RESEARCH TOPIC:

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE NEW CRIMINAL LAWS AND

THEIR IMPACT ON HUMAN RIGHTS IN INDIA

Abstract
The topic of my research is Critical anyalysis of the new criminal laws and its
impact on the human rights in India. The Bhartiya Nyaya Sanhita,The Bhariya
Nagrik Surakhsha Sanhita and the Bhariya Sakshya adhiniyam have received
mixed responses from the legal and political fraternity.Asection of the legal
areans belivesn it to be a much needed reform in the criminal justice sstem of
india,whereas the other section has been open to express its displeasure over the
new criminal laws.The objectives of the research is to understand the newly
introduced criminal laws as well as scrutinize their impact on the human rights
in India.The research was conducted by means of doctrinal type of research
which involved a thorough and detailed study of the legal provisions,arguments,
sections and other legal literature before arriving at a conclusion. This research
paper gives a detailed overview of the new criminal laws ,the early criminal
laws,challeges faced in their implementation and enforcement,along with a
comprehensive analysis of the impact of the new laws on the human rights in
India.
 INTRODUCTION

In recent years, India has witnessed a wave of new criminal legislation aimed at
addressing various aspects of crime and justice in the country. While these laws
are designed to strengthen the legal framework and enhance public safety, they
have also sparked significant debate regarding their implications for human
rights. This research paper provides a critical analysis of the recent criminal
laws enacted in India, examining their potential impact on fundamental human
rights. Through a detailed exploration of legislative changes, judicial
interpretations, and real-world applications, this study aims to shed light on how
these new legal measures balance the objectives of justice and security with the
imperative to uphold individual freedoms and rights. By scrutinizing these
developments, the paper seeks to contribute to a nuanced understanding of the
evolving legal landscape in India and its broader implications for human rights
OVERVIEW OF THE NEW CRIMINAL LAWS

Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023

New criminal law Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita of 2023 is an endeavour to redefine and
redirect the code and has replaced the erstwhile Indian Penal Code, 1860. Through
amending, repealing and adding sections this law aims to take a nuanced
approach towards offenses by imposing penalties on actions that pose a threat to the
sovereignty, unity and integrity of India. Additionally, it tackles challenges like
terrorism, organized crime, by differentiating between serious and minor offenses and
imposing strict punishments for serious offenses. The idea of ‘Community Service’, as
a penalty for crimes is now being implemented under the law focusing on a more
rehabilitative approach to justice. The recent legislation has added “snatching” as an
offense, under Section 304 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita.

Bharatiya Nagrik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023

The Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 aims to refine our Criminal
procedure system. By setting timelines for investigations it intends to ensure
that justice is more accessible and responsive to the needs of the people. In this
new criminal law one notable change can be seen in Section 176 of the Act,
which mandates investigation for crimes carrying a punishment of seven (7)
years imprisonment or more. This means that appointed experts will be involved
in conducting on site investigations. Additionally, Section 173 of the Bharatiya
Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita embraces the new digital age by allowing digital
methods for trials, inquiries and proceedings. This shift toward documentation
and proceedings aligns with advancements in technology and helps streamline
legal processes. One revolutionary concept is the implementation of Zero FIRs.
According to Section 173 of the Act, individuals have the right to file a First
Information Report (FIR) at any police station, for a cognizable offense
regardless of its jurisdiction. It states that the FIR must be transferred to the
police station, for handling crimes committed in that particular area within a
span of 15 days. Crime and Criminal tracking system will be used for benefit of
the public.

Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023

The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam has replaced the Indian Evidence Act of
1872 resulting in alterations to the structure of Evidence Law. In today’s
environment, where technology holds great importance, this new criminal law
acknowledges electronic evidence, as any information produced or transmitted
by a device or system that can store or recover data. Section 57 of the Bharatiya
Sakshya Adhiniyam emphasizes the recognition of electronic records as primary
evidence. Moreover, the Act includes provisions that enable the electronic
presentation of even oral evidence. This advancement makes it possible for
witnesses to testify remotely ensuring that digital records hold the same
significance as traditional paper documents. Section 24 of the Act, expands on
the idea of joint trials.i

OBJECTIVES OF THE NEW CRIMINAL LAWS.

The foremost objective behind introducing the new criminal laws is to do away
with the legacy of the British era and introduce laws which are more aligned
with the evolving nature of crime. New crimes need new laws and the colonial
criminal laws had noticiable lacunaes as the did not contain provisions relating
to the evolving nature of crime in the 21st century. Section 124 A of the
IPC,which mentions sedition has been widely misused and use to curb voices of
political dissent.The provisions of the old criminal laws has led to pendency and
delay in the disposal of cases leading to the cluttering of the criminal justice
system.The reforms are also essential as there low conviction rates taking place
under the old criminal laws.The number of crimes did not drop while the
prisons were overcrowded under the colonial introduced criminal justice
system.Along with all these loopholes in the earlier criminal laws,the previous
laws also fail to understand the root cause behind the crimes which take place
In the society.For instance,a small boy is stealing a loaf of bread from a
shop,we will immediately condemn the act of the boy,but we will not try to
search the reason for the committal of such an act.Are we failing as a society or
as a law agency or humans? For all the above mentioned reasons it was quite
necessary to overhaul the old laws for the proper functioning of the society.

 Colonial Legacy: The three proposed bills seek to modernise

and streamline the complex and obsolete criminal law.
o The changes will reflect the evolving nature of crime,
society, and technology, as well as bring the laws closer to
the spirit and ethos of India.
o Section 124A is a relic of colonial legacy which is unsuited
in a democracy as it puts restraint on the legitimate
exercise of constitutionally guaranteed freedom of speech
and expression.
 Misuse of Sedition Law: Sedition (Section 124A) under Indian
Penal Code has been misused to persecute political dissent.
o As per the data released by the National Crime Records
Bureau, between 2014 and 2016, a total of 179 arrests for
sedition have been made under the title ‘offences against
the State’ .
 Pendency and Delay: The existing complex procedures of IPC,
CrPC, and Indian Evidence Act have contributed to substantial
court backlogs and delayed justice delivery.
o As of December 31, 2022, the total pending cases in
district and subordinate courts was pegged at over 4.32
crore.
  Low Conviction Rates: The prevailing legal framework has
resulted in a low conviction rate, highlighting the need for
reforms to enhance the efficacy of criminal proceedings.
o According to the NCRB report 2022, on an all-India basis,
the total conviction rate for IPC crimes stood at 57%.
 Overcrowded Prisons and Undertrials: The present system
has led to overcrowded jails and a significant number of
undertrial prisoners awaiting their trials.

o According to a report on prison statistics for

2019 released by NCRB, there were 4,78,600 inmates
lodged in different prisons in India while they had a
capacity to 4,03,700 inmates.ii

LEGAL FRAMEWORK:

OVERVIEW OF THE EARLY CRIMINAL LAWS :

The early criminal laws Indian Penal Code,1860,The Code of Criminal

Procedure,1898,and the Indian Evidence act,1872,were introduced during
the colonial time to give a comprehensive legal framework defining crimes
and their punishments.Anything that was outside the scope of these laws
was not a crime and hence not punishable.

In his recent speech,Dy Chandrachud mentioned the necessity for

evolving the criminal justice system which aligned more strongly with the
changing nature of crimes in society.

“There were two problems to harm linked approach to criminal

jurisprudence.The first was that It is not a victim centric oriented
approach.The impact of the harm on the victim is not considered.Victims
of crime often feel like their agency over their own decisions is lost by the
commission of a crime.Our laws therefore have to aim to give victims a
sense of agency and control in the criminal process as well as a sense of
justice .

The second problem with the juristic foundation of our earlier laws was in
regard to the harm and immorality approach snd that is what advances a
perpetrator’s perspective to crime which views crime as a individual
failing.It does not address systematic causes which push people to
commit crimes,for example a law addressing gender violence will rightly
condemn such violence as immoral and punish it,but it does little to
change the sexist and patriarchal approach and framework of our society
shich induces the commission of crimes”iii

The IPC, CrPC, and Evidence Act were enacted during the
British colonial administration, and designed to serve
colonial imperatives. The IPC, drafted in 1860 by Lord
Macaulay who was the first law member of the Governor
General's Council, has been the cornerstone of India's
criminal law, defining offences and prescribing penalties.
As a member of the first Law Commission of India
established by the British government, he was given the
task of drafting the Indian Penal Code in the aftermath of
the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857.
The CrPC, originally enacted in 1898 and revised in 1973,
provides the procedural framework for criminal trials.
Though a new Code was written in 1973, most of the
provisions from the 1898 one still remain.
The Indian Evidence Act, introduced in 1872, governs the
admissibility of evidence in judicial proceedings.
Notwithstanding numerous amendments, these laws have
frequently been criticized for being outdated, rigid, and
misaligned with the modern Indian socio-legal landscape.
This law has undergone numerous changes through
iv
amendments and judicial decisions to meet the necessity
of modern complex pieces of evidence and forensics. v

KEY FEATURES OF THE NEW CRIMINAL LAWS :

Bhartiya NYAYA SANHITA:
1)Promise to marry-Criminalising deceitful promises to
marry
2)Mob lynching -Codify offences linked to mob lynching and
hate crime murders.
3)Ordinary criminal law now covers organized xrime and
terrorism including a broader scope for terror financing in
BNS compared to UAPA
4)Attempt to suicide-Criminalises attempt to commit
suicide with t=intent to compel or restrain any public
servant from discharging official duty
5)Community serviceadded as possible form of punishment
BHARTIYA NAGRIK SURAKSHA SANHITA (BNSS):
1)Hierarchy of courts:Eliminated distinction and role of
metropolitan magistrates
2)Mandated use of electronic mode:At stages of
investigation,inquiry,and trial
3)Dention of undertrails:Restriction on release on personal
bond for accused persons
a) Charged with life imprisonment or ;
b) facing multiple proceedings.
4)Alternative to arrest:An accused doesn’t have to be
arrested ;instead,the police can take a security bond for
their appearance before a judicial magistrate
5)Community service defined: “work which the court may
order a convict to perform as a form of punishment that
benefits the community ,for which he shall not be entitled
to any remuneration”.
Bhartiya SAKSHYA ADHINIYAM
1)Electronic records hold equivalent legal status to
traditional paper documents
 Electronic records encompassing data stored in
memory and communication devices
2)Allows oral evidence to be given electronically
  Electronic records are characterised as secondary
evidence
3)A joint trial means more than one person for the same
crime.
 A trial of multiple persons,where an accused has not
responded to an arrest warrant,will be treated as a
joint trail.vi

IMPACT OF BNSS ON ARTICLE 21:

Article 21 of the constitution of India states that no person shall be deprived of
personal liberty except according to procedure established by law. Article 21
asserts that no person shall be deprived of their life except
according to the procedure established by law. This means that
every individual has the right to live, and their life cannot be taken
away except in accordance with the prescribed legal procedures.
The right to life encompasses various aspects, including the right to
live with dignity, the right to livelihood, and the right to a healthy
environment. Personal liberty includes the freedom to move freely,
the freedom to choose one's place of residence, and the freedom to
engage in any lawful occupation or profession. On one hand,the
impact of the BNSS on article 21 of the constitution can be
perceived positively as it includes several features such as
streamlining the process of filing of FIR,using e-filing to cut the
bureaucratic red tape and ensure easy access to justice,whereas on
the other hand,BNSS is also viewed to go against Article 21 of the
constitution as one of the provision in the BNSS ,which talks about
extended police custody has been seen to be non-aligning with
article 21 of the constitution ,which gurantees right to life and
personal liberty.vii

 Extended Police Custody Beyond 15 Days: Under the CrPC,

police custody was limited to 15 days. However, the BNSS appears
to allow police custody to be extended beyond this period, up to 60
or 90 days, depending on the severity of the offense. This change
can potentially lead to prolonged periods of police custody, raising
concerns about the increased risk of custodial violence and torture.
 Violation of Article 21 Rights: Article 21 of the Indian
Constitution guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, which
 includes protection against torture and cruel or inhuman treatment.
The extended period of police custody under the BNSS could
infringe upon these rights, as it subjects the accused to prolonged
exposure to police control, which can be mentally and physically
debilitating.
 Comparison with Other Harsh Statutes: Even under stringent
laws like the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), police
custody is capped at 30 days. The BNSS, a general criminal law
allowing up to 90 days of police custody, is seen as excessively
harsh in comparison. This discrepancy highlights the potential
overreach and the severe implications for the accused.
 Judicial Oversight and Safeguards: The CrPC mandated that any
extension of custody beyond 15 days be judicial custody, thereby
protecting against police excesses. The BNSS’s omission of this
safeguard means that magistrates can authorize extended police
custody without the same level of judicial oversight, potentially
leading to abuse of power.
 Impact on Fair Trial Rights: Prolonged police custody can
adversely affect the accused’s fair trial rights. It can lead to coerced
confessions, hinder the accused’s ability to prepare a defense and
impact their mental and physical health. These factors collectively
undermine the principle of a fair trial, a cornerstone of the criminal
justice system.
 Constitutional and Human Rights Concerns: The Supreme
Court of India, in cases like D.K. Basu v. State of West Bengal, has
emphasized that Article 21 includes the right to live with dignity and
protection against torture by state functionaries. The BNSS’s
provisions for extended police custody seem to contradict these
judicial pronouncements, raising significant constitutional and
human rights concerns.viii

The BNSS is meticulously designed to simplify and expedite criminal

procedures, thereby aligning with Article 21 of the Indian Constitution,
which guarantees the right to a speedy trial. The key features of the BNSS
include streamlining the process of filing First Information Reports
(FIRs) to enhance accessibility and reduce bureaucratic red tape. By
prioritizing the use of digital records, online filing, and virtual hearings,
the BNSS aims to mitigate delays and enhance transparency, thereby
upholding the constitutional value of efficiency in the administration of
justice. Additionally, the BNSS enhances protection for victims, ensuring
timely compensation and support services, and promoting a victim-
centric approach. This victim-centric perspective aligns with the
constitutional principles of justice and equality, ensuring that the rights of
victims are adequately safeguarded.
 CHALLENGES:
CHALLENGES

The introduction of the 3 criminal laws comes with its own baggage of challenges such as addressing
the issue of digital divide,resistance to adopt to the new version of criminal laws as well as the
requisite infrastructure for effective implementation.If these and a few other challenges are
addressed,it will truly become reflective of the needs of today’s society.

The new laws face formidable challenges. Effective

implementation necessitates substantial investment in
infrastructure, technology, and training. Ensuring
uniform application across India’s diverse and
resource-constrained jurisdictions will be challenging.
The emphasis on technology may exacerbate the
digital divide, particularly affecting marginalized and
rural populations. Ensuring digital literacy and access
is critical. The judiciary’s capacity to adapt to new
laws and procedures is crucial. This includes training
judges and legal professionals to comprehend and
apply the new provisions effectively. Increased use of
digital evidence and technology in law enforcement
raises concerns about data privacy and potential
misuse of personal information. Robust safeguards
must be in place. Institutional inertia and resistance to
change within law enforcement and judicial bodies
could hinder effective implementation. Overcoming
this requires comprehensive change management
strategies.
The enactment of the BNSS, BNS, and BSA marks a
significant milestone in the evolution of India’s criminal
justice system. These reforms have the potential to
address long-standing issues of delay, inefficiency, and
outdated legal provisions, aligning the system with
contemporary needs and principles of justice. However,
their success depends on effective implementation,
addressing challenges such as the digital divide and
resistance to change, and ensuring the judiciary and law
enforcement are equipped to adapt to the new framework.ix
I am objecting to the manner in which these new laws
were drafted..if you are revising the Indian Penal Code
which is of 1860 and the Indian Evidence Act which is of
the year 1872,CrPC which is of 1973,you should have sent
it to the law commission.The law commission is for the only
purpose of advising the government how to revise laws.If
you are contemplating a complete overhaul of the law,you
should have sent it to the law commission”-
P.Chidambaram.x

ENFORCEMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGES:

The implementation and enforcement of the new criminal laws face major
challenges.Some of the prominent challenges are the coordination between the
agencies for effective implementation,the infrastructure and technology needed
as well as assessing the impact of the new criminal laws on different sections of
the society.Enforcement will also face certain hurdles as there will be an
increased burden on the judiciary along with a paucity in the resources.The laws
will require further clarity and unambiguity as they were passed without giving
sufficient time for their scrutiny.

The implementation of the new criminal laws ,Bhartiya Nyaya Sanhita,the

Bhartiya Nagrik Suraksha Sanhita,and the Bhartiya Sakshya Adhiniyam,which
have replaced the Indian Penal Code,the Criminal Procedure Code and the Indian
Evidence Act-is a historic milestone in India’s justice system.There was
consensus that many of the laws ,some in existence for more than a
century,needed change.

However,a strong view posits that the government made a total overhaul where
amendments to individual laws would have been sufficient.Consultation with
states and other stakeholders ,before the new laws were framed,were
inadequate.Some states,including Karnataka ,are now planning
amendments.Most importantly,the government got the bills passed without a
proper debate,and by a voice vote after the suspension of 146 opposition MPs.

Implementation is a concern,too.The government has fast tracked

implementation before training and preparing the law enforcement machinery for
it.At every level,including the police,legal fraternity,even the judiciary,there is
likely to be confusion.Two parallel systems will run concurrently ,because all the
cases registered before June 30 will be tried under the old laws,and those
registered after June 30 will be tried under the new laws.This will be extremely
challenging when over 30 million cases are pending.The law enforcement
agencies,including the judiciary,is grossly lacking infrastructure,and it will now
have to cope with the new demands made on it. xi

“One of the problems that I find not only with these laws but generally,is on the question of
application or implementation of law.The police will implement the laws in the way they
think ,whether its right or wrong it doesn’t matter.So a tweet for example can amount to sedition
and they have arrested people for tweet.So now even today under the new BNS if somebody gives a
tweet which the police thinks is subversive and this that and the other,they’ll put that person
In.So,implementation is also a very crucial aspect”-Justice Madan.B.Lokur.xii

IMPACT OF THE LACUNAS OF THE NEW CRIMINAL LAWS ON HUMAN RIGHTS:

The laws in their current form will be used as pretext to violate the rights of all
those who dare speak truth to power.
Aakar Patel, chair of board at Amnesty International India
The lacunas present in the new laws including the procedural irregularities
involved in passing them provide a fertile ground for human right violations
and dilution of civil liberties.

“The new Code of Criminal Procedure or BNSS allows the police to seek
15-day custody of an accused any time before the completion of 40-60
days of the allowed remand period instead of only the first two weeks
after an arrest. This lack of clarity provides a fertile breeding ground for
torture and other ill-treatment.
“Similar to the Indian Evidence Act, the BSA allows the admissibility of
electronic records as evidence. In the absence of a robust data
protection law and given the documented misuse of electronic evidence
in the Bhima Koregaon case and Newsclick case, the new law leaves
room for abuse.
“The laws in their current form will be used as pretext to violate the rights
of all those who dare speak truth to power. The three new criminal laws
in India must be immediately repealed and brought in line with
international human rights standards to prevent the continued
flagrant misuse to crackdown on peaceful dissent in the country.”xiii
Advocate Sumit Gehlot from Fidelegal Advocates and Solicitor also interacted with on this issue
and said, "In the New Criminal Laws, law enforcement agencies have been given unfettered powers
without checks and balances and safeguards and safety provisions have been ignored, which will
be prone to misuse. Under the New Criminal Laws, there will be potential violations of civil
liberties."

He further asserted, "Like Sedition Law under Section 150 of BNS, the offence has been made
Draconian. Section 150 will surely be challenged, as will other provisions, which will result in being
struck down by constitutional courts. The insertion of the Sedition Law as a backdoor entry seems
to be for political reasons. Why is terrorism inserted as a general penal law offence when it is
already punishable under special legislation? Why has police custody been extended from 15 days
to 90 days?

"There are many regressive steps in the new criminal laws and all these will lead to instances of
police torture and abuse and there are many grey areas. These additional powers and discretion
with the investigating agency will be misused. There is a dilution of civil liberties and furthermore,
there is insufficient institutional capacity to enforce these laws properly," he said. xiv
CHALLENGES FACED BY THE JUDICIARY IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NEW CRIMINAL LAWS .

1. Training and Adaptation: Judges and judicial staff need extensive training to
interpret and apply new laws accurately, requiring continuous education
programs.

2. Legal Precedents: Existing legal precedents may not align with the new laws,
leading to potential ambiguities and uncertainties in legal interpretations.
For instance: Judges need to maintain clarity between old and new legal
provisions, particularly where section numbers have changed, to avoid
inconsistencies in rulings.

3. Case Backlog: Transitioning to new laws may worsen case backlogs as

judges and lawyers adjust to new legal parameters.
For instance: In 2023, the Law Ministry informed that over 5 crore
cases were pending in various courts, including 80,000 in the Supreme Court.

4. Resource Constraints: Courts may lack necessary resources, such as

updated legal databases and skilled support staff, impeding effective law
implementation.

5. Judicial Interpretation: Consistent interpretation of new laws across courts

requires detailed guidelines and higher court rulings to ensure uniformity.
For instance: The inclusion of ‘terrorism’ as an offence in ordinary penal law
in addition to the present special anti-terrorism law is bound to cause
confusion.

6. Coordination with Law Enforcement: Smooth cooperation between

judiciary and police is crucial, necessitating clear protocols,
regular communication, and joint training sessions.xv

Criminal litigation likely to be increased by 30 percent

Senior advocate of the Supreme Court, Indira Jaising, wrote to the newly
appointed Union minister of law and justice, Arjun Ram Meghwal, raising
concerns over the implementation of the criminal laws.

On June 11, addressing a letter to Meghwal, Jaising requested a delay in

the implementation of the three new laws until the desired consultation
between the stakeholders including the judiciary at all levels, investigation
agencies, and the government at the Union and state level has taken place.

In the letter, she cited data on the pendency of cases from the National
Judicial Data Grid which, according to her, shows a grim picture of an
overburdened judiciary.
As per the data, 34,180,141 criminal cases at the district and taluka courts
are pending in India. Whereas, in the high courts, 1,755,946 criminal cases
are pending. Similar is the situation at the Supreme Court
where 18,049 (less than one year old) cases are pending.

It is, therefore, expected that the new criminal laws are likely to increase 30
percent criminal litigation, which will be an additional burden to the backlog
of cases, Jaising concluded.

She has also pointed out the concerns over how it would create two parallel
sets of laws since the criminal justice system is a combination of both
substantive and procedural laws. This could directly impact the adversarial
system of the country where chaos would occur about which law should be
applied.

CONCLUSION:

In conclusion, the critical analysis of India’s recent criminal laws reveals a

complex interplay between advancing legal reforms and safeguarding human
rights. While these new statutes are crafted with the intent of enhancing public
safety and addressing emerging criminal threats, they also present significant
challenges and potential threats to individual freedoms and rights. The research
underscores the necessity for a balanced approach, where legislative progress
does not come at the expense of fundamental human rights. It calls for ongoing
scrutiny and dialogue to ensure that legal advancements are harmonized with
rigorous human rights protections. By fostering a legal environment that
respects and upholds these rights, India can better navigate the delicate balance
between justice and liberty, ultimately contributing to a more equitable and just
society.

ANSWERS TO THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS:

1 ) Could the time required to understand and implement these new laws pose a threat to
human rights in India?
YES.

2) Do the amendments and overhauls of India's criminal laws potentially undermine the
rights to freedom of expression, association, peaceful assembly, and fair trial?
YES.

SUMMARY:

This research paper provides a critical examination of India's recent criminal

laws and their impact on human rights. It explores the motivations behind these
legislative changes, aiming to bolster public safety and address contemporary
criminal challenges. The paper scrutinizes how these new laws intersect with
fundamental human rights, highlighting both their potential benefits and the
risks they pose to individual freedoms. By analyzing legislative texts, judicial
interpretations, and practical outcomes, the study reveals a nuanced picture of
how legal reforms can both advance justice and threaten human rights. The
findings underscore the importance of ensuring that legal advancements do not
undermine essential rights, advocating for a balanced approach that respects
civil liberties while achieving the goals of public safety and justice.
 i
New Criminal Laws in India: Complete Guide (lexisnexis.in)

ii
Article 21 in Constitution of India (indiankanoon.org)

https://blog.lukmaanias.com/2024/07/20/in-new-criminal-codes-fundamental-
rights-are-in-danger/

New criminal laws signal end of colonial hangover, but challenges await (newindianexpress.com)

Infrastructure Development Necessary For Positive Impact Of New Criminal Laws : CJI DY Chandrachud
(youtube.com)

New criminal laws signal end of colonial hangover, but challenges await (newindianexpress.com)

New laws bring new challenges (deccanherald.com)

Discuss The Potential Challenges Faced By The Policing And Judicial Systems With The
Implementation Of The New Criminal Laws. Suggest Ways To Mitigate These Challenges. (15 Marks,
250 Words) - PWOnlyIAS

What the surge in criticism of the three new criminal laws is all about – The Leaflet

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