Week 3: Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Asst.Prof.Dr. Montassar Aidi Sharif

1 Introduction
Mechanical systems are omnipresent in engineering and often involve interacting components like masses,
springs, dampers, and rotational elements like flywheels. To analyze and predict the behavior of these
systems under different conditions, we use mathematical models that describe their dynamic behavior

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through differential equations.

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In this lecture, we will focus on two types of mechanical systems:
• Translational systems, involving elements that move in straight lines (e.g., mass-spring-damper

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systems).

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• Rotational systems, where elements rotate around an axis (e.g., flywheels and gears).

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We will derive the governing equations for these systems, represent them using transfer functions and
state-space models, and simulate them using MATLAB. ar
1.1 Objectives
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By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
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1. Model translational mechanical systems using differential equations.

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2. Derive transfer functions and state-space representations for mechanical systems.

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3. Understand the dynamics of rotational systems.

4. Simulate mechanical systems using MATLAB.
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2 Modeling Translational Mechanical Systems

A translational mechanical system involves movement in a straight line. Common elements in these
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systems include:
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• Mass (m): Resists changes in motion due to its inertia.

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• Spring (k): Resists displacement from its equilibrium position and stores potential energy.
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• Damper (b): Dissipates energy and resists motion proportional to velocity.

We will begin by analyzing a basic **mass-spring-damper system**, which is a foundation for under-
standing more complex mechanical systems.

3 Example 1: Mass-Spring-Damper System

3.1 System Description
Consider a mass m attached to a spring k and damper b, all connected in series. An external force F (t) is
applied to the system. The objective is to derive a mathematical model that describes the displacement
x(t) of the mass as a function of time.
The physical parameters are:
• m: Mass in kilograms (kg),

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• k: Spring constant in Newtons per meter (N/m),

• b: Damping coefficient in Newton-seconds per meter (Ns/m),
• F (t): External force applied to the system in Newtons (N),

• x(t): Displacement of the mass from its equilibrium position in meters (m).

3.2 Free-Body Diagram and Forces

According to Newton’s second law, the net force acting on the mass is equal to the mass times its
acceleration:
d2 x(t)
Fnet = m
dt2
The forces acting on the mass are:

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• Spring force: The force exerted by the spring is proportional to the displacement x(t) and is
given by Hooke’s Law: Fspring = −kx(t). The negative sign indicates that the spring opposes

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displacement.

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dx(t)
• Damping force: The force exerted by the damper is proportional to the velocity dt , and it
opposes the motion. Thus, Fdamper = −b dx(t)
dt .

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• Applied force: The external force F (t) drives the system.

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Summing these forces gives the equation of motion: ar
d2 x(t) dx(t)
m = F (t) − b − kx(t)
dt2 dt
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Rearranging the equation:
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d2 x(t) dx(t)
m +b + kx(t) = F (t)
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dt2 dt
This is a second-order linear differential equation describing the dynamic behavior of the mass-spring-
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damper system.

3.3 Homogeneous Solution

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To understand the system’s response, we first solve the homogeneous equation (i.e., when F (t) = 0):

d2 x(t) dx(t)
m +b + kx(t) = 0
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dt 2 dt
The characteristic equation is:
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ms2 + bs + k = 0
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The roots of this quadratic equation determine the behavior of the system. Let:
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√
−b ± b2 − 4mk
s=
2m
There are three cases to consider based on the discriminant ∆ = b2 − 4mk:
• Overdamped (∆ > 0): The system returns to equilibrium without oscillations.

• Critically damped (∆ = 0): The system returns to equilibrium as quickly as possible without
oscillating.
• Underdamped (∆ < 0): The system oscillates while returning to equilibrium.

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3.4 Forced Response

Now, consider the case where a constant external force F (t) = F0 is applied. The system’s response is
the sum of the homogeneous solution (described above) and the particular solution, which depends on
the form of F (t).
For F (t) = F0 (a step input), the particular solution is:

F0
xp (t) =
k
This represents the steady-state displacement of the mass when the force is constant.

4 Transfer Function Representation

Taking the Laplace transform of the differential equation, assuming zero initial conditions, we get:

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ms2 X(s) + bsX(s) + kX(s) = F (s)

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Solving for X(s) in terms of F (s), the transfer function is:

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X(s) 1
H(s) = =

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F (s) 2
ms + bs + k

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This transfer function describes the system’s response to external forces in the frequency domain.
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5 State-Space Representation
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The mass-spring-damper system can also be represented in state-space form. Define the state variables
as:
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dx(t)
x1 (t) = x(t) (displacement), x2 (t) = (velocity)
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dt
The system can be written as a set of first-order differential equations:
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ẋ1 (t) = x2 (t)

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ẋ2 (t) = (F (t) − bx2 (t) − kx1 (t))

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In matrix form:    
0 1 0
ẋ(t) = k b x(t) + 1 F (t)
−m −m
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The output equation (displacement x(t)) is:

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y(t) = 1 0 x(t)
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This state-space model is particularly useful when analyzing systems with multiple inputs and out-
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puts.

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6 Example 2: Translational Mechanical System with Two Masses

6.1 System Description
Now, consider a system with two masses m1 and m2 , connected by a spring k and a damper b. An
external force F (t) is applied to m1 . The goal is to model the displacement of both masses over time.
The system can be represented as two second-order differential equations, one for each mass. The
forces acting on the masses are:
• For m1 : External force F (t), spring force −k(x1 − x2 ), and damping force −b dx dx2


dt − dt .
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• For m2 : The spring and damping forces exerted by m1 , plus the force from the connection between
them.

6.2 Equations of Motion

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For m1 , the equation of motion is:

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d2 x1 (t)
 
dx1 dx2
m1 = F (t) − k(x1 − x2 ) − b −
dt2 dt dt

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For m2 , the equation of motion is:

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d2 x2 (t)
 
dx2 dx1

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m2 = −k(x2 − x1 ) − b −
dt2 dt dt
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7 Rotational Mechanical Systems
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In rotational mechanical systems, the elements rotate around a fixed axis. These systems include com-
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ponents like flywheels, gears, and motors. The key elements of a rotational system are:

• Moment of Inertia (J): Equivalent to mass in translational systems, it resists changes in rota-
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tional motion.
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• Rotational Damping (B): A force resisting angular velocity, dissipating energy.

• Torsional Spring (K): A spring resisting angular displacement, storing potential energy.
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Rotational systems are governed by **torques** and **angular displacement** rather than forces
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and linear displacement.

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7.1 Example 1: Rotational System with a Flywheel

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7.1.1 System Description

Consider a simple rotational system consisting of:
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• A flywheel with a moment of inertia J (in kg·m2 ).

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• A damper with a damping coefficient B (in N·m·s/rad).

• A torsional spring with stiffness K (in N·m/rad).
• An external torque T (t) applied to the system (in N·m).
The angular displacement of the flywheel is θ(t) (in radians), and the goal is to derive the equations
that govern its motion.

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7.1.2 Newton’s Second Law for Rotational Systems

For rotational systems, Newton’s second law takes the form:
d2 θ(t)
Net torque = J
dt2
The forces acting on the system include:
• The damping torque Tdamper = −B dθ(t)
dt , opposing motion.

• The restoring torque from the torsional spring Tspring = −Kθ(t), opposing displacement.
• The external torque T (t), driving the system.
Summing these torques gives the equation of motion:
d2 θ(t)

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dθ(t)
J 2
+B + Kθ(t) = T (t)
dt dt

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This is a second-order differential equation that describes the rotational motion of the flywheel.

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7.1.3 Transfer Function

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Taking the Laplace transform of the equation, assuming zero initial conditions, we get:

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Js2 Θ(s) + BsΘ(s) + KΘ(s) = T (s)

Solving for Θ(s) in terms of T (s), the transfer function is:

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Θ(s) 1
H(s) = =
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T (s) Js2 + Bs + K
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7.1.4 State-Space Representation

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We can also represent this system in state-space form. Define the state variables:
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dθ(t)
x1 (t) = θ(t) (angular displacement), x2 (t) = (angular velocity)
dt
The system can be written as:
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ẋ1 (t) = x2 (t)

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1
ẋ2 (t) = (T (t) − Bx2 (t) − Kx1 (t))
J
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In matrix form, this becomes:

   
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0 1 0
ẋ(t) = x(t) + 1 T (t)
−KJ −BJ J
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The output equation is:

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y(t) = 1 0 x(t)
This state-space model is particularly useful for analyzing the rotational dynamics of the system.

8 Example 2: Rotational System with Gears

8.0.1 System Description
Consider a system where two flywheels are connected by a gear train. The first flywheel has a moment
of inertia J1 , and the second flywheel has a moment of inertia J2 . The gears have a ratio of N1 : N2 ,
which relates the angular displacements θ1 (t) and θ2 (t) by:
θ1 (t) N2
=
θ2 (t) N1
An external torque T (t) is applied to the first flywheel.

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8.0.2 Equations of Motion

For the first flywheel, the equation of motion is:

d2 θ1 (t) dθ1 (t)

J1 + B1 + K1 θ1 (t) = T (t)
dt2 dt
For the second flywheel, the equation of motion (considering the gear ratio) is:

d2 θ2 (t) dθ2 (t) N1

J2 2
+ B2 + K2 θ2 (t) = T (t)
dt dt N2
Using the gear ratio to substitute θ1 in terms of θ2 , we can derive the coupled equations that describe
the system’s dynamics.

8.0.3 Transfer Function

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Taking the Laplace transform of the coupled differential equations and solving for the angular displace-

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ments in terms of the input torque yields the transfer functions for each flywheel:

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Θ1 (s) Θ2 (s)
H1 (s) = , H2 (s) =
T (s) T (s)

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These transfer functions describe how the angular displacement of each flywheel responds to the applied

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torque.
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9 MATLAB Simulation of Rotational Systems
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We will now simulate the rotational system using MATLAB. The parameters for the flywheel system
are:
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J = 0.02 kg·m2 , B = 0.1 N·m·s/rad, K = 1 N·m/rad

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The external torque T (t) is a step input.

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9.1 MATLAB Code for Simulating Rotational System

% Define system parameters
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J = 0.02; % Moment of inertia (kg·m^2)

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B = 0.1; % Damping coefficient (N·m·s/rad)

K = 1; % Spring constant (N·m/rad)
T0 = 1; % External torque (N·m)
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% Define the system as a transfer function

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num = [1];
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den = [J B K];
sys = tf(num, den);
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% Simulate the step response

t = 0:0.01:10;
T = T0 * ones(size(t)); % Step input
[theta, t] = lsim(sys, T, t);

% Plot the results

figure;
plot(t, theta);
xlabel(’Time (s)’);
ylabel(’Angular Displacement (rad)’);
title(’Step Response of Rotational System’);

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9.2 Interpretation of Results

The plot generated by MATLAB shows the angular displacement θ(t) of the flywheel over time in response
to the applied step torque. Similar to the translational systems, the system can exhibit different behaviors
(overdamped, critically damped, or underdamped) depending on the relative values of J, B, and K.

10 Comparison between Translational and Rotational Systems

The analysis of translational and rotational systems is closely related, with corresponding variables:

• Force in translational systems corresponds to torque in rotational systems.

• Displacement corresponds to angular displacement.
• Mass corresponds to moment of inertia.

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• Damping coefficient and spring constant have their rotational counterparts as well.

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This analogy allows us to apply similar modeling techniques to both translational and rotational
systems.

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11 Example 3: Rotational System with Multiple Flywheels and

Gear Train
11.1 System Description
Consider a system with two flywheels connected by a gear train. Flywheel 1 has a moment of inertia J1
and is connected to flywheel 2 with a moment of inertia J2 via a gear system with a ratio N1 : N2 . The
gear ratio introduces a coupling between the angular velocities and displacements of the two flywheels,
described by:
N2
θ1 (t) = θ2 (t)
N1
The system is driven by an external torque T (t) applied to flywheel 1.

11.1.1 Equations of Motion

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For flywheel 1, Newton’s second law for rotational motion gives:

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d2 θ1 (t) dθ1 (t)
J1 + B1 + K1 θ1 (t) = T (t)
dt2 dt

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For flywheel 2, considering the gear coupling:

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d2 θ2 (t) dθ2 (t) N1
J2 + B2 + K2 θ2 (t) = T (t)

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dt2 dt N2
These two coupled equations describe the system’s dynamics. To solve them, we use the gear ratio
to substitute θ1 in terms of θ2 , reducing the system to a single equation in terms of θ2 (t).
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11.2 Transfer Function Representation
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Taking the Laplace transform of the coupled differential equations, we obtain the transfer functions H1 (s)
and H2 (s) that describe the angular displacement of each flywheel in response to the applied torque T (s).
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The transfer functions are given by:

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Θ1 (s) Θ2 (s)
H1 (s) = , H2 (s) =
T (s) T (s)
These transfer functions allow us to analyze the frequency-domain behavior of the system, providing
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insights into how the system responds to different input frequencies.

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11.3 State-Space Representation

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The state-space representation for the system with two flywheels can be written as:
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ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t)

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where x(t) is the state vector representing the angular displacements and velocities of both flywheels,
and u(t) is the input torque.
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Define the state variables:

dθ1 (t) dθ2 (t)
x1 (t) = θ1 (t), x2 (t) = , x3 (t) = θ2 (t), x4 (t) =
dt dt
The state-space equations become:
   
0 1 0 0 0
− K1
J1 −B
J1
1
0 0   J1 
ẋ(t) = 
 0
 x(t) +  1  T (t)
0 0 1  0
1
0 0 −K
J2
2 B2
− J2 J2

The output equation is:  

y(t) = 1 0 0 0 x(t)
This representation is useful when dealing with systems with multiple inputs and outputs, or when
the system’s internal state evolution needs to be captured.

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11.4 MATLAB Simulation

We will simulate this system in MATLAB, focusing on the interaction between the two flywheels and
how the gear ratio affects their dynamics.

11.4.1 MATLAB Code for Simulating the Two-Flywheel System

% Define system parameters
J1 = 0.02; % Moment of inertia for flywheel 1 (kg·m^2)
B1 = 0.05; % Damping coefficient for flywheel 1 (N·m·s/rad)
K1 = 1; % Spring constant for flywheel 1 (N·m/rad)
J2 = 0.01; % Moment of inertia for flywheel 2 (kg·m^2)
B2 = 0.02; % Damping coefficient for flywheel 2 (N·m·s/rad)
K2 = 0.5; % Spring constant for flywheel 2 (N·m/rad)
T0 = 1; % External torque (N·m)

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N1 = 2; % Gear ratio for flywheel 1
N2 = 1; % Gear ratio for flywheel 2

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% Define the state-space matrices

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A = [0 1 0 0; -K1/J1 -B1/J1 0 0; 0 0 0 1; 0 0 -K2/J2 -B2/J2];
B = [0; 1/J1; 0; 1/J2];

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C = [1 0 0 0];

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D = 0;

% Create the state-space system

sys = ss(A, B, C, D);
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% Define the time span and input torque
t = 0:0.01:10;
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T = T0 * ones(size(t)); % Step input

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% Simulate the system response

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[theta, t] = lsim(sys, T, t);

% Plot the results

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figure;
plot(t, theta);
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xlabel(’Time (s)’);
ylabel(’Angular Displacement (rad)’);
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title(’Step Response of Two-Flywheel System with Gear Train’);

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11.4.2 Interpreting the Results

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The plot shows how the angular displacement of the first flywheel evolves over time in response to the
step input torque. The gear ratio determines the relative motion between the two flywheels, with the
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second flywheel following at a rate determined by the ratio N1 : N2 .

This simulation illustrates how multiple rotating components interact in systems like engines, gear
trains, and mechanical linkages.

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12 Real-World Applications of Rotational System Modeling

The modeling and simulation techniques we’ve discussed are applied in a variety of real-world systems.
Here are some key applications of rotational mechanical system modeling:

12.1 1. Automotive Engines and Transmissions

In automotive engineering, the dynamics of engine components (e.g., crankshafts, flywheels, and gear-
boxes) are modeled using rotational system principles. The flywheel in an engine helps smooth out the
torque delivered by the pistons, while the gearbox regulates the speed and torque delivered to the wheels.
Gear ratios are used to optimize performance and fuel efficiency.

12.1.1 Example: Flywheel in an Engine

A typical automotive flywheel has a moment of inertia that resists changes in rotational speed. It absorbs

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energy during power strokes and releases it during non-power strokes, ensuring smoother operation of
the engine. The gear ratios in the transmission regulate the flywheel’s angular velocity, adapting it to

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the varying driving conditions.

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12.2 2. Electric Motors and Generators

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Electric motors and generators are rotational systems where the rotational motion is directly converted
into electrical energy (in the case of a generator) or electrical energy is converted into mechanical motion

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(in the case of a motor). The behavior of these systems is governed by the same principles we’ve discussed,
where the moment of inertia, damping, and applied torques dictate their dynamic response.
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12.2.1 Example: DC Motor Dynamics
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The dynamics of a DC motor can be described using the same second-order differential equation we
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derived for a rotational system. The applied voltage generates an electromagnetic torque that drives the
rotor. The rotor’s angular velocity is influenced by the motor’s inertia and damping.
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12.3 3. Wind Turbines and Power Generation Systems

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Wind turbines are complex rotational systems where the blades capture wind energy and convert it into
rotational energy. This energy is transferred through a gear train to a generator, which converts it into
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electrical power. The gear ratios in the system are crucial for adapting the slow rotational speed of the
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turbine blades to the high speed required by the generator.

12.3.1 Example: Gear Train in a Wind Turbine

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A wind turbine with a large rotor requires a gear train to increase the rotational speed of the generator
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shaft. The dynamics of the system can be modeled using multiple coupled differential equations that
describe the interaction between the rotor, gearbox, and generator.
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Lectures on Modeling and Simulation M.A.Sharif ([email protected])

13 Advanced Topics in Mechanical System Modeling

In this section, we will briefly introduce some advanced topics in mechanical system modeling that build
upon the concepts we’ve covered so far. These topics provide deeper insights into real-world mechanical
systems and prepare you for more complex challenges in mechanical and control engineering.

13.1 1. Nonlinear Mechanical Systems

In many practical applications, mechanical systems exhibit nonlinear behavior, especially when the
displacement, velocity, or applied forces are large. Common sources of nonlinearity include:
• **Nonlinear springs**: Springs that follow a non-Hookean law where the force-displacement rela-
tionship is not linear.
• **Saturation in dampers**: Dampers may have a maximum damping force beyond which they no

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longer increase linearly with velocity.
• **Friction**: Coulomb friction introduces nonlinearity, where the frictional force is independent of

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velocity until the object starts moving.

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To model nonlinear systems, we use nonlinear differential equations that are typically solved using
numerical methods, as analytical solutions are rare.

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13.2 2. Time-Varying Systems
Mechanical systems with parameters that change over time are known as time-varying systems. For
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instance, the moment of inertia of a satellite or a robotic arm may change as parts of the system move
or deploy. In such systems, parameters like m(t), k(t), or J(t) are functions of time.
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The equations of motion for time-varying systems are more complex and often require adaptive control
techniques to manage their behavior.
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13.3 3. Multibody Dynamics

In multibody mechanical systems, multiple interconnected bodies or links move relative to one another.
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These systems are common in robotics (e.g., robotic arms), vehicle suspensions, and spacecraft. Each
body in the system has its own degrees of freedom, and the motion of one body affects the others.
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The dynamics of multibody systems are often modeled using Lagrangian or Hamiltonian mechanics,
which provide a systematic approach to derive the equations of motion for complex systems with multiple
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interacting components.
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Lectures on Modeling and Simulation M.A.Sharif ([email protected])

14 Conclusion of the Lecture on Mechanical Systems

Throughout this lecture, we have explored the modeling and simulation of both translational and rota-
tional mechanical systems. By analyzing different systems—such as the mass-spring-damper system and
flywheels connected by gears—we have demonstrated how to derive the equations of motion, represent
the system in transfer function and state-space forms, and simulate these systems using MATLAB.

14.1 Key Takeaways

• Mechanical systems can be described by second-order differential equations that capture their
dynamic behavior.

• The response of these systems depends on the parameters (e.g., mass, damping, stiffness) and can
be solved analytically or numerically.

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• Transfer functions and state-space representations are powerful tools for analyzing the behavior of
mechanical systems, particularly in control and systems engineering.

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• MATLAB provides a robust environment for simulating both simple and complex mechanical sys-
tems, allowing us to visualize and analyze system dynamics under different conditions.

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14.2 Further Reading and Resources

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For those interested in exploring these topics further, here are some suggested resources:

• System Dynamics by Katsuhiko Ogata.

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• Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems by Gene F. Franklin, J. Da Powell, and Abbas Emami-
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Naeini.
• Engineering Vibration by Daniel J. Inman.
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• MATLAB documentation on control systems and Simulink modeling tools.

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The study of mechanical system modeling extends far beyond what we’ve covered here, and these
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resources will help you deepen your understanding of system dynamics, vibrations, and control strategies
for real-world applications.
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Lectures Notes 12 Modeling and Simulation

Lectures on Modeling and Simulation M.A.Sharif ([email protected])

15 Examples and Homework Problems

15.1 Example 1: Modeling a Suspension System
Consider a vehicle suspension system modeled as a mass-spring-damper system, where the mass of the
vehicle m = 1500 kg, the damping coefficient b = 300 Ns/m, and the spring constant k = 20000 N/m.
The vehicle hits a bump, modeled as an external force F (t) = 500 N applied for a short duration.
1. Derive the equation of motion for the system.
2. Solve the equation for the displacement x(t) of the mass over time.
3. Simulate the system in MATLAB and plot the displacement response.

15.2 Example 2: Rotational Dynamics of a Motor with Load

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A DC motor is coupled to a load with a moment of inertia J = 0.1 kg·m2 , damping B = 0.05 N·m·s/rad,

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and a torsional spring constant K = 2 N·m/rad. The motor applies a torque T (t) = 5 N·m at time t = 0.

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1. Derive the equation of motion for the system.
2. Find the transfer function of the system relating the applied torque T (s) to the angular displacement

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Θ(s).

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3. Simulate the system’s response to the applied torque using MATLAB.
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15.3 Homework Problem 1: Mass-Spring-Damper System with Nonlinear
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Damping
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Consider a mass-spring-damper system where the damping force is nonlinear, given by Fdamping =
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−b dx(t)
dt . The mass m = 5 kg, spring constant k = 100 N/m, and external force F (t) = 20 N are
applied to the system.
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1. Derive the nonlinear equation of motion for the system.

2. Solve the equation numerically using MATLAB.
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3. Plot the displacement x(t) over time and compare it to the linear case.
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15.4 Homework Problem 2: Coupled Mechanical System

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Two masses m1 = 2 kg and m2 = 3 kg are connected by a spring with stiffness k = 50 N/m and a damper
with damping coefficient b = 10 Ns/m. An external force F (t) = 15 N is applied to m1 .
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1. Derive the equations of motion for the system.

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2. Simulate the system in MATLAB and plot the displacements x1 (t) and x2 (t) over time.

15.5 Homework Problem 3: Modeling a Wind Turbine System

Consider a wind turbine with rotor blades that rotate with a moment of inertia Jrotor = 2000 kg·m2 . The
rotor is connected to a generator with moment of inertia Jgen = 500 kg·m2 through a gearbox with ratio
N1 = 50 and N2 = 5. An external torque Twind = 100 N·m is applied to the rotor due to wind.
1. Derive the equations of motion for the rotor and generator.
2. Simulate the system in MATLAB and plot the angular velocities of the rotor and generator over
time.
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Lectures Notes 13 Modeling and Simulation

Lectures on Modeling and Simulation M.A.Sharif ([email protected])

16 Conclusion
This concludes our exploration of mechanical system modeling. The provided examples and homework
problems give you the opportunity to practice the techniques we’ve covered and apply them to real-world
systems. Understanding how to model, simulate, and analyze these systems is crucial for designing
efficient and reliable mechanical systems in engineering applications.

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Lectures Notes 14 Modeling and Simulation