A Treatise on the Greatest Common Divisor and Least

Common Multiple: From Quantitative Aptitude to Advanced

Number Theory

Part I: Foundational Principles of Divisibility

The concepts of the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) and Least Common Multiple (LCM) are cornerstones of
elementary number theory. While they are often introduced as simple arithmetic operations, their true significance
lies in the deep structural properties of integers they represent. This section establishes the theoretical bedrock
upon which all subsequent analysis is built, moving from intuitive definitions to the formal structure provided by the
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.

Section 1.1: Core Definitions and Notations

A formal understanding begins with precise definitions.

Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)

For two or more integers, where at least one is non-zero, the Greatest Common Divisor is the
largest positive integer that divides each of them without leaving a remainder.1 The terms
Highest Common Factor (HCF) and Greatest Common Factor (GCF) are synonymous with
GCD.3 The GCD of two integers
a and b is denoted as gcd(a,b). For example, the divisors of 8 are {1, 2, 4, 8} and the divisors of 12 are {1, 2, 3, 4, 6,
1
12}. The common divisors are {1, 2, 4}, and the greatest among them is 4. Thus, gcd(8,12)=4.

Least Common Multiple (LCM)

The Least Common Multiple of two or more integers is the smallest positive integer that is a
multiple of all the given integers.5 For example, the positive multiples of 4 are {4, 8, 12, 16, 20,
24,...} and the positive multiples of 6 are {6, 12, 18, 24,...}. The common multiples are {12, 24,...},
and the least among them is 12. Thus,
6
lcm(4,6)=12. The term "Least Common Divisor" is a misnomer sometimes found in introductory texts but is not
3
standard terminology. The LCM of two integers
a and b is denoted as lcm(a,b).

Divisibility as a Partial Order

Beyond these definitions, a more abstract perspective is illuminating. The relation 'divides'
(denoted by '∣') imposes a structure on the set of positive integers known as a partial order. In
this structure, the GCD of two numbers acts as their meet (greatest lower bound), while the
LCM acts as their join (least upper bound). This framework reveals a deep-seated symmetry
between the two concepts and provides the foundation for their properties and
generalizations in abstract algebra.

Section 1.2: The Bedrock of Divisibility: The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

The reliability and consistency of GCD and LCM calculations are not accidental; they are guaranteed by one of the
most important results in number theory.

Statement and Significance

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic states that every integer greater than 1 is either a
prime number itself or can be represented as a product of prime numbers, and this
representation is unique, apart from the order of the factors.1 For example, the number 180
can be uniquely factored into prime numbers as
22⋅32⋅51.

Role in GCD/LCM
This theorem is the cornerstone that ensures the existence and uniqueness of the GCD and
LCM for any set of integers. It provides the theoretical justification for the prime factorization
method of computation. Without unique factorization, a number could have multiple, distinct
sets of prime factors, making it impossible to define a single "greatest" common divisor or
"least" common multiple in the way we do.1

Section 1.3: Algorithmic Computation

With the theoretical foundation established, we can explore the primary algorithms for computing GCD and LCM.

1.3.1: The Prime Factorization Method

This method directly leverages the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.

●​ Procedure for GCD: The process involves finding the prime factorization of each number, identifying all
 common prime factors, and multiplying them together, with each prime raised to the minimum exponent it
7
holds across all factorizations. For example, to compute​
gcd(48,180), we first find the prime factorizations: 48=24⋅31 and 180=22⋅32⋅51. The GCD is then the product of
1
the common primes (2 and 3) raised to their minimum powers: 2min(4,2)⋅3min(1,2)⋅5min(0,1)=22⋅31⋅50=12.
●​ Procedure for LCM: The LCM is the product of all prime factors that appear in any of the factorizations, with
8
each prime raised to the maximum exponent it holds in any factorization. For the same numbers, the LCM is​
1
2max(4,2)⋅3max(1,2)⋅5max(0,1)=24⋅32⋅51=720.

1.3.2: The Euclidean Algorithm: A Deep Dive into Efficiency

While prime factorization is conceptually clear, it is not the most efficient method for computation, especially for
large numbers. The Euclidean algorithm provides a much faster approach.

●​ The Subtractive Form: The historical basis of the algorithm is the principle that for a>b, gcd(a,b)=gcd(a−b,b).
By repeatedly subtracting the smaller number from the larger, the pair of numbers is reduced until they are
1
equal, at which point their common value is the GCD.
●​ The Division-Based (Modern) Form: A more efficient version uses the division algorithm, based on the
9
property that gcd(a,b)=gcd(b,a(modb)), where a(modb) is the remainder when a is divided by b. The process
is repeated until the remainder is zero. The last non-zero remainder is the GCD. For example, to find​
10
gcd(270,192) :
1.​ 270=1⋅192+78
2.​ 192=2⋅78+36
3.​ 78=2⋅36+6
4.​ 36=6⋅6+0​
The last non-zero remainder is 6, so gcd(270,192)=6.
●​ The Extended Euclidean Algorithm: This powerful extension of the algorithm finds integer coefficients x and
12
y that satisfy Bézout's Identity: ax+by=gcd(a,b). This is not merely a computational trick; it is a constructive
proof of the identity and is fundamental for computing modular multiplicative inverses, a critical operation in
modern cryptography.

1.3.3: A Comparative Analysis of Algorithmic Complexity

The choice between the prime factorization method and the Euclidean algorithm reveals a profound distinction in
computational number theory. Finding the prime factors of a large integer is a computationally "hard" problem; no
known algorithm can do it in a time that scales polynomially with the number of digits. This difficulty is the bedrock
4
of the security of widely used cryptographic systems like RSA.

In stark contrast, the Euclidean algorithm is exceptionally efficient. Its running time is logarithmic in the size of the
12
smaller input, with a complexity of O(log(min(a,b))). This means it can compute the GCD of numbers with
hundreds of digits almost instantaneously. This dichotomy between the "easy" problem of finding a GCD and the
"hard" problem of factoring underpins much of modern digital security. The feasibility of public-key cryptography
relies on the ability to perform certain calculations (like finding modular inverses via the Extended Euclidean
Algorithm) quickly, while its security relies on the infeasibility of others (like factoring the product of two large
primes).

Part II: Deeper Properties, Identities, and Generalizations

Beyond simple computation, GCD and LCM exhibit a rich algebraic structure. Exploring these properties reveals
elegant symmetries and allows the concepts to be generalized far beyond the integers.

Section 2.1: The Central Identity: The GCD-LCM Product Formula

The most critical relationship between the GCD and LCM of two numbers is captured in a single, elegant formula.

The Formula
For any two positive integers a and b, the product of their GCD and LCM is equal to the
product of the numbers themselves 9:
gcd(a,b)×lcm(a,b)=a×b

This identity is immensely practical, as it allows for the efficient calculation of the LCM once
the GCD is known (using the fast Euclidean algorithm).9
Proof 1 (Using Prime Factorization)
This proof relies on the min/max property of exponents. Let the prime factorization of a and b
be a=∏piαi​​and b=∏piβi​​, where pi​are prime numbers and the exponents are non-negative
integers.
From the definitions:
gcd(a,b)=∏pimin(αi​,βi​)​
lcm(a,b)=∏pimax(αi​,βi​)​
Multiplying these two expressions gives:
gcd(a,b)×lcm(a,b)=∏pimin(αi​,βi​)+max(αi​,βi​)​
For any two numbers αi​and βi​, the identity min(αi​,βi​)+max(αi​,βi​)=αi​+βi​holds. Therefore:
gcd(a,b)×lcm(a,b)=∏piαi​+βi​​=(∏piαi​​)×(∏piβi​​)=a×b
This proves the identity.7
Proof 2 (Using Divisibility)
This proof is more algebraic. Let d=gcd(a,b). By definition, we can write a=dx and b=dy for
some integers x and y. Crucially, x and y must be coprime (i.e., gcd(x,y)=1); otherwise, d would
not be the greatest common divisor.7
The LCM of a and b is the smallest number divisible by both dx and dy. Since x and y share no
common factors, this smallest common multiple must be dxy.
Thus, lcm(a,b)=dxy.
Now, we can evaluate the product:
gcd(a,b)×lcm(a,b)=d×(dxy)=(dx)(dy)=a×b.7

Section 2.2: The Algebraic Structure of GCD and LCM

The operations of GCD and LCM obey several algebraic laws that mirror those found in other mathematical
structures, such as set theory (intersection and union) and logic (AND and OR). This is not a coincidence; it reflects
the underlying lattice structure of integers under the divisibility relation, where GCD is the meet and LCM is the
join. This duality explains the profound symmetry observed in their properties.

●​ Associativity and Commutativity: Both operations are commutative (gcd(a,b)=gcd(b,a)) and associative
(gcd(a,gcd(b,c))=gcd(gcd(a,b),c)). Associativity is what allows us to unambiguously define the GCD and LCM
4
for more than two numbers, for example, gcd(a,b,c)=gcd(a,gcd(b,c)).
●​ Distributive Laws: GCD and LCM distribute over each other in a manner analogous to how multiplication
8
distributes over addition.
○​ gcd(a,lcm(b,c))=lcm(gcd(a,b),gcd(a,c))
○​ lcm(a,gcd(b,c))=gcd(lcm(a,b),lcm(a,c))​
These can be proven elegantly using the min/max properties of the prime exponents. For instance, the
exponent of a prime p in gcd(a,lcm(b,c)) is min(α,max(β,γ)), which can be shown to be equal to
max(min(α,β),min(α,γ)), the exponent of p in lcm(gcd(a,b),gcd(a,c)).

Section 2.3: Extending the Domain

The act of generalizing concepts like GCD and LCM to other mathematical systems is a powerful way to
understand their essential nature. It reveals that their properties depend not on the integers themselves, but on
the underlying algebraic structure.

2.3.1: Rational Numbers (Fractions)

The concepts of GCD and LCM can be extended to rational numbers. For any set of fractions, they must first be
17
reduced to their simplest form. The formulas are then :

●​ GCD(ba​,dc​)=LCM(b,d)GCD(a,c)​
●​ LCM(ba​,dc​)=GCD(b,d)LCM(a,c)​

The justification for the LCM formula, for example, is that we seek the smallest positive rational number M/N such
that (M/N)/(a/b) and (M/N)/(c/d) are integers. This requires M to be a common multiple of a and c (and the smallest
such M is lcm(a,c)) and N to be a common divisor of b and d (and the largest such N to make the fraction smallest
18
is gcd(b,d)).

2.3.2: Polynomials with Coefficients in a Field

1
The concepts of divisibility, GCD, and LCM extend naturally to polynomials. For polynomials, the Euclidean
algorithm, adapted for polynomial long division, remains the most efficient method for computing the GCD.

2.3.3: Elements in General Integral and Euclidean Domains

In abstract algebra, the integers are an example of an integral domain. The properties of GCD and LCM are
guaranteed to hold in any Unique Factorization Domain (UFD), which is an integral domain where elements have
1
a unique factorization into "prime" (irreducible) elements. In more general integral domains that are not UFDs, a
1
GCD for two elements may not exist, or it may not be unique (up to multiplication by a unit).

A Euclidean Domain is a special type of integral domain where a division algorithm with remainder is defined,
allowing for the use of the Euclidean algorithm. All Euclidean domains are also UFDs. This explains why the
algorithm works for integers, Gaussian integers (a+bi), and polynomials over a field—they are all Euclidean
1
domains. This process of abstraction reveals that the familiar properties of GCD and LCM are consequences of a
deep algebraic structure, not just arbitrary rules of arithmetic.

Part III: Applications in Quantitative Problem Solving

In the context of quantitative aptitude, the abstract theory of GCD and LCM translates into powerful tools for
solving a specific range of word problems. The key to success is recognizing the underlying structure of a problem
to determine which operation is required.

Section 3.1: A Taxonomy of Applied Problems

Word problems involving GCD and LCM typically fall into one of two categories: those that involve breaking larger
quantities into smaller, equal parts (GCD), and those that involve finding a common point for repeating cycles
(LCM).

●​ GCD Archetypes: These problems seek the largest common measure. Keywords like "greatest," "largest,"
"maximum," or phrases like "divide equally" and "identical groups" are strong indicators. Common scenarios
include:
○​ Tiling/Cutting: Finding the largest size of square tile to pave a rectangular floor, or the longest possible
11
equal-length pieces to cut from multiple rods.
○​ Grouping/Distribution: Arranging different items into the maximum number of identical packages or
22
forming the greatest number of teams with an equal distribution of members.
●​ LCM Archetypes: These problems seek the smallest common end-point. Keywords like "least," "smallest,"
"minimum," or phrases like "together," "simultaneously," and "next time they align" point towards LCM.
Common scenarios include:
○​ Synchronization: Determining when periodic events, such as blinking lights, ringing bells, or runners on a
21
track, will next occur at the same time.
○​ Matching Quantities: Finding the smallest number of items to purchase when they come in
22
different-sized packs, in order to have an equal number of each.

The following table provides a heuristic guide for identifying the correct operation.

Table 1: Heuristic Guide for Identifying GCD vs. LCM in Word Problems

Problem Archetype Keywords & Phrases Core Concept Illustrative Scenario

Distribution & Grouping "greatest", "largest", Dividing Down: Finding the Tiling a 437 cm x 323 cm floor
"maximum", "divide equally", largest common measure that with the largest possible
"identical groups", "no fits into given quantities. 21
identical square slabs.
leftovers"

Synchronization & Cycles "least", "smallest", "minimum", Building Up: Finding the first Traffic lights at three crossings
"together", "simultaneously", common point in the future for change every 24, 36, and 72
"next time they align" multiple repeating cycles. seconds. When will they next
21
change simultaneously?.

Section 3.2: Advanced Problem-Solving Heuristics

More complex problems often involve remainders. A systematic approach is crucial.

●​ Case 1: Finding the greatest number that divides x,y,z to leave the same remainder in each case.
○​ Method: The required number is the HCF of the differences between the numbers.
○​ Solution: HCF(∣x−y∣,∣y−z∣,∣z−x∣).21
●​ Case 2: Finding the greatest number that divides x,y,z to leave specific remainders a,b,c, respectively.
○​ Method: The required number must exactly divide x−a, y−b, and z−c.
○​ Solution: HCF(x−a,y−b,z−c).21
●​ Case 3: Finding the least number which when divided by x,y,z leaves remainders a,b,c where the
difference x−a=y−b=z−c=k is constant.
○​ Method: The number is k less than a common multiple of x,y,z.
○​ Solution: LCM(x,y,z)−k.26
●​ Case 4: Finding the least number which when divided by x,y,z leaves the same remainder k in each
case.
○​ Method: The number is k more than a common multiple of x,y,z.
○​ Solution: LCM(x,y,z)+k.26
●​ General Case (Chinese Remainder Theorem): For problems with different divisors and different remainders
that do not fit the patterns above, the solution often requires the Chinese Remainder Theorem, a more
advanced technique for solving systems of congruences.

Part IV: A Curated Gauntlet: 20 Problems with Exhaustive

Solutions

This section presents a curated set of 20 problems, progressing in difficulty from foundational calculations to
challenging proofs suitable for advanced study. Each problem is accompanied by a detailed solution.

Subsection 4.1: Foundational Warm-up (Easy)

Question 1: Find the HCF and LCM of 135 and 225.

Solution:
We will use the prime factorization method.27

First, find the prime factors of each number:

135=3×45=3×9×5=3×3×3×5=33×51
225=5×45=5×9×5=3×3×5×5=32×52
To find the HCF, we take the product of the common prime factors raised to their minimum
powers:
HCF(135,225)=3min(3,2)×5min(1,2)=32×51=9×5=45.
To find the LCM, we take the product of all prime factors raised to their maximum powers:
LCM(135,225)=3max(3,2)×5max(1,2)=33×52=27×25=675.
Answer: HCF = 45, LCM = 675.
Question 2: Two bells ring at intervals of 6 minutes and 8 minutes, respectively. If they ring together at 10:00 AM,
when will they ring together again for the first time?

Solution:
This is a synchronization problem, which requires finding the least common multiple (LCM) of
the time intervals.27 We need to find
LCM(6,8).
List the multiples of each number:
Multiples of 6: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30,...
Multiples of 8: 8, 16, 24, 32,...
The smallest common multiple is 24. Therefore, the bells will ring together again after 24
minutes.
If they first ring together at 10:00 AM, the next time will be 10:00 AM + 24 minutes = 10:24
AM.
Answer: 10:24 AM.
Question 3: Pencils come in packages of 10, and erasers come in packages of 12. What is the smallest number of
pencils and erasers that must be bought to have an equal number of each? How many packages of each item
should be bought?

Solution:
This problem requires finding the smallest total number that is a multiple of both 10 and 12,
which is the LCM.23

LCM(10,12):
Prime factorization of 10: 2×5
Prime factorization of 12: 22×3
LCM(10,12)=22×3×5=4×3×5=60.
The smallest number of each item to have is 60.
Number of pencil packages: 60÷10=6 packages.
Number of eraser packages: 60÷12=5 packages.
Answer: 60 of each item; 6 packages of pencils and 5 packages of erasers.
Question 4: A rectangular field is 180 m long and 105 m wide. It is to be paved with identical square tiles. What is
the largest possible size of each tile?

Solution:
To find the largest possible size of a square tile that can pave the field exactly, we need to find
the greatest length that can divide both the length and the width of the field. This is the HCF
of the dimensions.25

We need to find HCF(180,105). We can use the Euclidean algorithm:

180=1×105+75
105=1×75+30
75=2×30+15
30=2×15+0
The last non-zero remainder is 15.
So, the largest possible size of each tile is 15 m x 15 m.
Answer: 15 m.
Question 5: What is the HCF of the fractions 4/9, 10/21, and 20/63?

Solution:
The formula for the HCF of fractions is HCF(numerators)/LCM(denominators).28

First, find the HCF of the numerators (4, 10, 20).

Factors of 4: {1, 2, 4}
Factors of 10: {1, 2, 5, 10}
Factors of 20: {1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20}
HCF(4,10,20)=2.
Next, find the LCM of the denominators (9, 21, 63).
Prime factorization of 9: 32
Prime factorization of 21: 3×7
Prime factorization of 63: 32×7
LCM(9,21,63)=32×71=9×7=63.
Therefore, the HCF of the fractions is 2/63.
Answer: 2/63.

Subsection 4.2: Quantitative Aptitude Challenge (Medium)

Question 6: The HCF of two numbers is 12 and their difference is 12. Find the numbers.

Solution:
Let the two numbers be a and b. Since their HCF is 12, both numbers must be multiples of 12.
We can write them as a=12x and b=12y, where x and y are coprime integers (gcd(x,y)=1).28

We are given that their difference is 12:

a−b=12
12x−12y=12
12(x−y)=12
x−y=1
We need to find two coprime integers whose difference is 1. Any pair of consecutive integers
are coprime. For example, we can choose x=2,y=1 or x=3,y=2, etc.
Let's check the provided options in the source material.28 The option (84, 96) fits the criteria.

a=96 and b=84.

Their difference is 96−84=12.
Their HCF is HCF(96,84)=HCF(12×8,12×7)=12×HCF(8,7)=12×1=12.
The numbers are 84 and 96.
Answer: 84 and 96.
Question 7: The product of two numbers is 6760 and their HCF is 13. How many such pairs of numbers can be
formed?

Solution:
Let the numbers be 13x and 13y, where x and y are coprime integers.28

Their product is given as 6760:

(13x)×(13y)=6760
169xy=6760
xy=6760/169=40
We need to find pairs of coprime integers (x,y) whose product is 40. The pairs of factors of 40
are:
(1, 40) -> gcd(1,40)=1. This is a valid pair.
(2, 20) -> gcd(2,20)=2. Not coprime.
(4, 10) -> gcd(4,10)=2. Not coprime.
(5, 8) -> gcd(5,8)=1. This is a valid pair.
There are two such pairs of coprime integers: (1, 40) and (5, 8).
The pairs of numbers are:
1.​ (13×1,13×40)=(13,520)
2.​ (13×5,13×8)=(65,104)​
Answer: 2 pairs.

Question 8: Find the greatest number which will divide 3959, 4082, and 4164 leaving the same remainder in each
case.

Solution:
Let the required number be N and the common remainder be r. Then the numbers (3959−r),
(4082−r), and (4164−r) are all exactly divisible by N.
According to the property of such problems, N must also divide the differences between
these numbers.21

Difference 1: 4082−3959=123
Difference 2: 4164−4082=82
Difference 3: 4164−3959=205
The required number N is the HCF of these differences.
HCF(123,82,205).
Let's find the prime factors:
123=3×41
82=2×41
205=5×41
The only common prime factor is 41.
HCF(123,82,205)=41.
Answer: 41.
Question 9: Find the least number which when divided by 5, 6, 8, and 10 leaves a remainder of 2 in each case.

Solution:
This problem follows the structure: LCM(divisors)+common remainder.26

First, we find the LCM of the divisors 5, 6, 8, and 10.

Prime factorizations:
5=51
6=2×3
8=23
10=2×5
LCM(5,6,8,10)=23×31×51=8×3×5=120.
This means 120 is the smallest number exactly divisible by 5, 6, 8, and 10. To leave a remainder
of 2 in each case, we add 2 to the LCM.
Required number = 120+2=122.
Answer: 122.
Question 10: Find the greatest number of four digits which when divided by 10, 11, 15, and 22 leaves remainders 3,
4, 8, and 15, respectively.

Solution:
This problem has different remainders. Let's check the difference between each divisor and
its corresponding remainder.26

10−3=7
11−4=7
15−8=7
22−15=7
The difference is constant (k=7). The form of the solution is m×LCM(divisors)−k.
First, find the LCM of 10, 11, 15, and 22.
10=2×5
11=11
15=3×5
22=2×11
LCM(10,11,15,22)=2×3×5×11=330.
We need the greatest four-digit number of the form 330m−7. The largest four-digit number is
9999.
Divide 9999 by 330 to find the largest multiple of 330 below it.
9999÷330≈30.3.
So, the largest multiple of 330 is 330×30=9900.
The number that is exactly divisible is 9900. The number that fits our remainder condition is
9900−7=9893.
Answer: 9893.
Subsection 4.3: Advanced Competitive Problems (Hard)

Question 11: Find the least number which when divided by 6, 12, 16, and 125 leaves 7 as remainder in each case,
but when divided by 11 leaves no remainder.

Solution:
This is a two-condition problem.21

First condition: The number, let's call it N, leaves a remainder of 7 when divided by 6, 12, 16,
and 125. This means N is of the form k×LCM(6,12,16,125)+7.
Let's find the LCM.
6=2×3
12=22×3
16=24
125=53
LCM(6,12,16,125)=24×31×53=16×3×125=48×125=6000.
So, N=6000k+7 for some integer k≥0.
Second condition: N is divisible by 11.
6000k+7≡0(mod11).
We need to find 6000(mod11).
6000=11×545+5. So, 6000≡5(mod11).
The congruence becomes:
5k+7≡0(mod11)
5k≡−7(mod11)
5k≡4(mod11)
We need to find the multiplicative inverse of 5 modulo 11. We can test values: 5×1=5,
5×2=10≡−1, so 5×(−2)≡1. Or 5×9=45=4×11+1≡1. The inverse is 9.
Multiply both sides by 9:
9×5k≡9×4(mod11)
1k≡36(mod11)
k≡3(mod11)
The smallest positive integer value for k is 3.
Now substitute k=3 back into the expression for N:
N=6000(3)+7=18000+7=18007.
Answer: 18007.
Question 12: The product of two natural numbers x,y and their HCF is 2520. If x>y, find the number of possible
pairs (x,y).

Solution:
Let h=HCF(x,y). We can write x=ha and y=hb, where a,b are coprime natural numbers and a>b
since x>y.29
The given condition is x×y×HCF(x,y)=2520.
Substituting our expressions:
(ha)×(hb)×h=2520
h3ab=2520.
We need to find integer solutions for h,a,b. Let's find the prime factorization of 2520:
2520=10×252=(2×5)×(4×63)=2×5×22×9×7=23×32×51×71.
So, h3ab=23×32×5×7.
Since h3 must be a perfect cube factor of this number, the only possibility for h>1 is h3=23,
which means h=2. (If h=1, ab=2520, many pairs. If h had a factor of 3, h3 would need 33, which
is not a factor of 2520).
With h=2, the equation becomes:
23ab=23×32×5×7
ab=32×5×7=9×35=315.
Now we need to find the number of pairs of coprime factors (a,b) of 315 such that a>b.
The factors of 315 are pairs (a,b):
1.​ (315, 1): gcd(315,1)=1. Valid.
2.​ (105, 3): gcd(105,3)=3. Invalid.
3.​ (63, 5): gcd(63,5)=1. Valid.
4.​ (45, 7): gcd(45,7)=1. Valid.
5.​ (35, 9): gcd(35,9)=1. Valid.
6.​ (21, 15): gcd(21,15)=3. Invalid.​
There are 4 valid pairs for (a,b). Each corresponds to a unique pair (x,y).​
Answer: 4.

Question 13: The sum of the LCM and HCF of two numbers is 1260. If their LCM is 900 more than their HCF, find
the product of the two numbers.

Solution:
Let the HCF be H and the LCM be L. We are given two equations 19:
1.​ L+H=1260
2.​ L=H+900​
This is a system of two linear equations. Substitute (2) into (1):​
(H+900)+H=1260​
2H+900=1260​
2H=360​
H=180.​
Now find L using equation (2):​
L=180+900=1080.​
The problem asks for the product of the two numbers. We use the fundamental identity: Product of numbers =
L×H.​
Product = 1080×180=194400.​
Answer: 194400.

Question 14: Three numbers are in the ratio 5:1:7 and their LCM is 7595. Find their HCF.
Solution:
Let the numbers be 5x,1x, and 7x, where x is their HCF.29 The numbers 5, 1, and 7 are pairwise
coprime.

The LCM of these numbers is found by taking the common factor x and multiplying it by the
LCM of the remaining ratios.
LCM(5x,x,7x)=x×LCM(5,1,7).
Since 5, 1, and 7 are coprime, their LCM is their product: 5×1×7=35.
So, the LCM of the numbers is 35x.
We are given that the LCM is 7595.
35x=7595
x=7595/35
x=217.
The HCF of the numbers is x.
Answer: 217.
Question 15: Find the largest four-digit number which, when divided by 4, 7, and 13, leaves a remainder of 3 in
each case.

Solution:
This is a problem of the form k×LCM(divisors)+common remainder.19

Let the number be N. The condition means N−3 is divisible by 4, 7, and 13.
So, N−3 must be a multiple of LCM(4,7,13).
The numbers 4, 7, and 13 are pairwise coprime.
LCM(4,7,13)=4×7×13=28×13=364.
So, N must be of the form 364k+3.
We need the largest four-digit number of this form. The largest four-digit number is 9999.
Let's find the largest multiple of 364 that is less than or equal to 9999.
9999÷364≈27.46.
So, the largest integer multiple is k=27.
The largest multiple of 364 is 364×27=9828.
This number, 9828, is exactly divisible by 4, 7, and 13. To get a remainder of 3, we add 3.
N=9828+3=9831.
Answer: 9831.

Subsection 4.4: Olympiad and Proof-Based Inquiry (Extremely Tough)

Question 16 (Russia 1995): Let m and n be positive integers such that lcm(m,n)+gcd(m,n)=m+n. Prove that one of
the numbers is divisible by the other.

Solution:
Let d=gcd(m,n). We can write m=ad and n=bd for some coprime positive integers a and b.30
Using the identity lcm(m,n)×gcd(m,n)=mn, we have lcm(m,n)=dmn​=d(ad)(bd)​=abd.
Now substitute these expressions into the given equation:
abd+d=ad+bd
Rearrange the terms to one side:
abd−ad−bd+d=0
Factor out d:
d(ab−a−b+1)=0
Since d is a positive integer (d=gcd(m,n)≥1), we must have the term in the parenthesis equal to
zero:
ab−a−b+1=0
This expression can be factored by grouping:
a(b−1)−1(b−1)=0
(a−1)(b−1)=0
This implies that either a−1=0 or b−1=0.
Case 1: a=1.
If a=1, then m=1⋅d=d. Since n=bd, we have m=d which divides n=bd. So, m∣n.
Case 2: b=1.
If b=1, then n=1⋅d=d. Since m=ad, we have n=d which divides m=ad. So, n∣m.
In either case, one of the numbers is divisible by the other. This completes the proof.
Question 17 (Putnam 2008 A3): Start with a finite sequence a1​,a2​,…,an​of positive integers. If possible, choose
two indices j<k such that aj​does not divide ak​, and replace the pair (aj​,ak​) with (gcd(aj​,ak​),lcm(aj​,ak​)). Prove that
this process must eventually stop and the final sequence does not depend on the choices made.

Solution:
This problem has two parts: proving termination and proving uniqueness of the final state.32
Part 1: Termination
The process stops when for all j<k, aj​divides ak​. We can prove termination by defining a
quantity that changes monotonically at each step and is bounded.
Consider the sum of the numbers in the sequence, S=∑i=1n​ai​.
At each step, we replace (aj​,ak​) with (aj′​,ak′​)=(gcd(aj​,ak​),lcm(aj​,ak​)).
The sum changes by aj′​+ak′​−aj​−ak​.
We know that for any two positive integers x,y, x+y≥gcd(x,y)+lcm(x,y) is not always true.
However, let's consider the product P=∏i=1n​ai​. Since gcd(x,y)⋅lcm(x,y)=xy, the product of the
elements in the sequence remains invariant at every step.
Let's define a different quantity. Consider the sum of the elements S=∑ai​. Let d=gcd(aj​,ak​).
Then aj​=dx and ak​=dy for coprime x,y. The new elements are d and dxy. The change in sum is
d+dxy−(dx+dy)=d(1+xy−x−y)=d(x−1)(y−1). Since aj​does not divide ak​, y is not a multiple of x.
Since j<k is part of the rule, this doesn't help.
A better approach is to consider the first element a1​. At any step involving a1​(say with ak​), a1​
is replaced by gcd(a1​,ak​), which is less than or equal to the original a1​. Thus, the sequence of
values for a1​is non-increasing and bounded below by 1. It must therefore eventually become
constant. Once a1​is constant, we can apply the same argument to a2​, which is also part of a
non-increasing sequence (when considered as part of a pair with an index k>2), and so on.
This shows the process must terminate.
Part 2: Uniqueness
To prove the final sequence is unique, we analyze the prime factorizations. Let vp​(m) be the
exponent of a prime p in the prime factorization of m. For any prime p, consider the multiset of
exponents {vp​(a1​),vp​(a2​),…,vp​(an​)}.
When we replace (aj​,ak​) with (gcd(aj​,ak​),lcm(aj​,ak​)), their corresponding exponents
(vp​(aj​),vp​(ak​)) are replaced by (min(vp​(aj​),vp​(ak​)),max(vp​(aj​),vp​(ak​))).
This operation does not change the multiset of exponents for prime p; it only sorts the pair of
exponents. The overall multiset {vp​(a1​),…,vp​(an​)} remains invariant for every prime p.
The process stops when for all j<k, aj​∣ak​. This is equivalent to saying that for every prime p,
vp​(aj​)≤vp​(ak​) for all j<k.
This means the final state is one where for each prime p, the sequence of exponents
(vp​(a1​),vp​(a2​),…,vp​(an​)) is sorted in non-decreasing order.
Since the initial multiset of exponents for each prime p is fixed, sorting this multiset produces
a unique sequence of exponents. As this is true for every prime p, the prime factorization of
each number in the final sequence is uniquely determined. Therefore, the final sequence is
unique.
Question 18 (CMIMC 2017): Determine all possible values of m+n, where m and n are positive integers satisfying
lcm(m,n)−gcd(m,n)=103.

Solution:
Let d=gcd(m,n). We can write m=ad and n=bd where a,b are coprime positive integers.33

We know lcm(m,n)=abd.
Substituting into the given equation:
abd−d=103
d(ab−1)=103
Since 103 is a prime number and d,a,b are positive integers, the only possible factors for 103
are 1 and 103.
This gives two cases:
Case 1: d=1 and ab−1=103.
If d=1, then gcd(m,n)=1, which means m and n are coprime.
ab−1=103⟹ab=104.
Since m=a and n=b (because d=1), we need to find pairs of coprime integers (m,n) with
product 104.
The factorization of 104 is 23×13.
The pairs of factors are (1, 104), (2, 52), (4, 26), (8, 13).
We check for coprimality:
●​ gcd(1,104)=1. This is a valid pair. m+n=1+104=105.
●​ gcd(2,52)=2. Not coprime.
●​ gcd(4,26)=2. Not coprime.
●​ gcd(8,13)=1. This is a valid pair. m+n=8+13=21.
Case 2: d=103 and ab−1=1.
If d=103, then ab=2.
Since a,b are positive integers, the only pairs for (a,b) are (1, 2) or (2, 1). In both cases, a and b
are coprime.
If (a,b)=(1,2), then m=103×1=103 and n=103×2=206.
m+n=103+206=309.
If (a,b)=(2,1), the numbers are the same, just swapped.
The possible values for m+n are 21, 105, and 309.
Answer: 21, 105, 309.
Question 19 (RMO 2013): Let a1​,b1​,c1​∈N. Define a2​=gcd(b1​,c1​), b2​=gcd(c1​,a1​), c2​=gcd(a1​,b1​). Then define
a3​=lcm(b2​,c2​), b3​=lcm(c2​,a2​), c3​=lcm(a2​,b2​). Prove that gcd(b3​,c3​)=a2​.

Solution:
This problem tests the distributive laws of GCD and LCM.34

We want to prove gcd(b3​,c3​)=a2​.

Let's substitute the definitions of b3​and c3​:
gcd(lcm(c2​,a2​),lcm(a2​,b2​))
We use the distributive property gcd(lcm(x,y),lcm(x,z))=lcm(x,gcd(y,z)).
In our expression, x=a2​, y=c2​, and z=b2​.
So, gcd(lcm(a2​,c2​),lcm(a2​,b2​))=lcm(a2​,gcd(c2​,b2​)).
Now let's substitute the definitions of a2​,b2​,c2​:
a2​=gcd(b1​,c1​)
b2​=gcd(c1​,a1​)
c2​=gcd(a1​,b1​)
Our expression becomes:
lcm(gcd(b1​,c1​),gcd(gcd(a1​,b1​),gcd(c1​,a1​)))
Using the associative property of GCD, gcd(gcd(a1​,b1​),gcd(c1​,a1​))=gcd(a1​,b1​,c1​).
So the expression is:
lcm(gcd(b1​,c1​),gcd(a1​,b1​,c1​))
Let X=gcd(b1​,c1​) and Y=gcd(a1​,b1​,c1​).
Every divisor of a1​,b1​,c1​is also a divisor of b1​,c1​. Therefore, any common divisor of a1​,b1​,c1​is a
common divisor of b1​,c1​. This means gcd(a1​,b1​,c1​) must divide gcd(b1​,c1​).
So, Y divides X.
For any two integers X,Y where Y∣X, their least common multiple is simply the larger one, X.
Therefore, lcm(X,Y)=lcm(gcd(b1​,c1​),gcd(a1​,b1​,c1​))=gcd(b1​,c1​).
By definition, gcd(b1​,c1​)=a2​.
Thus, we have shown that gcd(b3​,c3​)=a2​. This completes the proof.
Question 20: For a positive integer n, let (kn​) be the binomial coefficient. It is a known result that
g(n)=gcd((1n​),(2n​),…,(n−1n​)) is greater than 1 if and only if n is a prime power. Assuming this result, find the sum of
all n≤25 for which g(n)>1.

Solution:
The problem asks for the sum of all integers n (where 1<n≤25) that are prime powers. A prime
power is a number of the form pk where p is a prime number and k is a positive integer.
We need to list all numbers n such that 1<n≤25 and n=pk for some prime p and integer k≥1.
Let's list them by prime base:
●​ Prime p=2:
○​ 21=2
○​ 22=4
○​ 23=8
○​ 24=16
○​ 25=32 (too large)
●​ Prime p=3:
○​ 31=3
○​ 32=9
○​ 33=27 (too large)
●​ Prime p=5:
○​ 51=5
○​ 52=25
●​ Prime p=7:
○​ 71=7
○​ 72=49 (too large)
●​ Prime p=11:
○​ 111=11
●​ Prime p=13:
○​ 131=13
●​ Prime p=17:
○​ 171=17
●​ Prime p=19:
○​ 191=19
●​ Prime p=23:
○​ 231=23​
The set of all such numbers n≤25 is:​
{2,3,4,5,7,8,9,11,13,16,17,19,23,25}.​
Now, we must find the sum of these numbers:​
Sum = 2+3+4+5+7+8+9+11+13+16+17+19+23+25​
Sum = (2+8)+(3+7)+(4+16)+5+9+(11+19)+(13+17)+23+25​
Sum = 10+10+20+5+9+30+30+23+25​
Sum = 20+20+14+60+48​
Sum = 40+14+108​
Sum = 54+108=162.​
Answer: 162.

Works cited

1.​ Greatest common divisor - Wikipedia, accessed on July 30, 2025,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_common_divisor
2.​ HCF / GCD and LCM - Definition, Formula, Full Form, Examples - GeeksforGeeks,
accessed on July 30, 2025, https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/maths/hcf-and-lcm/
3.​ byjus.com, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://byjus.com/maths/hcf-and-lcm/#:~:text=The%20H.C.F.,called%20the%20Le
ast%20Common%20Divisor.
4.​ Euclidean algorithm - Wikipedia, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_algorithm
5.​ We know that the factors of a number are exact divisors of that particular
number. Let's proceed to the highest common factor (HCF) and the least
common multiple (LCM). - BYJU'S, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://byjus.com/maths/hcf-and-lcm/
6.​ Least common multiple - Art of Problem Solving, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://artofproblemsolving.com/wiki/index.php/Least_common_multiple
7.​ Alternate proof for GCD × LCM = product [duplicate] - Math Stack Exchange,
accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/2406406/alternate-proof-for-gcd-%
C3%97-lcm-product
8.​ Difference between GCD and LCM - GeeksforGeeks, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/dsa/difference-between-gcd-and-lcm/
9.​ Mastering GCD And LCM For Problem Solving Excellence - Number Analytics,
accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/mastering-gcd-lcm-problem-solving
10.​The Euclidean Algorithm (article) - Khan Academy, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://www.khanacademy.org/computing/computer-science/cryptography/moda
rithmetic/a/the-euclidean-algorithm
11.​ Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) - BYJU'S, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://byjus.com/maths/greatest-common-divisor/
12.​Euclidean algorithms (Basic and Extended) - GeeksforGeeks, accessed on July
30, 2025,
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/dsa/euclidean-algorithms-basic-and-extended/
13.​Prime Numbers, GCD, LCM and Euclidean Algorithm - School of Mathematical
and Statistical Sciences, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://math.asu.edu/sites/g/files/litvpz216/files/2024-09/12.Euclidean_Algorithm.p
df
14.​Properties of GCD and LCM - Interactive Mathematics Miscellany and Puzzles,
accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://www.cut-the-knot.org/arithmetic/GcdLcmProperties.shtml
15.​GCD and LCM: a very interesting relationship! - keenonmaths.org, accessed on
July 30, 2025, https://keenonmaths.org/mcmvsmcd-2/
16.​Prove that gcd(M,N)⋅lcm(M,N)=M⋅N. - Math Stack Exchange, accessed on July 30,
2025,
https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/470807/prove-that-gcdm-n-cdot-mb
oxlcmm-n-m-cdot-n
17.​GCD and LCM of fractions (video) - Khan Academy, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/soe-math/x970d5d5fa74670ec:hcf-and-lcm/
 x970d5d5fa74670ec:liftoff-soe-math-unit-1-lesson-6/v/gcd-and-lcm-of-fractions
18.​elementary number theory - GCD and LCM of fractions - Mathematics Stack
Exchange, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/44836/gcd-and-lcm-of-fractions
19.​LCM Questions with Solutions - BYJU'S, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://byjus.com/maths/lcm-questions/
20.​GCD & LCM: Key Concepts and Real-World Applications - Number Analytics,
accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/gcd-lcm-key-concepts-real-world
21.​HCF and LCM Problems (Advanced) - Hitbullseye, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://www.hitbullseye.com/Problems-on-H.C.F-and-L.C.M.php
22.​Word Problems Involving Greatest Common Factor ... - Project Maths, accessed
on July 30, 2025,
https://www.projectmaths.ie/documents/LearnCalculators/Casio/HCFAndLCMWo
rdProblems.pdf
23.​Name Date GCF and LCM Word Problems Solve each word ..., accessed on July
30, 2025,
https://sac.edu/StudentServices/EOPS/Documents/Math%20Study%20Guide%20
3%20-%20GCF%20and%20LCM.pdf
24.​Greatest Common Factor/Least Common Multiple Word Problems 1 ..., accessed
on July 30, 2025,
https://trinitycatholicacademy.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Grade-7-Day-4-
Math.pdf
25.​HCF and LCM - Solved Questions and Answers - GeeksforGeeks, accessed on
July 30, 2025,
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/aptitude/hcf-and-lcm-aptitude-questions/
26.​Typical problems on HCF and LCM | GCD and LCM Problems & Solutions - All
Math Tricks, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://www.allmathtricks.com/gcd-hcf-lcm-problems/
27.​HCF and LCM Questions with Stepwise Solutions and Answers - Vedantu,
accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://www.vedantu.com/maths/hcf-and-lcm-questions
28.​HCF and LCM Problems (Basic) - Hitbullseye, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://www.hitbullseye.com/HCF-and-LCM-Questions.php
29.​LCM and HCF MCQ [Free PDF] - Objective Question Answer for ..., accessed on
July 30, 2025,
https://testbook.com/objective-questions/mcq-on-lcm-and-hcf--5eea6a103914
0f30f369e847
30.​Number Theory I - Mathematik-Olympiade, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://mathematical.olympiad.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/Archiv/Intranet/Olympiad
s/Mathematics/deploy/scripts/number-theory/number-theory-1/script/number-th
eory-1_script_en.pdf
31.​Russia 1995 Number Theory - Art of Problem Solving, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://artofproblemsolving.com/community/c2113h1027245_russia_1995_number
_theory
32.​The 69th William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition ..., accessed on July
30, 2025, https://math.hawaii.edu/home/pdf/putnam/Putnam_2008.pdf
33.​AoPS Community 2017 CMIMC Number Theory, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://artofproblemsolving.com/downloads/printable_post_collections/400595
34.​elementary number theory - GCD and LCM trouble - Mathematics Stack
Exchange, accessed on July 30, 2025,
https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/1539579/gcd-and-lcm-trouble