Chapter 2

Mathematical Language and Symbols

CORE IDEA: Like any language, mathematics has its own symbols, syntax, and rules.
Language facilitates communication by understanding and conveying information and intended
meaning. In Mathematics, the language for communication makes use of symbols and words
which should be understood and spoken by every learning individual. It is primarily designed to
facilitate the process of deduction by utilizing its elements (symbols) and making use of rules
and syntax to arrange the symbols into meaningful statements.

Chapter 2.1: The Language of Mathematics

The Mathematical language is conceived to write or discuss about things such as numbers, sets,
functions, operations, etc. It makes use of symbols which characterize the language’s precision
since symbols allow shorthand writing. Mathematical symbols can be:
 Digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
 Operations: +, -, x, ÷
 Symbols that “stand in” for values (also known as variables): x, y, z, …
 Special symbols: =, <, >, ≤, ≥, π, ∑, % …
In understanding the mathematical symbols, context (specific topic being studied or considered)
and convention (where the particular symbols will make sense or have particular meaning) will
have to be taken into account. Looking at some of the symbols commonly used in mathematical
operations:
 The symbol +
Words associated with this symbol are: plus, add, increase, positive. Depending on the
context, the symbol will have its particular meaning.

Example
1+2 Adding two numbers together
Indicates a positive number which is
+2
greater than zero
+639 in a mobile
Refers to a dialing number
number

 The symbol –
Words associated with this symbol are: minus, subtract, decrease, deduct, negative.
Depending on the context, the symbol will have its particular meaning.
 Example
10 - 2 Subtracting two numbers
Indicates a negative number which is
-2
less than zero
Refers to a temperature, two degrees
-2°C
below zero

 The = sign and its variants

Although frequently used, these symbols do not express meaning on their own. Hence,
there should be a context.
Example
Left hand side is equal to the right hand
2+3=5
side
Left hand side is not equal to the right
2+3≠4
hand side
Left hand side is greater than the right
2+3>4
hand side

 Variables
These are symbols used to represent quantities that vary or take different values. For
example, as a car moves along the highway at different speeds, the speed can be
represented by variable, s, while the travel time can be represented by variable, t.
Subscript can be added to further define the variable. To refer to the different travel
times the car took in the morning, afternoon, and evening rides, the variables, tm, ta, te can
be used, respectively.
As such, understanding where the symbol is used is critical in the use of mathematical language.
Below are some more examples.

Symbol Meaning Example

+ add 3+7 = 10
− subtract 5−2 = 3
× multiply 4×3 = 12
÷ divide 20÷5 = 4
/ divide 20/5 = 4
multiply (as "×" can look like
4·3 = 12
"x")
 () grouping symbols 2(a − 3)

[] grouping symbols 2[ a−3(b+c) ]

{} set symbols {1,2,3}
π pi A = πr2
∞ infinity ∞ is endless
= equals 1+1 = 2

approximately equal to π 3.14

≠ not equal to π≠2
<≤ less than, less than or equal to 2<3
greater than, greater than or
>≥ 5>1
equal to

square root ("radical") √4 = 2

cube root
° degrees 20°

therefore a=b b=a

! factorial 4! = 4 x 3 x 2 x1 = 24
implies (if ... then) a and b are odd a+b is even
"if and only if" or iff or "is
x=y+1 y=x−1
equivalent to"

% a number or ratio as a fraction of

5%
100; part in every hundred

Below illustrative examples further explain the use and meaning of symbols in the mathematical
language.

Illustrative Examples:
1)
Meaning: The difference of 7 and 3 (left hand side) is less than the difference of 30 and
20 (right hand side).
2)
Meaning: The nth root of variable, , is equal to 1.
3)
Meaning: The value of constant, , is approximately equal to 3.14.
Practice Exercises 2.1 :
Name: ______________________________________________ Score:_____________
Section: _____________________________________________ Date:______________

A. Understanding the mathematical language:

1) x
Meaning: _______________________________________________________________
2)
Meaning: _______________________________________________________________
3)
Meaning: _______________________________________________________________
4)
Meaning: _______________________________________________________________
5)
Meaning: _______________________________________________________________

B. True or False:

6) ____________

7) ___________

8) The temperature -1°C is below zero. _____________

9) The symbol in the expression, , denotes division. _____________

10) In , are used as set symbols._______________

Chapter 2.2: Expressions vs. Sentences
Just like every language, the mathematical language has its own words and rules for arranging
these words to make meaningful meanings. While the English language has several words to
represent nouns, verbs, or pronouns, the mathematical language also has its own symbols serving
the same purpose.
Examples
Definition
English Language Mathematical Language
a word used to identify Expressions: numbers,
Noun any of a class of people, Girl, apple, book, Bataan sets, functions
places, or things 19, 2 (3/4), 33, 2+3
any of a small set of
words in a language that
are used as substitutes
for nouns or noun Variables:
Pronoun It, he, she, you
phrases and whose x, y, z
referents are named or
understood in the
context
a word used to describe
an action, state, or Equal sign and its
Verb occurrence, and forming Walk, jump, sleep variants:
the main part of the
predicate of a sentence

In the mathematical language, nouns and pronouns refer to expressions which serve as the
subject of a sentence. By definition, expression is a correct arrangement of mathematical
symbols used to represent a mathematical object of interest. However, expressions do not
express a complete thought and are only parts of a mathematical sentence.
Examples of expression:
 2–3
 xy + yz
 1+2+3+4+5

 (4 – a) (4 + a)

To make meanings out of expressions, verbs are combined with the nouns and pronouns to make
a sentence, just like in the English language. Verbs serve as predicate which describes the
subject.
Examples of a sentence:
  1+4=5
 1+4<2+4
 1+4>2
 1+4≠0

Sentences have a notion of truth which is of fundamental importance in the mathematical

language. They can be always true, always false, or sometimes true/ sometimes false.
 Closed sentence: a sentence that is always true or always false
 Open sentence: a sentence that is not known if true or false, that is, can be either true or
false

Illustrative Examples:
1) Is an expression or a sentence?
Answer: Expression
Explanation: There is no complete thought; nothing explains what the expressions means
to conclude whether it is a true or a false sentence. The given is a
mathematical object of interest (subject) but there is no other symbol (verb
or predicate) to describe the subject.
2) Determine the ‘verb’ in the mathematical sentence, .
Answer: the symbol =
Explanation: The symbol = gives the complete thought for the given symbols. It
describes the expression, and relates this to the right-hand side by the equal
sign.
3) Is the sentence, , closed or open?
Answer: Open sentence
Explanation: Since there is no specific value defining the variable, , it is not known
whether the sentence is true or not.
4) What value/s of will make the sentence, , true?
Answer: -2
Solution: Solving algebraically:
Practice Exercises 2.2 :

A. Identify the verbs in the following sentences.

___________1)
___________2)
___________3)
B. True or False:

___________4) (6 – 2) + 0.4 is an expression.

___________5) The sentence, , is true.

___________6) The sentence, , can be true if .

___________7) In the sentence, , is the subject.

C. Determine if the sentence is closed or open. If closed, state whether the sentence is
always true or always false. If open, identify the expression that will make the sentence
always true.
___________8)

___________9)

__________10)
Chapter 2.3: Concepts of Function
A function is a relation that uniquely assigns or associates elements of one set with the elements
of another set. For example, suppose five buses in the city are assigned to different routes {A, B,
C, D, E}, such that:
SET A (Bus) SET B (Route)
Bus 1 A
Bus 2 B
Bus 3 C
Bus 4 D
Bus 5 E

The assignment illustrated above is an example of a function wherein the relation can either be
many-to-one or one-to-one. As such, given two non-empty sets A and B, a function from A to B
(written as ) is an assignment of exactly one element of B to each element of A. The function can
be written as if is the unique element of B assigned by the function to the element of A.
Functions can be written or illustrated in different ways. The above figure is one of the explicit
ways of showing assignments or associations. Commonly, a formula such as is also being used
to define a function. Or, it can also be shown as an ordered pair where and the function from A
to B is In this case, we can say that A is the domain of while B is the codomain of . Also, we
can state that is the image or range of as it belongs to the set of all images of elements of A.
Referring to the above figure, let be the function that assigns routes to the city buses. For
instance, . Note that the domain for this function is the set , and the codomain is the set .
Meanwhile, the range of is the set since each route, except , is assigned to some buses.
One-to-One and Onto Functions
There are different types of correspondences as shown below.

First, let us see which types of correspondence are considered functions and which are not. As
mentioned in the previous section, a function is a relation which can be many-to-one or one-to-
one. Note also that each value in the first set must be associated with exactly one value in the
second set. Letter e in the above figure does not satisfy this relation as element from the first set
is associated with two elements, , in the second set. Using ordered pairs as an example:
 is a function since the first components {-1, 0, 2, -2} are associated with exactly one
value in the second set.
 is not a function since the first component, 2, is associated with two elements, 4 and -4.
Meanwhile, functions are said to be one-to-one or an injunction if and only if whenever .
Letters a and c in the above figure are one-to-one functions.
On the other hand, functions are considered onto or a surjection if and only if for every element
, there corresponds an element with Letters b and c in the above figure are examples of onto
functions.
If the function is both one-to-one and onto, then it is considered a one-to-one correspondence or
a bijection.

Illustrative Examples
1) Let G be the relation with ordered pairs (Ana, 85), (Ben, 90), (Kay, 80), (Nick, 91) . Each
ordered pair consists of a grade school student and the student’s grade in Mathematics.
Specify the functions and determine the domain, codomain and range.

Functions: , , ,
Domain: the set of students
Codomain: Since we are looking at the students’ grades, the codomain shall be
positive integers less than or equal to 100.
Range:

2) Determine whether the function is one-to-one.

Answer: Following the definition, this is not one-to-one since but .

3) Determine whether the function from the set of integers is onto.

Answer: Following the definition, this is not an onto function since not all integers
correspond to the function. For instance, cannot be equal to -1 or to any negative number.

4) Determine whether the function from to with , , and is a bijection.

Answer: Following the definition, this is a one-to-one function since no two values in the
domain are associated with the same function value. Also, this is an onto function since
all elements of the codomain are images of the elements of the domain. Hence, the
function is a bijection.
More on Functions
Evaluating Functions
This is the process of determining the value of the function at the number assigned to a given
variable. For example, given , the function can be evaluated for or or by simply substituting the
value of the number to the variable in the given function.
Operations on Functions
If and are functions, then:




Composite Functions
If and are functions, then the composite function denoted by . Note that the domain of is the
set of all numbers in the domain of , such that is in the domain of .

Illustrative Examples:
5) Let . Find and .

Solving for

Solving for

6) Let and . Perform the four operations on functions.

Solving for :
 Solving for :

Solving for

Solving for :

7) Let and . Find and evaluate

Solving for :

Solving for :
Practice Exercises 2.3

A. Answer the following:

1) Find the domain and range for the function .

2) Given the set of ordered pairs , determine whether this is a function.

3) Determine whether the function from to with , , and is one-to-one.

4) Determine whether the function is one-to-one.

5) Determine whether the function from the set of integers is a bijection.

B. For the given function, , and , find the following:

6)

7)
 8)

9)

10)

Chapter 2.4: Some Fundamentals of Logic

Described as the science of correct reasoning, logic is critical in effective communication,
construction of valid arguments, and making decisions.
The mathematician George Boole contributed to the advancement of symbolic logic as a
mathematical discipline, with application on logical statements. By statement, we mean
declarative sentence that has a notion of truth, that is, can either be true or false, but not both true
and false. As such, a statement can neither be a question nor a command. Nonetheless, it can be a
simple statement conveying a single idea, or a compound statement delivering two or more
ideas.
To connect simple statements, words or phrases such as and, or, if, then, if and only if, are used.
Boole, in his symbolic logic, used symbols like p, q, r and s to represent simple statements and
connective symbols such as . Below table summarizes these common symbols and their
respective meanings.
Logic connectives and symbols
Statement Connective Symbol Type of statement
not p not p negation
p and q and pq conjunction
p or q or pq disjunction
If p, then q If… then pq conditional
p if and only if q if and only if pq biconditional

In the above table, note that the conjunction pq is true if and only if both p and q are true. On the
other hand, the disjunction pq is true if and only if p is true, q is true, or both p and q are true.
In cases of more complex compound statements, grouping symbols are used. If written in
English sentence, comma in place of grouping symbols is used to identify which simple
statements are grouped together.
Symbolic form English sentence Indicates that:
p( q r) p, and q or not r q and r are grouped together
(p q) r not p and q, or r p and q are grouped together
(p q) (r s) If p and q, then r or s p and q are grouped together,
as well as r and s

Illustrative Examples
To understand the use of symbols in logic, consider the following simple statements.
p: Today is Monday.
q: I feel sick.
r: I need to go to work.
s: I am not going to the doctor.
The following compound statements can be written in symbolic form.
1) Today is Monday and I need to go to work.
Symbol: pr
2) I don’t feel sick and I am not going to the doctor.
Symbol: qs
3) If I feel sick, then I am going to the doctor.
Symbol: qs
4) If today is Monday and I don’t feel sick, then I am not going to the doctor.
Symbol: (pq) s
Symbolic forms can also be written as English sentence.
5) s(p q)
English sentence: I am going to the doctor if and only if today is not Monday and I feel
sick.
6) (q) s
English sentence: If I feel sick and I need to go to work, then I am not going to the
doctor.

Truth Tables
In logic, truth value and truth table are also common terms that will be encountered. For a
simple statement, the truth value is either true (T) or false (F). For a compound statement, the
truth value depends on its simple statements and connectives. A truth table can be used to show
the truth value of a compound statement given all possible truth values of its simple statements.
 Truth Table for Negation
p p
T F
F T

Truth Table for Conjunction

p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Truth Table for Disjunction
p q pq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

How to construct truth tables for a statement that involves a combination of conjunctions,
disjunctions, and/or negations will be shown in below illustrative examples.
Illustrative Examples
Construct a truth table for p[(p q)].
7) Use the first method.
 The given statement has two simple statements p and q. The number of rows
should be 22 = 4. Start with the standard truth table form and then include a p
column.
p q p
T T F
T F F
F T T
F F T

 Use the truth values from the p and q columns to produce the truth values for p q.
p q p pq
T T F T
T F F F
F T T F
F F T F

 Negate the truth values in the p q column.

p q p pq (p q)
T T F T F
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T

 Use the truth values from the p and (p q) column to produce the truth values for
p[(p q)].

p q p pq (p q) p[(p q)]
T T F T F F
T F F F T T
F T T F T T
F F T F T T

From the above truth table, we see that p[(p q)] is false only when both p and q are true.

8) Use the alternative method.

o The given statement has two simple statements p and q. The number of
rows should be 22 = 4. Enter in each column the symbols. Enter the truth
values for p, q and p in the respective columns.
p q p [ (p q)]
T T F T T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T F F

 Enter the truth values for the innermost statement, that is p q.

p q p [ (p q)]
T T F T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F F T
F F T F F F

 Negate p q referring to the last completed column .

p q p [ (p q)]
T T F F T T T
T F F T T F F
F T T T F F T
 F F T T F F F

 Enter the truth values for p[(p q)].

p q p [ (p q)]
T T F F F T T T
T F F T T T F F
F T T T T F F T
F F T T T F F F
From the above truth table, we see that p[(p q)] is false only when both p and q are true.
The same result is achieved as in the first method.

Practice Exercises 2.4

Given below statements:

p: The tour goes to China.

q: The tour goes to Singapore.

r: We go to Thailand.

s: We go to Hongkong.

t: The hotel fees are included.

u: The meals are not included.

1) Write pt as an English sentence.

2) Write (ts) q in as an English sentence.
3) Write the symbolic form of, “We go to Thailand or Hongkong if and only if the hotel fees
are included and the meals are included.”
4) Write the symbolic form of, “If the meals are included, then the tour goes to China and
Singapore.”

Truth Tables

5) Determine whether p q and (pq) are equivalent statements.

 6) Based on the truth table of (pq) in Item 5, which statements will give a truth value of T?
7) Construct a truth table for p q) r.
8) Based on Item 7, how many cases will give a truth value of T for p q) r ? What is/ are
this/ these cases?
9) If r is not negated in Item 7, how many cases will give a truth value of T for p q) r? What
is/ are this/ these cases?
10) If disjunction with r is used in Item 7 such that p q) r, how will the truth values be
different from those of the original statement?

References:
1. Aufmann, R. et al (2013) Mathematical Excursions, Brooks/ Cole Cengage Learning, 3rd
Edition, USA.
2. Burns, C (2018) Expressions versus Sentences
http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/algebra_book/online_problems/exp_vs_sen.htm
[accessed 29 July 2018]
3. Math is Fun: The Language of Mathematics. https://www.mathsisfun.com/mathematics-
language.html, [accessed 28 July 2018]
4. Math Centre 2003: Mathematical Language.
http://www.mash.dept.shef.ac.uk/Resources/web-mathlanguage.pdf, [accessed 28 July 2018]
5. Math is Fun: Mathematical Symbols. https://www.mathsisfun.com/symbols.html, [accessed
28 July 2018]
6. Math is Fun: Symbols in Algebra. https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/symbols.html,
[accessed 28 July 2018]
7. Math is Fun: Open Sentences. https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/open-sentences.html
[accessed 29 July 2018]
8. Rosen, K (2012) Discrete Mathematics and its Applications. Monmouth University, 7th
Edition, McGraw Hill, NewYork, USA.