required activities. Two systems for
a machine should outline what to check during the organizing preventative maintenance programs
inspection, and provide information like the type are paper file folders and computer software
and quantity of lubricant required. Since there programs. A file folder maintenance system
typically is a high degree of duplication of involves establishing file folders for each piece of
equipment within the feed mill, much of the equipment in the feed mill, developing
equipment can be lubricated and inspected within standardized forms to record equipment data and
the same time intervals, such as weekly, monthly repair history, making a spare parts list, putting
or quarterly. Consolidating equipment inspection together routine equipment lubrication and
and lubrication into the same time intervals, as inspection schedule forms and providing a method
much as possible, makes scheduling of work and to schedule non-routine maintenance work.
management of the maintenance program easier. Computerized maintenance software programs
typically include systems for the areas of
• Spare parts criteria: Management and equipment data and repair history, parts
maintenance personnel should review the inventory/ordering, preventative/predictive
equipment throughout the mill and identify parts maintenance schedules, maintenance work
that are critical for the operation. Once identified, scheduling and report generation. Generally, each
management should check with suppliers on the area is interactive by design. An example of
availability of these critical parts. By assessing interaction would be that as repair parts are used
the part’s cost and availability against the during maintenance activities, the parts inventory
potential cost of downtime, a decision can be levels are reduced and equipment repair history
reached on which parts should be maintained in updated. This type of interaction reduces the time
the mill’s inventory. Equipment data and repair required to manually update separate records and
history records also are an excellent source of improves recordkeeping accuracy.
information about parts necessary to keep the mill
operating. A review of the maintenance work can
show what equipment has required repair parts in
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 24: Troubleshooting Pelleting Operations

Management of the established program before pelleting aids production rates, but also
After the mill has put together and implemented the causes lower pellet quality. Adding more than
maintenance program, mill management needs to 2% fat at the mixer into corn/soy diets can cause
routinely evaluate the program’s results against the excess fines and low pellet durability. If higher
program’s goals. Through this process, levels are needed, add the fat through post-pellet
management can identify areas of the program that application systems.
need attention and develop plans for corrective
action. Overall, the success of the maintenance • Increasing protein and fiber content in feeds
program relies on reviewing results and taking the tends to improve pellet quality. For example,
appropriate action to maintain and improve the increasing the level of wheat midds in swine
program. feeds enhances pellet durability.

Managing the maintenance program also should • Certain feed ingredients contain “natural”
include meeting with maintenance personnel and binding properties that help improve pellet
giving them formal feedback on their job quality. Examples include wheat, barley,
performance. During the evaluation, identify canola, whey and blood plasma.
employee’s strengths along with their weaknesses.
Make plans to help develop employee skills in areas • The relative natural protein content and density
that will benefit the maintenance program. Most of ingredients or finished feeds are a general
maintenance personnel want feedback from their indication of expected pelleting production rates
supervisors on their job performance and how they and pellet quality. Ingredients or feeds with
can improve their skills and perform their job better. high natural proteins generally produce good-
quality pellets, while feeds with low natural
proteins produce lower-quality pellets.
Ingredients or feeds with high densities
Pelleting system design and operation
generally have good production rates; feeds with
Avoiding trouble during the pelleting process low densities have lower production rates.
depends on both a good understanding of how feed
ingredients pellet as well as proper pellet system Feed particle size
design and operation. Smaller mash particle size generally enhances pellet
quality since the material has a larger surface area
that allows heat and moisture from steam to more
Feed ingredient issues quickly and thoroughly penetrate the particle.
Both pelleting capacity and pellet quality are Smaller particles also have more surface area to
influenced by feed formulation and feed particle adhere and bind to other particles in the pellet.
size. Smaller ingredient particle size also typically
increases bulk density, permitting higher production
Feed formulation rates. However, the cost of grinding to obtain
Typically, least-cost formulation is used to smaller particle sizes needs to be weighed against
minimize feed cost based upon the nutritional needs the benefits of improved pellet quality. From a
of the animal. However, least-cost formulation may cost-benefit standpoint, the optimal particle size for
result in a feed that produces a poor-quality pellet corn/soy poultry diets may be in the 650-700
and undesirable production rates. Although micron range (Dozier, 2001).
formulating for pellet quality and capacity may not
be entirely possible, using the following basic
guidelines can help: Pellet mill supply bin
A good pellet mill supply design will supply a
• Generally, the addition of fat to feed mash steady flow of mash to the pellet mill. To avoid
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 24: Troubleshooting Pelleting Operations

feed bridging, the supply bin hopper should have • Slope all lines away from the boiler and toward
two adjacent vertical sides that attach to the the condensate return (2.54 cm for every 12
beginning of the feeder screw. The other two bin meters).
hopper sides should have different slopes to
produce a shearing effect as feed flows down the • Install a drip leg and steam trap at the end of
hopper. Whenever possible, one side should have a each main and at every rise in the line.
minimum 60º slope to the horizontal and the other
side should have a minimum 70º slope to the • Do not install valves in vertical lines where
horizontal. water may collect above them.

The pellet supply bin hopper should have a vibrator • Install a final drip leg as close as possible to the
of adequate force mounted to it to help ensure the pellet mill steam control valve.
constant flow of feed through the bin and complete
feed clean-out at the end of the production run. The • Install a pressure regulator in front of the pellet
pellet supply bin also should have a low-level mill steam control valve to ensure a uniform
indicating device mounted in the hopper. The supply of steam. The regulator pressure should
output from the indicator can help control efficient be set below the minimum cycle pressure of the
pellet mill shutdown and supply bin vibrator boiler. Also install a pressure gauge in front of
operation. the regulator to verify operation.

• Install strainers in front of the pressure

Pellet mill feeder screw regulator, separators and steam traps to collect
line debris.
The pellet mill feeder screw needs to supply the
pellet conditioner with a uniform supply of feed
• Install pellet mill steam control valves that have
mash. A tapered or variable-pitch inlet flighting on
a linear response to gain better conditioning
the screw will help pull feed uniformly out of the
control. For example, opening the valve 20%
entire supply bin discharge area. Reduced pitch
should provide 20% more steam. Standard gate
flighting on the remainder of the feeder screw also
valves do not open in a linear manner.
will help minimize feed surging. Stainless steel
screws and trough housings often are cost-effective,
• Check steam traps regularly using one or more
especially when handling corrosive materials. AC
of the following methods: 1) Install a test port
variable-speed electronic motor drives for the feeder
and valve in the condensate line. If live steam
are reliable and provide an easy and accurate
exits the test port when the valve is opened, the
method to control feed rate.
trap is leaking. 2) Monitor the sound created by
condensate flow with a mechanical stethoscope,
Steam distribution system ultrasonic detector or other devices. The flow
and sound of condensate should peak and then
An adequate, well-regulated supply of steam to the
drop to near zero if the steam trap is cycling
conditioner is essential for efficient pelleting
properly. Considerable experience is required
operations. Poor pellet quality and production rates
to obtain accurate testing results through sound
often are attributable to problems with steam supply
monitoring. 3) Monitor the steam line
and regulation (Maier and Gardecki, 1993). The
temperature before and after the trap using
following are some steam distribution system
infrared guns, surface pyrometers or other
guidelines to follow:
devices. Failed-close traps will have low or
cold condensate lines. Failed-open traps will
• Take the main steam line off from the top of the
have higher than “normal” condensate line
boiler header to minimize entrained moisture.
temperatures. However, the “normal”
condensate line temperature often is difficult to
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 24: Troubleshooting Pelleting Operations

determine because of common condensate Conditioner components should be made of

return lines and return line pressure. As a result, stainless steel to minimize corrosion. Paddle tip
it may be very difficult to determine if a trap is speed should be between 183-274 meters per
leaking by using temperature monitoring. minute for light feeds (321 kilograms-per-cubic
meter or less) (Leaver, 1988). For heavy feeds,
paddle tip speeds of 274-366 meters per minute are
Conditioning best. Steam addition should take place at the bottom
of the conditioner inlet for good mixing. Add other
The conditioning process influences pellet quality
liquids, such as molasses, through the top of the
more than die specifications (Behnke, 2001). In
conditioner near its inlet. Typically, a well-
contrast, thicker dies that lower production rates
maintained conditioner can mix up to 6-8%
often are used in an attempt to improve pellet
molasses. Routinely check conditioner paddles for
quality. Here are some conditioning guidelines to
wear and condition. Worn or bent paddles can
consider:
cause poor feed conditioning and an uneven feed
supply to the pellet mill. Establish a regular
• Increasing conditioner retention time generally
cleaning schedule for the conditioner to remove
improves pellet quality. The longer retention
feed build-up on walls and paddles.
time improves heat and moisture absorption in
feed. Lengthen the retention times of an
existing conditioner by adjusting pick angles or
reducing the conditioner shaft speed. Pellet mill operation
Finding the appropriate balance between the need
• Steam pressure does not influence pellet quality for production capacity and pellet quality can be a
(Briggs, Maier, Watkins and Behnke, 1999). difficult task. Often methods to increase production
The thermodynamic properties of low- and rates have a detrimental impact on pellet quality and
high-pressure steam are very similar. To vice versa. Ultimately, a compromise must be
optimize energy costs, maintain steam pressures reached that can satisfy the mill’s needs in both
only high enough to provide the steam quantity areas.
necessary to reach desired conditioning
temperatures and for adequate condensation Once the feed mill determines its requirements, the
removal and return. proper equipment needs to be specified and
purchased that is designed to meet these needs.
• Steam typically cannot provide more than 6% During the process of purchasing a new pellet mill
moisture to feed during the conditioning process or upgrading an existing one, the probability of
(Leaver, 1988). Each percentage of moisture achieving a satisfactory outcome increases
added to feed through steam raises the mash proportionally to the amount of accurate
temperature about 13ºC. information about the pelleting process that the feed
mill can provide to its equipment supplier. At the
• Steam quality—the percentage of steam in the same time, reputable suppliers should ask for a
vapor phase—is important to pellet durability comprehensive list of information in order to
and production rates. Research has shown that accurately quote equipment that will match the
conditioning feed with 70-80% steam quality mill’s needs.
optimizes pellet durability (Gilpin, Herrman,
Behnke and Fairchild, 2002). High-quality As a starting point, this information should include:
steam has more energy to raise mash 1) Types of ingredients and feed formulations
temperature than lower-quality steam that pelleted; 2) quantities of each type of feed pelleted
contains condensation. Steam quality (product mix); 3) desired production capacity by
determines the maximum mash temperature that type of feed; 4) average run length by type of feed;
can be reached during conditioning because of 5) run changeover time requirements; 6) liquid
moisture limits (Reimer and Beggs, 1993).
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 24: Troubleshooting Pelleting Operations

requirements for each type of feed; 7) pellet quality speed is 366-396 meters per minute (Leaver,
requirements by type of feed; 8) desired 1988).
conditioning parameters for each type of feed; 9)
level of mill automation; and 10) any other unique • Die chamber/feed chute seal: Regularly inspect
conditions. After this preliminary information is and maintain the seal between the die chamber
provided, suppliers can ask for more specific feed cone and the feed chute discharge. Feed
information necessary to identify the appropriate mash may drop directly into the cooler and bypass
equipment. the die chamber if there is excessive clearance in
this area, resulting in lower production rates and
With the right equipment in place, optimizing pellet greater pellet fines.
mill productivity and pellet quality depends on
establishing and following sound operating • Rolls: Two general types of pellet mill roll shells
guidelines and avoiding pellet mill downtime are available—tungsten carbide and hardened
associated with plugs. Plugging a pellet mill die steel. Tungsten carbide roll shells have a rough
can wreak havoc on mill productivity, drive up surface comprised of tungsten carbide particles
production costs and create pellet quality problems. embedded in a weld matrix. This surface provides
Severe plugs can take hours to address and may excellent traction and wear characteristics.
cause significant equipment damage. However, since these roll shells are very hard,
careful adjustment of this type of roll is necessary
The following are some pellet mill operating to prevent “rolling over” or peening shut holes in
guidelines to help avoid die plugs, improve the pellet die. Typically, tungsten carbide shells
pelleting capacity and enhance pellet quality: are not used with small hole diameter dies of less
than 3.97 mm because of the potential to rollover
• Mash moisture content: The moisture in feed these dies. Meanwhile, hardened steel roll shells
mash affects pellet quality and production rates. come in a variety of styles. These include open or
Moisture in feed mash comes from two sources: closed-end corrugated, dimpled or indented,
Bound moisture present in the feed’s ingredients helical and combinations of these designs. Choice
and added moisture from water and steam of style depends upon the type of feed being
addition. The moisture of cold feed entering the pelleted and the preference of the mill manager.
conditioner limits the amount of steam that can be
added to the mash during conditioning. The plug • Roll adjustment and maintenance: Proper roll
point of a pellet mill is approximately 18% total adjustment is the most important factor in
meal moisture. Varying cold mash moisture achieving maximum pellet mill capacity,
affects the conditioning process and pellet mill prolonging die and roll life and eliminating undue
operation. Research has shown that there is a pellet mill stress (CPM Roskamp Champion,
high correlation between cold mash moisture and 1997). Establish a routine schedule to inspect and
pellet durability (Greer and Fairchild, 1999). adjust rolls based upon the mill’s operation; do
Adjusting cold mash moisture to 14% through not wait until the rolls slip and the pellet mill
mixer water addition can optimize pellet mill plugs. See Chapter 22: Die Maintenance and Die
operation and pellet durability (Muirhead, 1999). Change Operations for procedures on how to
correctly adjust die rolls. The following are some
• Die speed: Higher die speeds improve pellet mill roll maintenance guidelines to consider: Establish
capacity. However, high die speeds can a schedule to regularly inspect and adjust rolls;
undermine pellet quality and capacity if there is lubricate rolls every four hours of operation with
excessive pellet breakage when pellets leave the an approved high-temperature, high-pressure
die and hit the pellet mill door. A die speed of grease; start new dies with new rolls; and rotate
610 meters per minute is recommended for small rolls to evenly disperse wear.
diameter pellets (2.38-6.35 mm). For cubes—
15.88 mm and larger—the recommended die
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 24: Troubleshooting Pelleting Operations

• Die specifications and material: Understanding • L/d ratio. The L/d ratio is the effective length
the terminology used to describe dies is important divided by the hole diameter. High L/d ratios
when choosing die specifications. Figure 23-1 provide high pellet die resistance as feed moves
illustrates the important dimensions of a pellet through the hole. Low L/d ratios provide less
mill die. resistance. Each material has an L/d ratio
requirement to form the material into a pellet.
Figure 23-1. Dimensions of a pellet mill die.
ID=inside diameter of the die. The inside • T = total thickness. Total thickness is the overall
diameter is the most common identifying thickness of the die. Overall thickness provides
dimension of a die and is always specified during the necessary die material to avoid die breakage.
die selection. O=overall width of the die. The
overall width of a die may vary. Often, there is • X = counterbore depth. Counterbore depth
more than one width available for each die measures the “relief” provided in the die as the
diameter. W=working width. Die working pellet exits the die hole. Enlarged holes are
width is measure between the two inside edges of counterbored into the die to reduce its effective
the die grooves. thickness and provide the proper L/d ratio while
maintaining the total thickness needed to prevent
die breakage. Specific rows of die holes, such as
the two inner and outside rows, also sometimes
are counterbored to greater depths to encourage
feed flow through these outer rows of holes to
help dies wear more evenly.

Figure 23-2. Terminology used to describe the

characteristics and dimensions of die holes.
Courtesy of Sprout-Matador.

Die working area is defined as the area between the

two inside die grooves. This working area increases
as die width and diameter increase. Die working
area is important because different feeds and
ingredients require specific amounts of time in the
die hole—die retention time—to be able to bind
together to form a pellet. Larger die working areas
provide more retention time to form pellets, reduce
power consumption per tonne of feed pelleted and
improve production efficiencies.

Figure 23-2 illustrates the terminology used to

describe the characteristics and dimensions of die
holes. The most important terms to understand
when selecting a pellet die are:
D = hole diameter
L = effective length. The effective length is the die
thickness that actually performs work on the feed.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 24: Troubleshooting Pelleting Operations

Holes in dies typically are drilled in three different Table 23-1. Die specification and material
patterns. Close hole pattern spacing provides more guidelines by feed group.
open die area and more retention time. The open Feed Die hole L/d
area of dies with close hole patterns is about 43%. Category Die Material pattern ratio
Wide hole pattern spacing provides less open die High Stainless/ high Close hole 10-
area and greater die strength. Wide hole pattern grain chrome spacing 12
spacing provides about 32% open die area. Low
Standard or medium hole pattern spacing provides a protein, Medium hold 12-
compromise between die open area and die strength. Stainless/allow
high spacing 14
roughage
Choosing the right die material is important. Pellet High
dies are made from steel that has been selected for Close/medium 10-
natural Stainless
certain carbon and chromium contents and heat- hole spacing 12
protein
treated for desired properties. The steel’s carbon Low
content affects the corrosion resistance and the wear protein, Medium hole
resistance of the die. Dies usually are classified as Stainless 9-11
heat spacing
alloy, stainless or high chrome. Steel with a free sensitive
chromium content exceeding 12% is classified as High
stainless. Each of these types of die materials has protein, Wide hole
characteristics that make it more desirable for Alloy 8-9
urea/high spacing
certain applications: mineral

• Alloy dies are made of medium-grade carbon

steel. They are designed for heavily abrasive
Die condition
applications and typically are the most breakage-
resistant dies available. Alloy dies generally are Die life and performance are optimized by proper
less expensive than stainless steel or high feed distribution and die maintenance. Here are
chromium dies. some die guidelines to consider:

• Stainless steel dies provide corrosion resistance • Inspect the die face during each roll adjustment for
and good wear resistance for moderately abrasive wear. Uneven wear—which consists of excessive
materials. Stainless steel often is chosen for “all wear in the front or back of the die—typically is
purpose” dies. caused by uneven feed distribution. Based upon
experience and feed type, adjust the feed plows
• High chrome dies provide the most corrosion that direct the flow of feed into the die chamber to
resistance of the different die materials. Because achieve even wear.
of the chrome content, they usually start-up very
easily and allow high pelleting production rates. • Establish procedures to routinely inspect for tramp
However, high chrome dies typically provide less metal and remove it from the die. Tramp metal
resistance as feed moves through the die holes and that fills holes can reduce die throughput, cause
the effective thickness of the die may need to be uneven die and roll wear and hinder proper roll
increased to achieve desired pellet quality. adjustment.

Table 23-1 shows general die specification and • Routinely inspect the clamps or bolts that secure
material guidelines for the major feed groups. the die to the pellet mill die housing. In addition,
Specific L/d ratio requirements will depend upon inspect die wear rings and die housing clearances
particular feed formulations and their fat content. for proper tolerances. Improper die fit or loose
die clamps or bolts are the major causes of die
breakage.
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 24: Troubleshooting Pelleting Operations

• Install adequate magnetic protection before the durability. The temperature of cooled pellets with a
pelleting system and immediately before the pellet diameter of 4.76 mm or less should be within 6-8ºC
die chamber. Inspect and clean all magnets on a of ambient air temperature. Cooled temperatures of
scheduled basis. larger pellets, such as cubes, should be within 11ºC
of ambient air temperature. Pellet mill operators
should regularly check cool pellet temperature.
Applying fat to pellets To help ensure proper cooling:
Generally, adding more than 2% fat at the mixer
• Cool with “ambient” or outdoor air. Pellets
will lower pellet quality. To achieve higher fat
typically will reach a final cooled temperature of
levels while maintaining pellet quality, fat may be
6-8ºC greater than the temperature of the air at the
sprayed onto hot pellets as they leave the die inside
cooler intake. Significantly higher cooled pellet
the pellet mill door or applied after cooling and
temperatures may result if the cooler uses warmer
screening through a low-speed ribbon conveyor or
air from the mill’s interior.
drum tumbler. Usually, the maximum amount of fat
that can be added through either system is 5%.
• Keep all cooler air inlets, screens and trays clean
from feed build-up.
Applying fat to pellets using either method requires
accurate measurement and correlation of pellet dry
• Prevent airflow restrictions that may result from
flow rates and liquid flow rates. Mill maintenance
product build-up in the air system ductwork. If
personnel should routinely check and calibrate both
build-up occurs, cooler air volume decreases,
dry and liquid flow metering devices. Inspection
because the cooler fan cannot produce the static
and calibration frequency will depend on the
pressure required to pull air at a high enough
desired accuracy and volume of feeds produced.
velocity to off-set the reduced duct diameter and
higher duct resistance.
For fat-at-the-die systems, fines returning to the
pellet mill for re-processing can influence the
• Inspect the air duct work for leaks. Air leakage,
accuracy of fat addition. To compensate for fines
especially just ahead of the fan, can reduce
return, operators should evaluate the accuracy of the
airflow through the system.
fat addition of production runs for various feed
types over time and establish liquid settings that
• Maintain an even and level pellet bed. Airflow
produce accurate results.
through a cooler follows the path of least
resistance, so an even pellet bed promotes
Adding fat to pellets can produce undesirable
uniform airflow and cooling of all pellets.
downstream consequences in the pelleting system,
such as fat balls in finished products or fat build-up
• Routinely check cooler bed leveling devices to
in the cooler, air ducts and distribution equipment.
ensure they are properly working.
Mill maintenance personnel should regularly
inspect and clean pellet equipment at and
downstream from fat addition points. Preheating fat
to 60-71ºC through a heat exchanger prior to Crumble roll operation
application can help improve absorption of the fat A good-quality and well-cooled pellet is essential to
into pellets and minimize these occurrences. produce good crumbles. Crumbling poor-quality
pellets generates excessive fines that can
dramatically reduce pellet production rates and the
Pellet cooling quality of the finished feed.
Inadequate cooling can create several pellet
Crumbles usually are made from a 4.76-3.97 mm
problems—including pellets that are susceptible to
pellet because those sizes provide high production
mold growth; flowability problems; and poor
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 24: Troubleshooting Pelleting Operations

rates at the pellet mill, and yet are small enough to for volumetric or mass measuring of dry feed flow.
crumble easily without generating too many fines.
For highest crumbling efficiency, pellet diameters Volumetric dry flow systems work best when feed
must be in the proper relationship to the crumble density is constant. Once calibrated, this type of
roll diameter. Typically, pellet diameters should system is very accurate and requires little
not exceed 4.76 mm for 15.2 cm diameter rolls and adjustment during operation. Mass dry flow
6.35 mm for 22.8 cm diameter rolls. The capacity systems measure mass and can compensate for feed
ratings for crumble rolls typically are based on a density changes. This type of system is also very
crumble roll gap setting that is 2/3 of the diameter accurate, but requires routine calibration to ensure
of the pellet. proper dry flow indication.

Here are some operating guidelines for crumble Typically, liquids are applied either with atomizing
rolls to optimize performance: spray nozzles or centrifugal atomizing discs.
Nozzles generally work on a narrower range of
• Measure and test pellet quality to ensure good- liquid volumes, while centrifugal discs can handle a
quality pellets are being crumbled. wider liquid application range.

• Ensure that the crumble rolls are parallel and in a For many mills, the best location for a PPLA system
level position (in tram). The gaps between rolls is at the top of the mill structure, either downstream
must be parallel to maximize efficiency. from the pellet screener or just before the feed
Routinely inspect the roll gap to ensure it is enters the distribution system. Most systems use
consistent along the entire length of the rolls. positive displacement pumps that can achieve
enough head pressure to apply liquids at the top of
• Out-of-tram rolls cause un-even roll wear and the mill. Flow rates from this type of pump also are
reduced throughput. easily controlled by adjusting either pump stroke or
speed. The PPLA system must be designed for the
• Feed the entire width of the rolls evenly with types and quantities of liquids and pellets and
pellets. Poor feed distribution results in within the parameters of the mill’s upstream and
inconsistent particle size reduction, reduced downstream equipment.
capacity and un-even roll wear.
The accuracy of PPLA systems depends on the
• Inspect and re-corrugate rolls as needed. Dull roll precise measurement and correlation of pellet dry
corrugations reduce capacity and increase fines. flows and liquid flow rates. In addition, an accurate
system needs to eliminate pellet dry flow surging
and spread the pellets into a thin curtain prior to
Screening operations liquid application to ensure uniform distribution of
the liquid on the pellets.
Proper pellet screener operation is necessary to sort
pellet sizes and remove fines. Use stainless steel
PPLA systems require periodic inspection and
screens when corrosion is a problem. Larger wire
maintenance to ensure accurate operation. Here are
diameters increase screen life, but reduce open area
some operating guidelines to consider:
and screener capacity. Inspect screens regularly to
ensure that they are free of holes and not plugged.
• Check and calibrate dry and liquid flow rates
using an established schedule. Frequency of
calibration may be semi-annually, quarterly or
Post-pellet liquid addition systems more often—depending on the quantity of liquids
Post-pellet liquid application (PPLA) systems applied and desired accuracy.
provide a means to apply heat-sensitive ingredients • At initial start-up and periodically thereafter,
to pelleted feeds. PPLA systems can be designed perform a uniformity test to measure the
Feed Pelleting Reference Guide Section 6: Troubleshooting
Chapter 24: Troubleshooting Pelleting Operations

homogeneity of liquid application to the pellets. CPM Roskamp Champion, 1997. Pelleting and
Good PPLA systems should achieve a 10% or less particle size reduction. Waterloo, Iowa,
coefficient of variation. USA.
Dozier III, W.A., 2001. Cost-effective pellet quality
• Routinely inspect and clean liquid spraying for meat birds. Feed Management 52(2):21-
devices and equipment areas where pellets are 24.
sprayed and mixed with liquids. Gilpin, A.S., Herrman, T.J., Behnke, K.C. and
Fairchild, F.J., 2002. Feed moisture,
• Clean liquid strainers and filters following an retention time and steam as quality and
established schedule. energy determinants in the pelleting process.
Applied Engineering in Agriculture 18(3).
• Reconcile theoretical and actual liquid usage
periodically as another method to verify the Greer, D. and Fairchild, F.J., 1999. Cold mash
accuracy of liquid addition. moisture control boosts pellet quality. Feed
Management 50(6):20-23.
Leaver, R.H., 1988. The pelleting process. ABB
Finished pellet load-out Sprout-Bauer Inc., Muncy, Pennsylvania,
Ideally, finished pellet load-out bins should have USA.
hoppers with two adjacent vertical sides and two Maier, D.E and Gardecki, J., 1993. Understanding
other sides with differing slopes that produce a steam. Feed Management 44(7):15-18.
shearing effect to aid pellet flow and bin clean-out. Muirhead, S., 1999. Precision in mash moisture
Whenever possible, one side should have a management improves pellet. Feedstuffs
minimum 60º slope to the horizontal and the other 71(10).
side should have a minimum 70º slope to the
horizontal. The pellet load-out bin hopper also Riemer, L.L. and Beggs, W.A., 1993. Making better
should have a vibrator of adequate force mounted to pellets: Harnessing steam quality. Feed
it to ensure the complete clean-out of feed at the end Management 44(1):22-26.
of the loading process.
Mr. David Fairfield earned his Bachelor’s degree
Adding flow agents to pellets can help facilitate in Science, Feed Science and Management from
load-out of pellets that contain urea or other Kansas State University in 1981. He has managed
hydroscopic ingredients, which may cause “sticky” commercial feed plant operations for Cargill,
pellets. Typical flow agents include finely-ground Continental Grain Company and Ridley Inc. His
bentonite or limestone. Normal addition rates for responsibilities included profit/loss management
flow agents range between 1-2 kilograms per metric and ensuring operational compliance with
tonne. Flow agents typically are added to pellets regulatory standards. He is currently Vice
after cooling and screening using a vibratory feeder President, Feed Services for the National Grain and
or other metering equipment that discharges the Feed Association.
flow agent into the pellet distribution system.
Pellets are “coated” with the flow agent as they are This content was edited and reviewed by Dr.
conveyed to the finished feed bin. Charles Stark, Jim and Carol Brown Associate
Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
University, Dr. Adam Fahrenholz, Assistant
References Professor of Feed Milling at North Carolina State
Briggs, J.L., Maier, D.E., Watkins, B.A. and University, and Dr. Cassandra Jones, Assistant
Behnke, K.C., 1999. Effect of ingredients Professor of Feed Technology at Kansas State
and processing parameters on pellet quality. University.
Poultry Science 78:1464-1471.